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G U I D A N C E N O T E

Industrial Processingo Heat-Chill Foods

20

G u i d a n c e N o t e

2 0 : I n d u s t r i a l P r o c e s s i n g o f H e a t - C h i l l F o o d s

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Published by:

Food Saety Authority o Ireland

Abbey Court

Lower Abbey Street

Dublin

Tel: +353 87 300 Fax: +353 87 30

Email: [email protected] Website: www.sai.ie

©006

Applications or reproduction should be made to the FSAI Inormation Unit

ISBN -904465-39-0

Guidance Note No. 20Industrial Processing o Heat-Chill Foods

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Guidance Note No.1 Inspection o a Food Business (000)ISBN 0-953983--7

Guidance Note No.2 EU Classication o Food (00)

ISBN 0-953983-3-5

Guidance Note No.3 Interpretation o Results o Microbiological Analysis o Some Ready-

to-Eat Foods Sampled at Point o Sale (00)

ISBN 0-953983-5-

Guidance Note No.4 Approval and Operation o Independent Meat Production Units

under EC Meat Legislation. Meat Products, Minced Meat & Meat

Preparations (00)

ISBN 0-953983-6-X

Guidance Note No.5 Approval and Operation o Independent Meat Production Units

under EC Fresh Meat Legislation (00)

ISBN 0-953983-7-8

Guidance Note No.6 Implementation o European Communities (Inant Formulae andFollow-on Formulae) Regulations, 998 to 00 (00)

ISBN 0-953983-9-4

Guidance Note No.7 The Labelling o Fish and Aquaculture Products according to

European Communities (Labelling o Fish and Aquaculture Products)

Regulations, 003 (S.I. No.30 o 003) (005) Revision

ISBN -904465-6-9

Guidance Note No.8 The Implementation o Food Saety Management Systems in Bee

and Lamb Slaughter Plants based on HACCP Principles (00)

ISBN 0-9540754-6-3

Guidance Note No.9 Flavourings Legislation (00)

ISBN 0-9540754--0

Guidance Note No.10 Product Recall and Traceability (00)

ISBN 0-9540754-9-8

Other ood saet Guidance Notes availablerom the Food Saet Authorit o Ireland:

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Guidance Note No.11 Compliance with Regulation 4. o the European Communities(Hygiene o Foodstus) Regulations, 000 (S.I. No. 65 o 000)

(00)

ISBN -904465-07-

Guidance Note No.12 The Inspection o Food Saety Training and

Competence (003)

ISBN -904465-07-

Guidance Note No.13 Use o Enorcement Powers Under the Food Saety

Authority o Ireland Act, 998 (003)

ISBN -904465-05-6

Guidance Note No.14 The Application o Commission Directive 00/0/EC as Amended

by Commission Directive 00/86/EC on the Denition o Meat

(003)

ISBN -904465-09-9

Guidance Note No.15 Cook - Chill Systems in the Food Service Sector (004)

ISBN -904465-9-6

Guidance Note No.16 Food Stalls (005)

ISBN -904465-3-3

Guidance Note No.17 The Labelling o Meat (005)

ISBN - 904465-30-7

Guidance Note No.18 Determination o Product Shel-Lie (005)

ISBN -904465-33-

Guidance Note No.19 The Notication o Dietary Foods or Special Medical Purposes

under the European Communities (Foods or Special Medical

Purposes) 999, S.I. No. 64 o 00 (006)

ISBN -904465-35-8

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Contents Page

Bacground and Purpose 1

Scope 1

Disclaimer 2

Main Recommendations 3

1. Legislation 7

2. Application o HACCP Principles 8

3. Optimising the Process (Process Selection) 93. Product Development and Specication 3. Product Shel-lie

3.3 Mathematical Principles o Heat Processing 3.3. Decimal Reduction Time (D-value) 3.3. z-value 3

3.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties o Food 3

3.5 Requirements or Pathogenic Survival and Growth 33.6 Product, Process, Equipment and Packaging Properties 4

3.6. Product 53.6. Process 63.6.3 Equipment 63.6.4 Packaging 7

3.7 Selection o Target Pathogen 83.8 Minimum Target or Heat Processing 0

3.8. Test Uncertainty Ratio 3.9 Other Targets or Heat Processing

3.0 Minimum Target or Chilling 33. Best Practice or Chilling Specic Meat Products 53. Other Chilling Practices 6

4. Process Validation 274. Instrumentation or Temperature Measurement 84. Thermocouples 84.3 Data Loggers 9

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5. Calibration 305. Calibration o Instrumentation 30

5. Calibration Interval or Instrumentation 3

6. Setting the Process 346. Temperature Mapping 35

6.. When is temperature mapping required? 356.. What is required beore temperature mapping? 356..3 Temperature mapping procedure 36

6. Heat Penetration Tests 38

6.. When are heat penetration tests required? 396.. What is required beore heat penetration tests? 39

6..3 Heat penetration test procedure 39

7. Monitoring and Verifcation 447. Monitoring 447. Verication 447.3 Data Collection and Record Keeping 457.4 Non-Conorming Product 46

Glossar 47

Appendi 1 Intrinsic and Etrinsic Properties 49

Appendi 2 Other Validation Techniues 52

Bibliograph 53

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ABBREVIATIONS

BS British StandardBPF Base Product Fill

EC European CommissionEU European UnionFBO(s) Food Business Operator(s)FSAI Food Saety Authority o IrelandGHP Good Hygiene PracticesGMP Good Manuacturing PracticesHACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control PointISO International Standards Organisation

INAB Irish National Accreditation BoardMAP Modied Atmosphere Packed/Packaged

Min MinutesNSAI National Standards Authority o Irelands SecondsS.I. Statutory InstrumentSOP(s) Standard Operating Procedure(s)RTE Ready-to-eatVP Vacuum Packed/PackagedVTEC Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli

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BACkGROUND AND PURPOSE

This Guidance Note has been prepared by the Food Saety Authority o Ireland (FSAI) in

consultation with an industry working group.

The FSAI believes that Guidance Notes have a major role to play in assisting ood business

operator(s) (FBOs) and regulators in Ireland to achieve compliance with legislation and

with good practice.

A Guidance Note is not a substitute or legislation. However, the FSAI believes a Guidance

Note provides a more detailed elaboration o requirements. Adherence to the guide should

make compliance easier and provide the basis or a high degree o consistency in the

application o legislation.

SCOPE

The document is applicable to FBOs processing batches o heat-chill pre-packaged oods

under static heating conditions which are distributed to retail* ood businesses. These

oods will require chilled storage at 5oC (recommended ≤ 3oC) to maintain shel-lie during

distribution, display and sale.

The document is not applicable to:

i. Food business operators involved in the preparation and direct sale or supply o products directly to consumers, e.g. ood service operations such as restaurants,

hospitals etc.ii. Cook-chill ood produced under FSAI Guidance Note No. 5 ()

iii. Liquid and liquid containing particulate oods which are heat processed by pumpingthrough a direct or indirect heat exchanger, e.g. steam injection, steam inusion,

plate, tubular or scraped surace beore passing through a holding tubeiv. Heat processed ambient stable oodsv. Heat processed milk and milk products ()

vi. Dried, ermented, cold or hot smoked meat, poultrymeat and sh which is heatand/or chill processed

vii. Live bivalve molluscs (i.e. bivalve molluscs are lter-eeding lamellibranch

molluscs) ()

* Retail means the handling and/or processing o ood and its storage at the point o sale or delivery to the nal consumer,and includes distribution terminals, catering operations, actory canteens, institutional catering, restaurants and other simi-

lar ood service operations, shops, supermarket distribution centres and wholesale outlets(5).

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DISCLAIMER

1. All FBOs must comply with the legislative requirements o all current legislation (-7).

2. This document is intended to act as a guideline to current legislation which requiresFBOs to ensure the saety o their oods (-7).

3. Responsibility or ood saety rests with the FBO (5).

4. It must be noted that legislation is continually being updated and/or amended. Up-to-date inormation on ood legislation is available rom the FSAI website: www.sai.ie.

5. This document is advisory in nature and outlines agreed best practice to be used byFBOs processing heat-chill oods.

6. This document does not purport to be comprehensive or to be a legal interpretationor to constitute legal or other proessional advice.

7. The document should be read in conjunction with current ood saety and hygienelegislation (-7), relevant Irish standards (8-), Irish guidelines (, 3-), European guidelines (-6),international guidelines (7-30), scientic opinions (3-33) and industry best practice documents(34-40).

8. Where a FBO has existing procedure(s) not outlined in this document, it is stronglyrecommended that the FBO take account o the inormation contained in this GuidanceNote and/or seek advice rom a competent body.

9. Where a FBO has alternative procedure(s) not outlined in this document, it is strongly

recommended that advice rom a competent body is sought prior to commencemento production.

10. Reerence to any commercial products, process, service, manuacturer, or company doesnot constitute its endorsement or recommendation by the FSAI.

11. The FSAI is not responsible or the contents o any website reerenced in this

document.

12. All examples used in this document are or illustration purposes only and are not

intended to be exhaustive.

13. All websites reerenced in the bibliography were last accessed in June 006. All legislationreerenced in the bibliography will indicate the relevant European legislation, ollowedby the equivalent Irish Statutory Instrument where available.

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3

MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS

General

1. It is the responsibility o a FBO to ensure that the saety o ood produced is assuredat all times and under all circumstances.

2. Food business operators should clearly identiy any step in the activities o their business

which is critical in ensuring ood saety. A systematic approach, based on the principleso Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), should always be ollowed toensure adequate saety procedures are identied, implemented, maintained and reviewedconsistently.

3. Best practice or accurate, consistent and sae processing o heat-chill oods requires the

development and implementation o validated and veried heating and chilling processesto ensure ood saety.

4. I a FBO does not have sucient expertise or resources within the business to develop

and implement a validated and veried heat-chill process, external consultation is stronglyrecommended.

5. In the event that a non-conorming product is identied due to a ailure in the heatingor chilling processes (or otherwise), the product batch should be clearly identied andsegregated to ensure that it is not inadvertently used or dispatched by the FBO. TheFBO should then carry out a risk assessment on the segregated product to assess itssaety.

Food Business Operators

6. Food business operators should determine the properties o the oods they producewhich are likely to have an impact on ood saety under all reasonably oreseeableconditions o processing, storage and use.

7. Food business operators should have a general understanding o the mathematics behindheat processing.

8. Food business operators should have a general understanding o the actors aectingthe growth and survival o pathogens and the actors aecting heating and chilling

processes.

Heating and Chilling

9. When developing and implementing a heat-chill process, it should be designed toeliminate or reduce to sae levels, pathogen(s) identied through risk assessment asthe most heat resistant, the most likely to outgrow during chilling, or presenting the

greatest risk as regards ood saety.

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10. The heating and chilling processes should ensure the uniorm and complete heating

and chilling o every ood unit in every product batch processed.

11. At a minimum, heat processing should achieve a six decimal reduction in numbers o the vegetative cells o the target pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes, in ood.

12. At a minimum, chilling should prevent or reduce the opportunity or any survivingspores o Clostridium perfringens, Cl. botulinum and Bacillus cereus to germinate and growin the ood ollowing heat processing. As such, chilling should decrease the temperatureo a heat processed ood as described in Section 3.0 o this document.

Calibration

13. All instrumentation should be initially calibrated prior to use.

14. All daily or working and reerence temperature instrumentation should be calibratedagainst measurement standards traceable to the International Temperature ScaleITS90.

15. The calibration requency or daily or working thermometers should be at least annualor at shorter intervals determined by risk assessment by the FBO.

16. The calibration requency or reerence thermometers should be as specied by the

manuacturer, or by risk assessment by the FBO but at minimum, should be at leastevery three years.

17. Valid certicates o calibration should be kept on le or all instrumentation used inthe validation and verication o heat-chill processes.

18. Uncertainty o measurement in relation to the calibration o temperature measuringinstrumentation should be used by FBO when setting the minimum targets or heat-

chill processes.

Instrumentation

19. Instrumentation should have sucient accuracy and precision. It is recommended thatthe accuracy o daily or working temperature monitoring instrumentation should be aminimum o ± .0oC (preerably ± 0.5oC).

20. Reerence thermometers used to calibrate daily working thermometers should have aminimum test uncertainty ratio o 4:.

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5

Setting the Process

21. When setting a process, it is prudent that the FBOs plan and test or all expectedbatch sizes, operating conditions and product types under worst case scenarios.

22. During temperature mapping, the arrangement o probes within the processing chambershould ensure that data collected are representative o the heating/chilling capacityo the equipment at specic positions/zones within the chamber. A minimum o 7 to5 probes per/m3 should be used with at least one probe placed in close proximityto the equipment’s own internal temperature controlling probe (i.e. master probe).

23. Heat penetration tests should continue until the required time/temperature combination

is achieved in product cold-spots and/or products positioned at the slowest heatingpoint(s) o the processing chamber. Tests should urther extend or a short period aterthe required time/temperature combination is achieved so that a denite temperatureprole can be established or all thermocouples used.

Monitoring and Verifcation

24. On-going product temperature monitoring is required or all heat-chill processesor verication that the specic requirements o product saety (i.e. minimum time/

temperature combination in heating and chilling) have been achieved.

25. When a FBO uses a validated and veried heat-chill process, on-going processvalidation and verication, e.g. temperature checks, should be undertaken ona scheduled, routine basis based on risk assessment. The temperature and timecombination should be monitored at the centre o the largest product unit placedat the identied slowest heating point in the heating chamber.

Processing and Euipment

26. Processing o mixed batches o product is not recommended unless the FBO canvalidate and veriy the process.

27. Processing o batch sizes, e.g. hal or quarter batch maximum capacity not typicallyprocessed by the FBO, is not recommended unless the FBO has validated and veriedthe process or that specic batch size.

28. Any change in processing such as product stacking, racking and orientation o productin the heating chamber, type o racks used to stack product during processing, designand use o separator or divider sheets between layers o product units and/or location

o point o slowest heating in the heating chamber , e.g. stacking arrangement o productduring heating, can eect the saety o the product.

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29. The requirements and selection o processing equipment should be based on the

specic requirements o the FBO.

30. All equipment should be t or purpose, capable o the required accuracy andrepeatability and lend itsel to validation and ongoing monitoring.

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1. LEGISLATION

The intent o this document is to provide guidance to FBOs on compliance with:

1. Regulation (EC) No 78/00 o the European Parliament and o the Council layingdown the general principles and requirements o ood law, establishing the EuropeanFood Saety Authority and laying down procedures in matters o ood saety (5)

2. Regulation (EC) No 85/004 o the European Parliament and o the Council on thehygiene o oodstus (3)

3. Regulation (EC) No 853/004 o the European Parliament and o the Council layingdown specic hygiene rules or ood o animal origin ()

4. Regulation (EC) No 073/005 o the European Parliament and o the Council on themicrobiological criteria or oodstus (6).

Legislation specic to heating and chilling o oods exists, but is largely unstandardisedthroughout the European Union (EU) (). Foods typically receive heating and chilling basedon agreed best practice, national standards or guidelines.

Specic requirements or temperature control are specied in EU legislation or thepreparation, handling and storage o raw meats, sh, poultry, shellsh, milk and egg products.However, specic requirements or the chilling o oods ollowing heat processing is not

specied except in cases where it is stated that rapid cooling must ollow heat processing,

e.g. processed shery products ().

Under Regulation No 85/004 (Annex II; CHAPTER XI; Heat Treatment) the ollowingrequirements apply to ood placed on the market in hermetically sealed containers(3):

1. Any heat treatment process used to process an unprocessed product or to processurther a processed product, is:

i. To raise every part o the product treated to a given temperature or a given

period o time

ii. To prevent the product rom becoming contaminated during the process.

2. To ensure that the process employed achieves the desired objectives, FBOs are tocheck regularly, the main relevant parameters (particularly temperature, pressure, sealingand microbiology), including the use o automatic devices.

3. The process used should conorm to an internationally recognised standard, e.g.pasteurisation, ultra high temperature or sterilisation.

4. Where oodstus are to be held or served at chilled temperatures, they are to becooled as quickly as possible ollowing the heat-processing stage, or nal preparationstage i no heat process is applied, to a temperature which does not result in a risk to health.

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2. APPLICATION OF HACCP PRINCIPLES

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a logical science based system designed

to assure the saety o ood. In the context o this document, all aspects o heating and

chilling processes should be included as integral parts o a FBO’s HACCP plan.

All FBOs, except primary producers, e.g. arms, are legally required to establish and operateprocedures based on the principles o HACCP (-3).The application o HACCP will requireFBOs to train sta.

Food business operators should ensure that any step in the activities o the business whichis critical to ensuring ood saety is identied, e.g. heating and chilling, and that adequatesaety procedures are identied, implemented, maintained and reviewed on the basis o the

principles used to develop the system o HACCP.

A solid oundation o control, based on a robust prerequisite programme, is required priorto the development and implementation o HACCP. The programme should include theollowing:

1. Good Management Practices2. Good Manuacturing Practices (GMP)3. Good Hygiene Practices (GHP)4. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP).

The prerequisites should provide the basic environmental and operational conditions

necessary to produce sae ood.

Six sector specic national guides to good practice or hygiene and the application o HACCP, have been published under the aegis o the National Standards Authority o Ireland (NSAI) (8-).

The European Commission (EC) has also recently produced a guidance document on theimplementation o procedures based on the HACCP principles (3).

FBOs may use these guides on a voluntary basis to implement prerequisites and as an aid

to compliance with ood hygiene requirements.

Good Management Practices, GMP, GHP and SOPs are also very important. However, onlya scientically based system such as HACCP can be accurately measured and validatedto allow or the detection and correction o deviations rom critical limits. Adherence tocritical limits has been scientically shown to assure the production o sae ood (9).

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3. OPTIMISING THE PROCESS (Process Selection)

A heating process should eliminate or reduce to sae levels, pathogens that could endanger

public health, maintain product shel-lie and retain the organoleptic attributes o the

product.

A chilling process should prevent the outgrowth o spore orming pathogens by rapidlyreducing the temperature o the ood to a low storage temperature to preserve productsaety and shel-lie.

Foods typically receive a heat process that heats the ood to a suitable temperature andholds the ood at or above that temperature or an appropriate period o time.

The heat process should ensure that the ood, i consumed within its shel-lie and notexposed to contamination or temperature abuse during storage, will not endanger thehealth o the consumer due to pathogenic survival and growth. As such, some heat-chillproducts are reerred to as ready-to-eat (RTE).

With heat-chill processes, it is also important to ensure that levels o spoilagemicroorganisms are reduced so that bio-deterioration o the product will not occurwithin the designated shel-lie o the ood.

Figure outlines the general stages in the development and implementation o a heat-chill

process designed to produce a sae product.

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0

Figure 1. Stages in the Development, Approval and Implementation o aHeat-Chill Process

Development of initial product HACCP planDevelopment of initial product HACCP plan

Determining the target process values for heating & chillingDetermining the target process values for heating & chilling

V al i d a

t i on &

V er i c a t i on

V al i d a

t i on &

V er i c a t i on

Calibration of temperature measuring equipmentCalibration of temperature measuring equipment

Product ReleaseProduct Release

Data collection & product reviewData collection & product review

Finalise HACCP Plan (Monitoring & verication)Finalise HACCP Plan (Monitoring & verication)

ChillingChilling

Heat penetration testsHeat penetration tests

Temperature mapping testsTemperature mapping tests

On g oi n gM on

i t or i n g of t h eP r o c e s s

On g oi n gM on

i t or i n g of t h eP r o c e s s

S e t t i n g t h eP r o c e s

s

S e t t i n g t h eP r o c e s

s

Product development, specication & shelf-lifeProduct development, specication & shelf-life

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3.1 Product Development and Specifcation

The development and implementation o a sae heat-chill process or ood begins at theproduct development level.

Food product development involves the initial product conception, development o productspecication, production o samples and nally, commercial scale production.

Food business operators should develop SOPs to allow the consistent and sae developmento oods. To ensure consistent, sae and controlled production o heat-chill processed oods,it is best practice to implement a validated sae process and to veriy perormance during

each production run. This will require FBOs to:

1. Clearly dene the product and its characteristics in a specication. At a minimum, thespecication should include:i. A product descriptionii. Ingredient listingiii. Shel-lie required to meet saety, quality and marketing requirementsiv. Required processing, packaging, storage and distribution characteristicsv. Proposed HACCP plan and any available risk assessment datavi. Legislative requirements, e.g. microbiological, chemical, nutritional, allergens, packaging,

labelling etc, and/or customer requirementsvii. Nutritional characteristics (i.e. as applicable)

viii. Quality characteristics (i.e. as applicable).

2. Use personnel suitably trained commensurate with their duties and responsibilities. I thisis not possible, the FBO should employ a suitably competent organisation or person, e.g.consultant, to assist

3. Have a good general understanding o the mathematics behind heat processing, theactors aecting heat resistance o pathogens, the actors aecting heating and chillingprocesses and the actors which may adversely aect sae processing

4. Use suitable equipment, instrumentation and acilities5. Use recognised, standardised procedures where appropriate, e.g. ISO, BS etc.

6. Calibrate equipment and instrumentation to an accuracy required or eective validationand verication

7. Develop and implement temperature mapping tests o heating and chilling processes8. Develop and implement heat penetration tests o heating and chilling processes9. Collect and review data10. Veriy adequacy o heating and chilling processes11. Implement on-going monitoring and SOPs or heating and chilling processes.

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3.2 Product Shel-lie

The required shel-lie or a ood is a key actor in developing and implementing a sae heat-chill process. The desired shel-lie o a product in conjunction with product characteristics(including processing and packaging), determines the target pathogen (Section 3.8) ordestruction during heat processing.

A validated product shel-lie is critical to the control or specic pathogens, particularly i the ood has an extended shel-lie and can support the growth o pathogens. It is importantto determine i a pathogen will grow to unacceptable/potentially hazardous levels duringthe shel-lie. For a ood to be microbiologically sae and commercially viable, a FBO must

produce a product which has a consistently reproducible and acceptable microbiological

saety.

Food business operators are responsible or determining the characteristics o the oodsthey produce or pack and the subsequent shel-lie (0). Thereore, shel-lie o ood is anintegral part o ood saety. An incorrect shel-lie has the potential to endanger consumerhealth.

Foods that are highly perishable rom a microbiological perspective may constitute a dangerto public health ater a short period o time and as such, must have the appropriate shel-

lie clearly indicated by means o a ‘use-by’ date (7).

The ‘use-by’ date will indicate the date up until which the ood can be saely consumed,provided it has been stored correctly, e.g. packaging, storage temperature (0). Further detailson specic issues related to product shel-lie including labelling are given in FSAI GuidanceNote No. 8 ().

3.3 Mathematical Principles o Heat Processing

To design and implement a sae heat process requires FBOs to have a good general

understanding o the mathematics behind heat processing, associated with the eect o heat processing on pathogens (i.e. thermal destruction). In addition, the FBO should have a

general understanding o the actors aecting heat resistance o pathogens and the actorsaecting heating and chilling processes.

3.3.1 Decimal Reduction Time (D-value)For every target pathogen or spoilage microorganism under specic conditions o substrate, e.g. ood, and temperature, there is a specic time required at a particulartemperature to ensure destruction o 90% o all viable (i.e. vegetative) cells and/orspores present. This time (i.e. in minutes or seconds) is reerred to as the decimal

reduction time or D-value (4-4). A 90% reduction is also reerred to as a Log0

cycle reduction or a ten-old reduction.

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D-values are temperature specic with the temperature at which the D-value is

measured, generally given as a subscript to the D-value, e.g. D-value at 75ºC is

expressed as D75. D-values are also specic to a particular microorganism. Theycan also be aected by the composition o the ood (i.e. substrate) in whichthe microorganism is ound. The severity o a heat process can be described interms o D-values, e.g. a 6D process is a heat process which reduces a particularmicroorganism type by 6 Log

0cycles.

3.3.2 z-valueAs previously stated, the D-value is temperature specic. I the Log0 o a serieso D-values or a target pathogen or spoilage microorganism is plotted against

temperature (oC), a straight line relationship is generally ound. The reciprocal o

the slope o this graph can be described by the number o degrees Celsius whichresults in a log0

(i.e. ten-old or 90%) decrease or increase in the D-value. Thistemperature change is called the z-value (C deg).

3.4 Intrinsic and Etrinsic Properties o Food

It’s important to understand the actors which may aect the ability o a FBO to achievea target heat-chill process. The intrinsic (i.e. water activity, pH, ood composition etc.) andextrinsic properties (i.e. storage temperature, gas atmosphere, relative humidity etc.) o

a ood will aect the heat resistance o pathogens and the ability o a FBO to achieve atarget heating process (43). As such, FBOs should determine the properties o the oods

they produce, under all reasonably oreseeable conditions o processing, storage and use.

Some o the more important intrinsic and extrinsic properties o ood are outlined inAppendix . Greater detail on intrinsic and extrinsic properties o oods can also be oundin FSAI Guidance Note No. 8 ().

3.5 Reuirements or Pathogenic Survival and Growth

All pathogens have specic requirements or survival and growth in ood. The survival andgrowth o pathogens will depend on the intrinsic and extrinsic properties o the ood

(Section 3.4).

It is important to note that the intrinsic and extrinsic properties o oods are inherentlyvariable. Further, while each intrinsic and extrinsic property may aect pathogenic growthand survival, it is the interaction between these properties which determines whether apathogen will grow or survive in a ood.

It is important that a FBO understands the ability o pathogens to evolve in response

to environmental stresses, e.g. cold-shock, heat-shock, low water activity (aw), low pH

etc. Thereore, the eciencies o processing, e.g. heating and chilling, should be assessed,

especially with regard to the potential o pathogens to adapt and increase their resistanceto a wide variety o environmental stresses.

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Specic pathogens are oten associated with specic oods. Some common associations

are given in Table .

Table 1. Common Associations between Pathogens and Foods

Pathogen Commonl Associated Food Products

Salmonella species Eggs, poultry, meats & dairy products

Clostridium botulinum Mesophilic/Proteolytic:Types A, B & F

Canned oods, vacuum packed (VP) & modiedatmosphere packed (MAP) oods

Clostridium botulinum

Psychrotrophic/Non-Proteolytic:Types B, E & F

Canned oods, VP/MAP oods & jarred oods

Staphylococcus aureus Eggs, poultry, meats, dairy products & conectionary

Campylobacter jejuni Poultry, meats & milk products

Yersinia enterocolitica Fresh meats & milk

Listeria monocytogenes Ready-to-eat oods

Clostridium perfringens Cooked meat & poultry products

Escherichia coli O57 & other

Verotoxigenic E. coli

(VTEC)

Meat, poultry, milk & vegetable products

Bacillus cereus

Cooked rice & pasta, spices, meats, milk, vegetables,sh, sauces, puddings, soups, casseroles, pastries, &salads

Vibrio parahaemolyticus Fish & seaood products

3.6 Product, Process, Euipment and Pacaging Properties

It is important to note that any change in the product, process, equipment or packagingmay have an impact on whether an existing heat process is valid. A FBO should beaware o the ollowing issues which may aect heating and chilling in achieving targetrequirements.

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3.6.1 Product1. Product nature, ormulation and composition, e.g. high levels o starch based

ingredients, can increase product viscosity and reduce aw. Product nature,ormulation and composition will infuence the mode, e.g. convection, conduction,and speed o heat transer during processing, e.g. convection is aster thanconduction.

2. Examples o how product ormulation and composition aect mode and speedo heat transer are given below:i. Fast convection heating, e.g. milk, juices, broths, thin soups etc.ii. Slow convection heating, e.g. vegetable soups, ruit syrups, some thin purees

– sauces, usually low starch, etc.iii. Convection and conductive heating, e.g. some thick soups or gravies

which contain starch, may change their heating behaviour due to starchgelatinisation at a particular temperature. Small variations in productormulation or ingredients may cause the transition rom convection toconduction heating to occur at a dierent temperature and related time.Special care should be taken to identiy and control specic product andprocess variables related to the heating rates o these products

iv. Conductive heating, e.g. pasta, rice, thick purees - usually high starchcontent, meat and sh products, conectionary, dairy products, usually highat content.

3. Consistency and viscosity o product, particularly in semi-liquid or liquid

components and non-homogenous products.

4. Solids to liquids ratio in product.

5. Size, shape and weight o solid components.

6. Initial product temperature.

7. Initial microbial load o product.

8. Thermal properties o the product (i.e. thermal conductivity, thermal diusivity,specic heat capacity).

9. Hot or cold lling o product.

10. Behaviour o product components during heat processing, e.g. in some productsclumping may occur. This is particularly important with sliced products, e.g. meatswhich can stick or clump together during heat processing. Products which are

prone to clumping may aect temperature sensor placement in the productand the cold spot location.

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3.6.2 Process. Raw material preparation techniques prior to heat processing:

i. Mixing/agitation techniques, e.g. incorporation o air, emulsication etc.ii. Mixing/agitation, e.g. rotating, stationary etc., o the product during

processingiii. Initial product temperature prior to heat processingiv. Blanching o ruit/vegetables which can cause swelling or shrinkage which

can eect heat processing eciencyv. Rehydration o dried components may aect the process with respect to

inactivation o microbial spores as they may be less resistant to heat inthis rehydrated orm.

2. Nature o heat transer in equipment:i. Conductionii. Convectioniii. Radiation.

3. Type o cooking equipment:i. Immersion, e.g. water, oilii. Saturated steamiii. Water and steam/air mixture (i.e. rate o heat transer here is dependent

on heating medium velocity)iv. Water showering.

4. Equipment operation:i. Process temperature and timeii. Time taken or heating chamber to achieve the operational temperature

(i.e. temperature come-up time)iii. Venting procedure i steam usediv. Excess/over pressure i using steam/air or waterv. Product stacking, racking and orientation o product in the heating

chambervi. Type o racks and/or baskets used to stack product during processing

vii. Design and use o separator or divider sheets between layers o productunits

viii. Location o points o slowest heating in the heating chamber.

3.6.3 EuipmentThe requirements and selection o equipment, e.g. ovens, should be based on thespecic requirements o the FBO. Equipment manuacturers and suppliers are bestpositioned to give advice to a FBO on the choice o equipment or specic oods,

particularly in relation to capacity and design issues. However, it is recommendedthat wherever possible, FBOs obtain objective inormation in relation to equipment.

The ollowing should be considered by FBOs in selecting and using equipment:

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1. Obtain objective inormation in relation to the perormance and practicalities

o use, in relation to equipment

2. Selected equipment should have a sucient perormance capability or therequired process

3. Selected equipment should use the appropriate mode o heat transer basedon the physical and thermal properties o the ood. Some equipment will usesaturated steam or the heat transer medium while others will use waterand steam mixtures

4. Selected equipment should have sucient capacity to allow or projected utureproduction levels

5. Selected equipment should allow or the required pack orientation in the heating

chamber (i.e. stacking/racking orientation o individual ood units in

the chamber)6. Selected equipment should have good design to allow or eective cleaningand disinection and minimisation o the risks o cross contamination , e.g.movement o raw product to cooked product

7. Selected equipment should allow or calibration o all monitoring probes, bothinternal and external, e.g. temperature, pressure probes etc.

8. Selected equipment should allow or validation and verication o the process9. Selected equipment should be included in planned preventative maintenance

programs at each processing site. Planned maintenance should include air velocity

checks, checks on faps, pistons, motors, belts, steam pressure, etc. For conveyorcookers, conveyor speed and loading should also be included.

3.6.4 Pacaging1. Change o packaging.2. Type o packaging material used, e.g. plastics, laminates, glass, metals etc.3. Thermal properties o the packaging materials.4. Type o containers, e.g. pouches, jars, cans etc.5. Unit pack size, shape, thickness and other dimensions, e.g. the thickness o

packaging has a direct eect on the ability o heat to penetrate into a ood.6. Packaging atmosphere which could aect the heat process required, e.g. vacuum.

packaged, modied atmosphere packaged.

7. Sealing characteristics o packaging, e.g. can seals ail during processing?8. Products ll characteristics, e.g. ll temperature, ll weight, and headspace in

packages.9. Presence o entrapped gases in the headspace o packages, e.g. this can have

an insulating eect resulting in decreased heat penetration.10. Product ll weight measured beore and ater processing.11. The percent overll o key product components such as the solids content.

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Having considered all the actors covered in Sections 3. to 3.6, the next step or

the FBO is to select the target pathogen and the heat-chill process required to

achieve an appropriate, e.g. 6-D, reduction o the target organism while preservingthe sensory quality o the ood product.

3.7 Selection o Target Pathogen

When developing and implementing a heat process, it should be designed to inactivatea pathogen or group o pathogens, e.g. vegetative pathogens and/or spore-ormers. Thisis typically described as the target pathogen(s) or the heat process (44). Based on thespecication or a product and the desired shel-lie, the target pathogen or the heat

process should be identied which will ensure the saety o the product or its entire

marked shel-lie.

At a minimum, heat processing should eliminate all vegetative pathogens, e.g. Listeria

monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter jejuni, and Escherichia

coli O57:H7 in oods.

Inactivation o pathogens is infuenced by the characteristics o the pathogen, the requiredproduct shel-lie (Section 3.) and the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics o the product(Sections 3.4 – 3.7). Table summarises some o the characteristics o pathogens which

can infuence their thermal inactivation.

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Table 2. Characteristics o Target Pathogens

Characteristics Eect

Genus, Species and Straino Target Pathogen

Dierent pathogens will have dierent levels o heatresistance based on genus, species and strain, e.g.

L. monocytogenes serovar 4b.

Tpe and Form o TargetPathogen

Some pathogens are inherently more heat resistantthan others, depending on their type and orm. Gram

positive bacteria are typically more heat resistantthan Gram negative bacteria, while bacterial sporesare more heat resistant than the vegetative cells o

either Gram positive or negative bacteria.

Stage o Growth o the TargetPathogen

Bacteria have our phases o growth during their lie-cycle: the lag, log, stationary and death phases.

Microbial cells tend to be more heat resistant as they

grow older particularly during the stationary phaseand less resistant during the log phase o growth.Heat resistance has also been reported to be highat the beginning o the lag phase and decreases asthe cell enters the log phase. Old bacterial sporesalso tend to be more heat resistant than younger

bacterial spores (43).

The Histor o the TargetPathogen

The previous conditions to which pathogens havebeen subjected can aect their response to heat

treatment. For example, under prolonged exposureto adverse environmental conditions such as sub-

lethal temperature or acidic conditions,L. monocytogenes can develop a stress response

which can make it more resistant to heat processing.

The Number o Microorganisms Present

in the Food

Typically, the larger the numbers o microorganismspresent in a ood product, the greater the degree o

heat resistance (43).

Determining the degree o elimination o the target pathogen is very critical. A basicunderstanding o mathematical principles o heat processing is required to design and

implement a sae heat process.

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3.8 Minimum Target or Heat Processing

Unless a legal specication or a heat process exists, the FSAI currently recommends aminimum target or heat processing o a 6-D reduction in numbers o the vegetative cellso the target pathogen, L. monocytogenes ().

Listeria monocytogenes is regarded as the most heat resistant, oodborne pathogen thatdoes not orm spores. Thereore, other non-spore orming vegetative pathogens such asSalmonella spp., S. aureus, Y. enterocolitica, V. parahaemolyticus and E. coli O57:H7 that maybe present in the ood, should also be destroyed by a 6-D heat process (, 45). The Stumboequation can be used to calculate a 6-D reduction (Equation ) (4):

The FSAI recommends a reerence time and temperature combination o 70oC or

minutes, with a z-value o 7.5 Centigrade degrees (C deg) to achieve a 6-D reductionin numbers o L. monocytogenes (, 45). Equivalent time temperature combinations to this

reerence temperature (Equation ) can then be calculated using the lethal rates equation(Equation ) rom Stumbo (4):

Equivalent time and temperature combinations (using Equation ) are given in Table3 as an example o the necessary process to achieve a 6-D reduction in numbers o L. monocytogenes in oods (8).

Euation 1 Where:

F = Required process lethality

Dr = D-value at the reerence temperature

n = Required decimal reductionF = D

r log

10n

Euation 2 Where:

L = Lethal rate

T = Target temperature (ºC)

Tx = Reerence temperature (ºC)

z = z-value (C deg)( ) z

T-T x10

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Table 3. Eample o Euivalent Time/Temperature Combinations to Achieve a6-D Reduction in L. monocytogenes A

Temperature (oC) Time Temperature (oC) Time

64 min 37s 70 B min

65 9min 7s 7 min 8s

66 6min 50s 7 min 5s

67 5min 73 48s

68 3min 4s 74 35s

69 min 43s 75 6s C

A Assuming a linear z-value = 7.5C° with a reerence temperature o 70°C. The interaction between oodsintrinsic and extrinsic properties may alter these equivalent lethal rates and as such values must onlybe used as an indication o the lethal eect o the heat process on L. monocytogenes (8).

B

Recommended by the FSAI as the reerence temperature and time required or a 6-D reduction innumbers o L. monocytogenes.C With such short times above the reerence temperature o 70°C, it is assumed that when 75°C is

reached, the equivalent process to 70°C or minutes has been achieved (8).

Some products may change their mode o heat transer due to a physical change in theproduct during heat processing, e.g. i a product gels or solidies during heating. For

example, dry pouched rice and pasta products during cooking may have a changing D-value (i.e. as the dry product cooks the D-value changes). Thereore, with these products,e.g. dry rice/pasta etc. a more severe heat treatment may be required to achieve theappropriate, e.g. 6-D reduction o the target organism while preserving the sensory quality

o the ood product.

3.8.1 Test Uncertaint RatioWhen setting the minimum temperature target or heat processing, the testuncertainty ratio should be included. To apply the test uncertainty ratio you must

know the target temperature or the product, e.g. ater cooking 7ºC and thetolerance, e.g. ± ºC or the process. From this example the true temperature o the product must lie between 70ºC and 74ºC.

Typically, the instrumentation used to measure the temperature have atolerance which is our times better (i.e. test uncertainty ratio o 4:)than the tolerance o the process (i.e. in the example used ± 0.50 ºC)(See Section 5.). Thereore, the total uncertainty o measurement o the

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process must be ± 0.50 ºC which takes into account the instrumentation and themedium used to measure the temperature. Applying the test uncertainty ratio to

instrumentation used to measure temperature will help ensure products achievethe minimum temperature target or a 6-D process.

3.9 Other Targets or Heat Processing

Further controls may be necessary where risk assessment indicates that the growth andtoxin production o Clostridium botulinum or other spore-orming bacteria is a particularrisk. The actual risk will depend on the likely occurrence o Cl. botulinum spores in theingredients (38), the absence o intrinsic controlling actors and an anaerobic environmentwhich would allow outgrowth o spores. Products which may provide such conditions may

include; sous vide products

(43)

and other products which may present anaerobic conditions,e.g. reormed meat products, MAP or VP products.

However, the risk that a hazard will occur should be evaluated in each case, and controlmeasures identied should be applied where this evaluation indicates that a risk occurs,e.g. or ingredients known to be positive or psychrotropic Cl. botulinum spores rom timeto time (38). Intrinsic controlling actors which prevent the outgrowth o spores and toxinproduction by non-proteolytic strains o Cl. botulinum are (3, 38):

1. pH o less than 4.5 throughout the ood2. Salt level o 3.5% (aqueous) throughout the ood

3. Water activity (aw) o 0.97 or less throughout the ood4. Any combination o heat processing and preservative actors, which has been

shown to prevent or eliminate growth and toxin production by Cl.

botulinum.

Non-proteolytic Cl. botulinum Type B is regarded as the most heat resistant orm o non-proteolytic Cl. botulinum. Thereore, all non-spore orming vegetative pathogens including L.

monocytogenes that may be present in the ood should also be eliminated or reduced tosae levels by this 6-D heating process.

A reerence time and temperature combination o 90o

C or 0 minutes, with a z-value o 0Co has been suggested to achieve a 6-D reduction in numbers o psychrotrophic (non-

proteolytic) Cl. botulinum Type B (34, 38).

Equivalent time and temperature combinations (using Equation ) are given in Table 4 as anexample o the necessary process to achieve a 6-D reduction in numbers o psychrotrophicCl. botulinum Type B in oods (3-3, 38).

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Table 4. Eample o Euivalent Time/Temperature Combinations toAchieve a 6-D Reduction in Pschrotrophic Cl. botulinumTpe BA

Temperature (oC) Time (min) Temperature (oC) Time (min)

80 00 9 6.3

8 63 94 4.0

84 40 96 .5

86 5 98 .6

88 6 99 .3

90 0 00 .0A Assuming a linear z-value = 0Co with a reerence temperature o 90oC. The interaction between oods

intrinsic and extrinsic properties may alter these equivalent lethal rates and as such, values must only beused as an indication o the lethal eect o the heat process on psychrotrophic Cl. botulinum Type B.

3.10 Minimum Target or Chilling

Chilling should decrease the temperature o heat processed ood as rapidly as possible.The chilling process should ensure the uniorm and complete chilling o the ood (-4). In allcases during chilling processes, there must be adequate ventilation to prevent condensation

on the surace o products.

The chilling process should achieve a target temperature in a specied time in the oodduring every chilling treatment. This will ensure that the ood, i consumed within itsshel-lie, and not exposed to contamination or temperature abuse during storage, will notendanger the health o the consumer.

It is important that FBOs note that most pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacterial spores,including those rom mesophilic Cl. botulinum and psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus andClostridium perfringens, are more heat resistant than psychrotrophic Cl. botulinum Type B.

As such, these microorganisms will not be eliminated or inactivated by the examples o heat treatment combinations presented in Table 4.

Thereore, when the target heating treatment has been achieved and no post-processcontamination o the ood has occurred, rapid chilling is used to prevent or reduce theopportunity or surviving spores to germinate and grow in the ood.

Clostridium perfringens is present in many oods, at low levels. Illness due to Cl. perfringens

typically occurs ater ingestion o large numbers o enterotoxin producing cells present inood. Almost all outbreaks o Cl. perfringens illness are the result o inadequate or slowchilling o heat processed product. Slow chilling can allow Cl. perfringens spores to germinate

and multiply (3).

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Clostridium botulinum is present less requently than Cl. perfringens in oods. However, like

Cl. perfringens, spores o some Cl. botulinum can survive all but the most severe heat

treatments, e.g. sterilisation. Germination o Cl. botulinum spores that survive heat processingcan be inhibited by rapid chilling ater heat processed and rerigerated storage (3, 47).

Bacillus cereus like Cl. perfringens can be ound in low numbers in a wide range o oods.Rapid chilling is necessary to prevent germination and growth o B. cereus spores aterheat processing (, 39). Rerigerated storage at < 4°C is necessary to prevent growth o alltypes o B. cereus.

Some oods can contain pathogenic spores o Cl. perfringens, Cl. botulinum and B. cereus.

Foods which contain untreated herbs, spices, rice, bean and pulse ingredients may have

increased levels o spores. Reormed or restructured meat, poultry and sh products maycarry an increased level o microbial contamination than whole muscle products (39).

Based on the above outlined requirements or control o Cl. perfringens, Cl. botulinum and

B. cereus in chilling, Table 5 outlines best practice or chilling o heat processed oods.

Table 5. Suggested Best Practice or Chilling Heat Processed Foods A

Chilling Stage Reuirement Best Practice

Commencemento Chilling

Begin chilling as quickly as

possible ater completion o heatprocessing (3, 0, 3-33)

Recommend a period

o ≤ 90 minutes aterthe completion o heatprocessing (0)

Initial ChillingProcess

Reduce the temperature o the

ood (at the geometric core/thickest point) rom 55oC to ≤ 0oC as quickly as possible (3-33)

Recommend a period o notgreater than 120 minutes

ater the beginning o chilling rom

55oC to ≤ 10oC (8, 3-33)

Final ChillingProcess Continue chilling as quickly aspossible rom 0oC to ≤ 5oC

Recommend a period o not

greater than 60 minutesrom10oC to ≤ 3oC (0)

Final Storage

Following completion o chilling,

the ood should be immediatelyplaced in controlled rerigerated

storage which ensures a nalproduct temperature (at its

geometric core/thickest point) o

≤ 5oC throughout the chill chain

Recommended ≤ 3oC throughout the chill chain

AAll temperatures reer to readings taken at the geometric core/thickest point o the product.

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3.11 Best Practice or Chilling Specifc Meat Products

Due to the specic nature and characteristics o heat processed whole/intact meat products,and those made by reorming or restructuring small pieces o meat and other ingredientsunder good hygienic conditions, into large meat products, other targets or chilling can berecommended (39).

Best practice or chilling o large uncured and cured meat products is outlined in Tables 6and 7 (39). However, the onus is always on the FBO to prove the saety o the process.

Table 6. Suggested Best Practice or Chilling Large Uncured MeatProducts A, B

Temperature Range

Uncured Meats

Good Practice Maimum

Time (Minutes)

Final Cooing Temperatureto 55oC

60 50

55oC to 12oC 360 360

12oC to 5oC C 60 90

Total Cooling Time (Minutes)

D480 600

A All temperatures reer to readings taken at the geometric core/thickest point o the product.B I high levels o spores are present in the raw meat product beore heat processing, a reduction in the

chilling time maybe necessary. Products which contain high levels o spores, e.g. > 0 5 Cl. perfringens, thechilling time to < 5oC may be ≤ 3 hours. Products chilled in this way should not be portioned untilcompletion o chilling.

C Following chilling, the product should be immediately placed in controlled rerigerated storage which

ensures a nal product temperature (at its geometric core/thickest point) o ≤ 5oC (recommended ≤ 3oC) throughout the chill chain.

D FBOs who use a secondary heat treatment or products, e.g. roasting ater chilling, must calculate the totalchilling time or the product by detailing the total time the product remains above 5 oC (39).

The presence o salt/nitrite in cured product may allow or longer chilling times. Someindications suggest this can be 5% longer than an equivalent uncured product (39). However,the onus is always on the FBO to prove the saety o the process.

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Table 7. Suggested Best Practice or Chilling Large Cured MeatProducts A

Temperature Range

Cured Meats

Good Practice Maimum

Time (Minutes) B

Final Coo Temperature to55oC

75 95

55oC to 12oC 450 450

12oC to 5oC C 75 05

Total Cooling Time (Minutes) D 600 750

A-D See ootnotes or Table 6

3.12 Other Chilling Practices

Specications or chilling outside the recommendations given in Section 3.0 and Section

3., may be suitable to ensure product saety. However, appropriate microbiological risk assessment data would be required to ensure the saety o the process. The responsibilityor the provision o such risk assessment data lies with the FBO.

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4. PROCESS VALIDATION

Having selected the appropriate time/temperature parameters (Sections 3. to 3.)delivering a microbiologically sae product, the FBO must now ensure that every product

unit achieves this heat process every time.

The large capacity o many commercial cookers can make it dicult to physicallytemperature probe all individual product units in a batch during cooking. Thereore, theFBO will not know i every product unit has received the appropriate time/temperatureparameters during the heating process.

To overcome this issue, the FBO must validate the heating process and then establishmonitoring and verication procedures to ensure this validation data remains accurate. TheFSAI currently recommends temperature mapping and validation o heating processes or

the approval and operation o independent meat production units(8)

.

The objective o validating the heating process is to conrm that the process, e.g. heating,in every case, eectively reduces or eliminates the target pathogen, e.g. a 6D reduction in

L. monocytogenes, or which the process was designed (Section 3.8).

It is important that process validation is repeated until consistent results are achieved. This

will ensure that the ood meets all legislative requirements, e.g. microbiological criteria orood saety and the FBO requirements or shel-lie (5). Validation is recommended when:

1. Existing equipment or process is not already validated

2. Ater installation o new equipment and/or signicant repositioning,modication, repair or servicing o existing equipment

3. Ater signicant modications are made to equipment water/steamsupplies or replacement o parts likely to aect heating capacity, e.g. newheating element, pumps, valves etc

4. Ater modications to equipment loading/stacking conguration, patterns

etc5. For processing o new oods, or existing oods with altered composition,

packaging, sizes etc.

The signicance o all these changes should be assessed by the FBO’s HACCP team andthe requirement or re-validation risk assessed.

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4.1 Instrumentation or Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurement can be achieved using a variety o instrumentation such asbimetal style thermometers, thermistors, thermocouples, inrared thermometers etc.Typically, in the Irish ood industry, temperature measurement is achieved using calibratedthermocouples and data loggers.

Due to the variety o available equipment, manuacturers and suppliers are best positionedto give advice to the FBO on the choice o temperature measurement equipment orspecic purposes and ood products. However, general considerations the FBO should takein relation to instrumentation or temperature measurement, include the ollowing:

1. Glass and mercury thermometers should not be used by the FBO or oodtemperature measurement2. Instrumentation should be hygienically designed to allow routine cleaning and

sanitising3. Instrumentation should be sourced rom an approved supplier4. Instrumentation should have sucient perormance in terms o capability to monitor

the required process and product temperatures (i.e. operational temperature range) and required accuracy and precision. It is recommended that the accuracy o temperature monitoring instrumentation should be a minimum o ± .0oC (preerably

± 0.5oC)5. Instrumentation should be able to be calibrated

6. Calibrated reerence instrumentation (not used in normal processing) should beavailable to allow internal calibration o working instrumentation

7. Specic instructions rom the manuacturer o the instrument should always beollowed.

4.2 Thermocouples

Thermocouples are devices which use the voltage generated by the junction o two

dissimilar metals, to measure temperature. The voltage output is proportional to thetemperature o the junction. The advantages o using thermocouples are that they have a

wide temperature range, practical design, wide application and good perormance in theood industry.

It is important that the FBO considers the application o a thermocouple and the actorsaecting its perormance. This can infuence the type o thermocouple chosen. Specicconsiderations that should be taken in relation to thermocouples, include the ollowing:

1. The required accuracy and precision (i.e. uncertainty o measurement)

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2. Environmental conditions the temperature probe and connecting wires will beexposed to and operate in:

i. Expected temperature range, e.g. a wide temperature range such as -5oC to+00oC, a narrow range such as 70oC to 75oC or at a specic temperaturepoint such as 70oC. These can be expressed in terms o temperature accuracyand precision over a temperature range or at a specic temperature point

ii. Expected temperature cycle, e.g. heat-chill environment, reeze-thaw environmentetc. The expected temperature cycle will infuence the design, e.g. robust designand type o thermocouple and connecting wires required

iii. Expected material to be measured, e.g. air/gas, partial or ull insertion in solidood, partial or ull immersion in liquid, semi-solid oods etc.

iv. Mechanical requirements or the thermocouple in terms o shock or vibrationperormance, electrical requirements in terms o insulation or shielding.

3. Time response required or the thermocouple (i.e. how quickly should thethermocouple be able to respond to a change in temperature?)

4. Thermocouples and connecting wires should be o an appropriate type, e.g. types J, K, T E, R and S thermocouple probes, manual probes etc., size and length

5. Number o probes required or temperature measurement6. Electrical intererence rom plant equipment on long lengths o connecting wires/

thermocouple cable (i.e. long thermocouple cables may require shielding and/ormultiple product readings to compensate or resistance. Typically, use 3 or 4 corewires where or strands measure the resistance o the cable and compensatein the calculation o the temperature)

7. Thermocouples should be calibrated beore use.

4.3 Data Loggers

Data loggers can be analogue or digital devices which record temperature over time, duringheating and chilling processes. The measurements taken are then stored (i.e. on charts,print-outs, electronically or downloaded to a computer) or urther analysis or reporting.

It is important that the FBO considers the application o a data logger and the actorsaecting its perormance. This can infuence the type o data logger chosen. Specicconsiderations that should be taken in relation to data loggers include the ollowing:

1. Manuacturers’ instructions or use o the instrument2. The requency o recording temperature over time should be adjustable rom continuous

to dened interval, e.g. every minute depending on the application3. Data loggers should have a sucient number o channels to adequately monitor and

record temperatures4. Data loggers should be calibrated beore use.

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5. CALIBRATION

Calibration is a process o adjusting instrumentation and equipment, so that measurementscan be correlated to the actual value being measured. Typically, in a heat-chill process, the

measurement o temperature will be the most important use o instrumentation.

5.1 Calibration o Instrumentation

Food business operators will generally use two types o temperature measurementinstrumentation. Daily or working temperature measurement instrumentation is used orroutine temperature measurement and monitoring. Reerence temperature measurementinstrumentation is used to check the accuracy and calibration o working temperaturemeasurement instrumentation. In calibrating all temperature measuring instrumentation, theollowing should be considered by FBOs:

1. Calibration should ollow a written standardised procedure (i.e. SOP) toinclude:

i. The manuacturers’ instructions or calibration o each instrument (whereapplicable/available)

ii. The designated personnel and/or external provider authorised to perormcalibrations

iii. The training requirements or personnel authorised to perorm calibrations(where applicable)

iv. The recommended calibration interval or each instrument

v. The data to be recorded during calibration (including readings takenbeore and ater adjustment, identication o the instrument or instrumentcomponent calibrated, date and time o calibration, and the name andsignature o the person who perormed the calibration). I no adjustmentsare made, this should also be recorded

vi. Where the records o calibration will be stored and the personnelauthorised to access them

vii. Review procedures and review requency or calibration records to allowcomparisons o perormance change over time and to conrm that allcalibrations are completed and perormed correctly

viii. The designated personnel authorised to perorm review proceduresix. Procedures to be ollowed where calibration procedures are changed or

updated in the event o equipment modications or changes.

2. Where an external provider is used or calibration, the FBO should only use an

accredited (i.e. accredited to ISO 705 or a dened scope o activity) provider. TheIrish National Accreditation Board (INAB) is the national body with responsibilityor accreditation in accordance with the relevant International Organisation orStandardisation ISO 7000 series o standards and guides and the harmonised EN45000 series o European standards

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3. Where an external provider is used or calibration, the FBO should speciy the

ollowing minimum requirements or traceability in calibration:

i. Instrumentation and/or equipment identication, e.g. Manuacturer X Model No.A, Manuacturer Y Model No. B, Manuacturer Z Model No. C, ManuacturedProbes etc.

ii. Company name, address, contact details and contact name(s) o externalprovider

iii. Range and conditions o calibration, e.g. 4oC to 55oC (at ambient), 0oC to30oC, at relevant process temperature etc.

iv. Method o calibration, e.g. National Metrology Method, SOP against manuacturer

X, Y or Z o instrumentation, accuracy check against similar manuacturer’s

reerence instrumentation etc.v. Frequency o calibration, e.g. yearly, prior to use, prior to use then yearly etcvi. Accuracy details. e.g. 0.5oC, .0oC, etc.vii. Corrective action(s), e.g. send or repair and recalibrate, discard instrumentation

and alter statusviii. Documents and records, e.g. National Metrology Report, provider report to

client number etci. Degree o uncertainty.

4. The actors which can aect temperature monitoring and measurement

5. Temperature measuring instrumentation should be calibrated against measurementstandards traceable to the International Temperature Scale o 990 (ITS-90). TheITS-90 was adopted by the International Committee o Weights and Measures atits meeting in 989. This scale supersedes the International Practical TemperatureScale o 968 (amended edition o 975) and the 976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 KTemperature Scale. The ITS-90 denes both International Kelvin Temperatures, symbolT

90, and International Celsius Temperatures, symbol t

90

6. Reerence instrumentation used or calibration o temperature measurementinstrumentation should, at minimum, have an test uncertainty ratio o 4: (i.e. be

our times more accurate) than the daily or working instrumentation it is calibrating(see section 3.8.). For example, i the reerence thermometer has an uncertainty o ± 0.5, the tolerance specied or the working thermometer can only be speciedat or above ± - deg C (i.e. 4 x 0.5)

7. Records o all calibrations should be kept and the date o the next calibrationshould be indicated on the temperature monitoring equipment itsel or its associateddocumentation

8. All instrumentation should be initially calibrated (prior to use) and re-calibrated at

specied calibration intervals

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9. Calibration data should be reviewed every six months or more requently (at a

minimum, annually) based on history and risk assessment to identiy deviations rom

dened tolerances, e.g. accuracy

10. When instrumentation is broken or out o calibration it should not be used untilrepaired or replaced and re-calibrated

11. When internal probes in equipment, e.g. cooker, are broken or out o calibration,the equipment should not be used until the probe(s) are repaired or replaced andre-calibrated.

5.2 Calibration Interval or Instrumentation

Inaccuracies within temperature measuring instrumentation will typically be cumulative.Furthermore, instrumentation susceptibility to aging and contamination (both physical andchemical) means that they can sometimes drit out o calibration quite rapidly.

The calibration requency or reerence thermometers should be as specied by themanuacturer or by risk assessment by the FBO. However, at minimum, it should be atleast every three years.

In the absence o manuacturer’s instructions or the calibration interval, a FBO shouldinitially calibrate daily working instrumentation prior to use and every six months, or at

minimum, at least once per annum thereater. An annual calibration interval (i.e. in theabsence o manuacturer’s instructions or the calibration interval requency) is a goodstarting point or determining the calibration interval requency or a specic instrument.However, it should not be used indenitely. An annual calibration interval is a minimumand it should be ormally evaluated and the interval adjusted as required.

I data at the annual calibration interval indicates that the instrument is near or in excesso its acceptable accuracy (i.e. with no other conditions o use suspected o causing the

inaccuracy), it should be concluded that the calibration interval requency is too long. Inthis case, the calibration interval requency should be shortened.

The calibration interval should be reduced or increased (as appropriate) until theinstrumentation is within its acceptable limit o accuracy at the end o each calibrationinterval.

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More or less requent calibration intervals may be applied based on site-specic conditions

including:

1. Type, age and general conditions o the equipment2. Calibration history o the instrumentation (where available)3. Risk assessment, e.g. what is the risk i the instrument is out o calibration? I a probe

is used or release o cooked product and ound to be out o calibration ater sixmonths? Has the FBO been undercooking the product or the last six months andi so is a recall required? Such critical probes should be subject to calibration checksin a similar ashion to other critical control points such as metal detection, e.g. startand nish o shits

4. Conditions o use o the instrumentation, e.g. the instrumentation is dropped on the

ground, instrumentation is requently used at the upper/lower range o its temperaturecapability or above/below its recommended maximum temperature capability orprolonged periods it should be recalibrated

5. The operational environment o the instrumentation, e.g. wet, cold, hot,dry etc. conditions

6. The temperature tolerance (including the uncertainty budget which should be basedon the temperature instrumentation, the stability o the medium, immersion (i any)and repeatability o measurements), which is deemed tolerable or the production,e.g. cooking, process

7. The calibration o all internal equipment probes should be checked against anannually certied standard thermometer traceable to the International Temperature

Scale ITS-90.

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6. SETTING THE PROCESS

Assuming that products are heat processed by a FBO under the same conditions or each

product batch, e.g. same product type, batch size, loading etc, how does the FBO know

that every product unit receives the same specied time/temperature combination, requiredto deliver a microbiologically sae product?

As previously outlined (Section 4), a FBO should validate the processes they use, e.g.heating and chilling, and then establish monitoring and verication procedures to ensurethis validation data remains accurate. Validation should only be carried out by trainedpersonnel (8) and has two main stages:

1. Temperature mapping o the heating medium (i.e. temperature or heat distribution

studies/tests)2. Heat penetration tests o the product.

A trained person should map the temperature distribution in the cooker under maximumand/or intended/dened standard loading conditions, to determine the cold spot(s). Theproduct at the cold spot should be probed (in its geometric centre). I a meat joint, orexample, at the cold spot in the cooker is probed and ound to achieve the speciedtime/temperature combination, it can be assumed that all other meat joints in the cookerare also adequately cooked.

I a FBO changes any aspect o a validated heat process, e.g. product type size, loadingconditions etc., then that process must be re-evaluated to ensure that each product

unit receives the same specied time/temperature combination, required to deliver amicrobiologically sae product.

Processing o dierent batch sizes, e.g. hal or quarter batch maximum capacity, is notrecommended. Only validated batch size loadings should be processed. No deviation romthis should be allowed in production as this is critical to the ecacy o validation o theprocess. When setting a process, it is prudent that the FBO plan and test or all expectedbatch sizes, operating conditions and product types under worst case scenarios including:

1. Simulation o under processing o product, e.g. aects o processing on products

positioned at cold-spots2. Simulation o over-processing o product3. Simulation o equipment breakdown and eect on product, e.g. to identiy position(s)

and/or products which may have received ull processing4. Risks o post process contamination.

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6.1 Temperature Mapping

Temperature mapping is recording temperature readings within the heating chamber usingcalibrated instrumentation. This will locate point(s) or zones o slowest (i.e. cold-spots)and quickest heating (i.e. hot-spots) in the heating medium, e.g. air, water, steam etc. o theheat process chamber. The slowest heating spot will be the point that must be monitoredor ood saety purposes.

Temperature mapping is required to develop, implement and validate heating and chillingprocesses in preparation or heat penetration studies.

6.1.1 When is temperature mapping reuired?

Temperature mapping should be repeated at least every three years or more requentlyi:1. New equipment is installed2. Existing equipment is repaired, serviced, repositioned, replaced or

modied3. Equipment experiences a mechanical or other type o ailure4. The original perormance data are invalidated5. The load in the heating chamber changes, e.g. new loading/stacking patterns,

congurations, designs or modes o use6. The products ormulation, composition and assembly changes7. Equipment perormance deterioration with time is suspected. The FBO may

be able to recognise rom equipment instrumentation and process recordswhen a temperature distribution problem arises. Equipment operatorsshould be trained to observe and identiy these potential problems

8. Original perormance data are invalidated in any other way (i.e. any otherchanges which may infuence the temperature distribution in the productzone).

6.1.2 What is reuired beore temperature mapping?Beore beginning temperature mapping, the ollowing considerations should be takenby the FBO:

1. All instrumentation should be calibrated or use with the selectedequipment to be temperature mapped (i.e. same accuracy and operationaltemperature range etc.)

2. All instrumentation should be calibrated to measurement Standardstraceable to the International Temperature Scale ITS-90

3. All connectors, leads, extensions etc., or instrumentation should beassembled as they would be under normal processing conditions

4. Minimisation o error due to variables inherent in any component o

the temperature measuring system, heating equipment or product should

be considered5. For standardisation and consistency o temperature mapping, an SOP orthe procedure on specic pieces o equipment should be documented.

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6.1.3 Temperature mapping procedureThe location o the zones o slowest heating ( i.e. cold spots) do not always ollow a

logical progression, e.g. zones o slowest heating are located at the greatest distancerom the heat source. Thereore, this is an area where the knowledge and experienceo competent personnel specialising in temperature mapping can be very important.Best practice in temperature mapping a heating chamber is as ollows (8, 9, 48):

1. The heating equipment should be loaded with product and brought upto the operating temperature to be used during temperature mapping.Temperature readings should be taken during this period

2. The heating equipment should then be allowed to operate or a period

o time prior to temperature mapping beginning. Temperature readings

should be taken during this period3. Temperature mapping should proceed by checking the processing equipmentat ull capacity. Where products are routinely heating below the equipmentsull capacity, the worst case scenario during normal operation should beapplied in temperature mapping. From a pragmatic perspective and toensure eective process control, it may be prudent to keep batch loadingoptions to a minimum

4. Position o probes within the heating chamber should be determined anddened. Basic guidance on the placement o probes within the chamber

can be obtained rom the design o the heating equipment, the heatsupply system, e.g. steam, water etc. and the loading pattern in the heating

chamber. However, as general guidance:

i. In horizontal stacking heating chambers, the product is usually placed inthe chamber in carriages. Probes should be positioned in the centre o each case/crate/basket at the top, centre and bottom o each carriage.I more probes are available, they should be located at the centre o the outside o the our sides o each carriage

ii. In vertical stacking, heating chambers probes should be positioned inthe centre o each case/crate/basket on the top, centre and bottom

shelves o the heating equipment.

iii. I more probes are available, other points along the periphery o eachcase/crate/basket on the top, centre and bottom shelves o the heatingequipment should be measured

iv. The initial temperature mapping results should be reviewed indetermining all locations within the heating chamber requiringmapping.

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5. The arrangement o probes within the heating chamber should ensure that

data collected are representative o the heating capacity o the equipment

at specic positions/zones within the heating chamber. However, a minimumo 7 to 5 probes per/m3 should be used with at least one probe placedin close proximity to the equipments own internal temperature controllingprobe (i.e. master probe)

6. A schematic drawing o the location and position o all probes used in eachtemperature mapping should be kept on record. For illustration purposesonly, Figure outlines the positions o probes in a simple oven

Figure 2. Eploded Views o Cooer Racs Showing Possible Probe LocationPatterns in Temperature Mapping o a Simple Oven *

* Only those packs which contain probes are shown. However, or any such testing, ull racks o product shouldbe used to emulate worst case production conditions.

Option 1: Less probes

available and/or more racks

Option 2: More probes

available and/or less racks

Packs to which thermocouples are attached

Rack

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7. In heating equipment which uses water or steam showering techniques,

probes should not be in direct contact with the water. In steam heating

equipment, the tips o probes should be pointing upwards to preventdroplet ormation rom condensing steam

8. The arrangement o probes within the heating chamber should ensurethat they are not in contact with any internal suraces within the heatingchamber and where possible, positioned in void spaces between productpackages (Figure 3). For illustration purposes only, Figure 3 outlines thepositions o probes between products in a simple oven

9. Repeat in duplicate, all temperature mapping tests, to ensure repeatabilityand consistency o results

10. Identiy and indicate the location o zones o slowest (i.e. cold spots)

and astest (i.e. hot spots) heating within the heating chamber rom therecorded temperature data on a schematic drawing covering all threedimensions (i.e. top, centre and bottom) o the heating chamber.

Figure 3. Probe Position or Temperature Mapping o a Simple Oven

6.2 Heat Penetration Tests

Ater completion o temperature mapping and identication o cold spots, the second stageo validation is heat penetration tests. Heat penetration tests ocus on taking temperaturereadings o the products rather than the heating medium, e.g. air, using calibratedinstrumentation. Heat penetration tests will conrm the product heating characteristics

at product cold spots identied in temperature mapping. Heat penetration tests thereoreallow the FBO to determine the behaviour o the product during normal processing atthe identied cold spots.

From the data gathered in both temperature mapping and heat penetration tests, the FBOcan then validate a time/temperature combination to process the ood to meet saety

requirements. Thereore, this is an area where the knowledge and experience o competentpersonnel specialising in heat penetration testing can be very important (30).

Thermocouple tip

positioned in void spaces

between packs, away from

surfaces

Food Packs

Welded tip of

thermocouple

Tape securing

thermocouple

Thermocouple cable

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6.2.1 When is a heat penetration test reuired?Heat penetration tests are required to develop, implement and validate heating

and chilling processes ater completion o temperature mapping. Heat penetrationtests should always be perormed ater temperature mapping to validate a heatingprocess.

Heat penetration tests should be repeated at least every three years or morerequently as outlined in Section 6...

6.2.2 What is reuired beore heat penetration tests?Beore beginning heat penetration tests, the ollowing considerations should be taken

by the FBO:

1. Review and consider points made under Section 6..2. Review collected temperature mapping data3. Ensure:

i. Product receives the same processing as in normal processingii. The product temperature beore loading is as low as likely during normal

process operationiii. Equipment used is the same as used in normal processingiv. Product ormulation, composition and assembly is the same as in normal

processing

v. Product packaging is the same as used in normal processing conditionsvi. The ll weight is not less than the maximum declared under normal

processing conditions.

6.2.3 Heat penetration test procedureHeat penetration tests should be designed to ensure that all actors are consideredin delivery o the required heat treatment to products at the identied cold-spots.Thereore, it is important that the FBO understands the product, package and process

actors which can aect heat penetration o the product.

Best practice in perorming heat penetration tests is as ollows (8, 30):

1. The probes should be positioned at the points o slowest heating in theproduct. These points will vary depending on the nature o the productand the equipment used. In relation to the product, the location o thecold spot will depend on the dominant method o heat transer (i.e.conduction, convection) within the product. Location o the cold spotcan be determined by using a multi thermocouple probe in the productand observing the slowest heating points. For illustration purposes only,

Figure 4 shows the ideal locations or thermocouples within multi (3 or

5) thermocouple probes

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Figure 4. Ideal Locations or Thermocouples within Multi (3 or 5)Thermocouple Probes

2. In conduction products surrounded by heating media, heat willtranser rom the outer suraces o the product to the colder interior.In such products, the slowest heating point will oten be the geometriccentre or core o the product (, 8) which is typically the thickest point ina product. However, a certain amount o caution is required with irregularshaped products. In such products surrounded on all suraces by heatingmedia, heat will be approaching the interior rom many directions and

as a result, the thickest point may not always correspond to the slowestheating point. For illustration purposes only, Figure 5 shows the position

o a probe at the slowest heating point (i.e. the geometric centre) o asimple product which heats by conduction

1/10 BPF

1/5 BPF

1/5 BPF

1/5 BPF

1/5 BPF

1/10 BPF

Upper thermocouple position

Upper middle thermocouple position

Middle thermocouple position

Lower middle thermocouple position

Lower thermocouple position

Note: Speed of thermocouple response will be proportional to the thermocouple wire and probe thicknesses

1/6 BPF

1/3 BPF

1/3 BPF

1/6 BPF

Upper thermocouple position

Middle thermocouple position

Lower thermocouple position

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Figure 5. Probe Positions in a Product which heats b Conduction

3. In products which are static during heating within which heat is transerredby convection, the thermocouple should be placed at a height rom thebase o 0% o the total height (40)

4. I the FBO rotates or agitates the convection product during heating,

the slowest heating point will be typically ound at the geometriccentre(40). Where appropriate, probes (i.e. thermocouples) can be tted

with a suitable spacer which allows the FBO to accurately position thetemperature sensor in the cold spot o the product on a repeated basis.A compression tting can also be used where appropriate, to securelyattach the probe to the package

5. In some products, a change o heating mode occurs during heat processing.This change can be rom convection to conduction (which is sometimescalled broken heating) or rom conduction to convection (which is otenreerred to as mixed heating). In such products, cold spots can be locatedusing the procedure described or convection heating

6. I the product is o a particulate or solid nature the worst case position

or the cold-spot should be used (i.e. worst case scenario in mostcases is were the largest available particulate is placed on the temperaturemeasuring part o the probe which is then placed in the product coldspot)

7. Testing should proceed with the heating equipment at ull capacity. Whereproducts are routinely heated below the equipments ull capacity, theworst case scenario during normal operation should be applied in theheat penetration tests

Compression fitting to secure probe tightly

Product fill level

Probe inserted into the core/centre of the product

Measuring point at tip of probe in geometric centre of product

Product pack

Food

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8. At a minimum, all products positioned at identied cold-spots (i.e. rom

temperature mapping) should be tested or heat penetration. In addition,

the product which is in closest proximity to the equipments own internaltemperature controlling probe (i.e. master probe), should also be tested

9. Determine the initial temperature o the product. When determining theinitial temperature, the range o initial temperatures to be encounteredduring normal processing conditions should be taken into account andthe coldest (i.e. worst case scenario) initial temperature selected

10. For determining the initial temperature, thermocouples should be placedin a number o product units. Ideally, all product units in the heatingchamber should be equilibrated to the same identied initial temperature

beore beginning testing. For illustration purposes only, Figure 6 shows theposition o a selection o probes positioned at various points (including

the identied slowest and quickest heating points) in the geometric centreo a product which heats by conduction

Figure 6. Eample o Probe Locations or Heat Penetration Testsin a Simple Oven

Fan

Slowest heating point identified from temperature mapping tests with product positioned at this point

Product packs on bottom rack of heating chamber

Product packs on middle rack of heating chamber

Product packs on top rack of heating chamber

Probe positioned at quickest heating pointidentified from temperature mapping tests

Equipment probe

Other probes positioned at selected points

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11. The data logger should begin recording the temperature o each

thermocouple prior to beginning heat processing, e.g. steam-on in the

heating chamber, and thereater at sucient intervals, e.g. every minute,throughout the heat process until the required time/temperaturecombination is achieved

12. The required time interval, e.g. every minute, minutes etc., or recordingproduct temperature during heat penetration tests, should be sucientto describe and veriy the heating chambers operating parameters duringtesting

13. Heat penetration tests should continue until the required time temperaturecombination is achieved in product cold spots and/or products positioned

at the slowest heating point(s) o the heating chamber. Tests should urtherextend or a short period ater the required time/temperature combination

is achieved so that a denite temperature prole can be established orall thermocouples used

14. Repeat in duplicate, all heat penetration tests to ensure repeatability andconsistency o results

15. Following heat penetration testing, i a product at the slowest heatingpoint(s) in the heating chamber is probed at the product cold spot(s)and is ound to achieve the required time and temperature combinationrequired or ood saety, it can be assumed by the FBO that all otherproducts in the chamber are also saely heat processed.

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7. MONITORING AND VERIFICATION

When a FBO uses a validated heat-chill process, on-going process validation and verication,e.g. temperature checks, should be undertaken on a scheduled, routine basis, based on

risk assessment.

7.1 Monitoring

On-going product temperature monitoring is required or all heat-chill processes. Itis required to veriy that specic requirements or product saety (i.e. minimum time/temperature combination necessary in cooking) have been achieved. This will allow theFBO to positively release a batch o product ollowing a heat-chill process.

1. On-going product temperature monitoring should be carried out on a scheduled basis

or verication purposes when a FBO operates a validated heating process.2. Monitoring should be perormed on specic products on every batch o every product

produced by the FBO.3. Data, e.g. graphs, showing temperature prole during cooking, output o data logger

etc., rom all product temperature monitoring, will provide objective evidence that theproduct has been cooked and chilled on the specied (validated) programmes or thatproduct, necessary to ensure product saety.

4. Data rom all product temperature monitoring will help veriy that core probes inproducts have reached the specied core temperature and that the appropriate productstacking arrangement was used or that product to allow adequate the air, steam etc.fow within the heating chamber.

5. On-going product temperature monitoring should provide data rom products atidentied cold spot(s) and in products on the top, middle and bottom levels o the heating chamber. In addition, the largest products in a batch should always be

monitored.6. Prompt and regular review o all collected data is necessary to veriy a process and to

quickly identiy problems and implement changes to a process or product, i required.Reerence should be made to previous verication data to ensure the data gatheredare repeatable and accurate. Thereore, monitoring and verication are integral partso HACCP (Section ).

7.2 Verifcation

Verication is the conrmation by examination (i.e. temperature monitoring) and provision

o objective evidence (i.e. data collection and recording) that specied requirements orthe process, e.g. cooking process: required temperature and time combination in everyproduct unit, have been achieved(4).

Verication o a validated process should be an objective assessment o processmonitoring data against the data rom the validation o the process. This will veriythat the specied process has been ollowed, including:

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1. Independent checks by quality assurance sta on product temperatures2. Stacking arrangements

3. Results o microbiological analysis4. Results o audits5. Customer complaints6. Internal non-conormances7. Changes in research data available etc.

7.3 Data Collection and Record keeping

Data should be kept or all validation, monitoring and verication tests (i.e. temperature

mapping and heat penetration tests), trials and commercial production runs/batches or

audit and inspection purposes.

In addition, data collected on equipment, services and product time and temperaturesshould be recorded or recall and traceability o product in the event o a ood saetyincident occurring (5).

Best practice or data collection and record keeping should include the ollowing:

1. Data collected and recorded should be authorised, updated and maintained. The assigned

responsible/competent employee should sign o on data recorded beore productrelease

2. All data collected and recorded using computers, should have a back-up copy3. Data should be collected, collated and recorded or all validation tests, trials and

commercial production runs, batches etc. or audit and inspection purposes and shouldinclude the ollowing inormation:

i. All dates and timesii. Identication (i.e. i more than one piece o heating equipment available), technical

specications, perormance criteria and calibration details or equipment and ancillary

equipmentiii. Location o temperature probes

iv. Calibration details o temperature probesv. Details on personnel operating equipment or carrying out testsvi. Detailed les/printouts o temperature/time proles or products and equipmentvii. Product specication including: name, characteristics, e.g. pack size, number o packs,

raw materials used, any available intrinsic/extrinsic data including product prior toheat treatment), ormulation, identication code(s), e.g. batch/lot number etc.

4. In relation to the loading and stacking congurations, the exact conguration usedmust be recorded. The minimum inormation that should be recorded includes:

i. Maximum number o cages/crates/baskets in the heating chamberii. Container size, loading/racking conguration

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iii. Maximum number o containers per level in heating chamber, e.g. top, middle or

bottom shelves, or per cage/crate/basket

iv. Aperture size and spacing o the cage/crate or basket base platesv. The open area o the base plate and separator sheets i used in the cages/crates or

baskets.5. Data should be collected, collated and recorded or all equipment and instrumentation

including the manuacturer, the model/type, settings and serial numbers, details on dials,ans, motors, boilers, steam pressure monitors, etc. This record should be updated asand when any changes are made

6. Data should be collected, collated, recorded and documented or all stacking/rackingarrangements or all products

7. I any changes are made to the above parameters, the change must be documented

and assessed by the HACCP team and the process re-validated as necessary8. Records generated rom data loggers and temperature probes, e.g. thermocouples, shouldindicate the date, time, and source o reading and should be signed by the individualresponsible or the device at that time.

From a traceability perspective, the EC recommends that records should be kept by FBOsor ve years, starting rom date o manuacture o a ood product. However, there aresome exceptions(5, ):

i. I the shel-lie is greater than ve years, then records should be kept or the shel-lie plus six months

ii. In the case o resh products destined or the consumer, records should be kept upto the use-by date plus six months or six months i no use-by date is requirediii. In the case o resh products destined or other ood businesses, records should

be kept or ve years.

7.4 Non-Conorming Product

Non-conormances in product saety and quality will occur within the quality system o every FBO. In the event that a non-conorming product is identied due to equipment

ailure, e.g. heating and/or chilling processes, or process deviation, e.g. required temperaturein product during heating not obtained, the FBO should have procedures in place to

ensure that the product batch is clearly identied, segregated and not in-advertently usedor dispatched prior to the saety o the product been established.

The FBO must then carry out a risk assessment on the segregated product to assess theproducts saety. Based on risk assessment, there are three possible methods o dealing withnon conorming product:

1. Accept the non-conorming product ollowing urther inspection and testing2. Rework the non-conorming product to meet specied requirements3. Dispose o the non conorming product.

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GLOSSARy

For the purposes o this document the ollowing denitions will apply:

Accurac is the closeness o a reading o a measurement device, e.g. temperature, to

the actual value o the quantity being measured; usually expressed as ± percent o thereading

Aerobic microorganisms require oxygen or growth

Anaerobic microorganisms do not require oxygen or growth

Cooing is preparation o ood or human consumption by the application o heat. In

the context o this document the application o heat should be sucient to ensure

pasteurisation o the ood

Competent bod means the central authority in Ireland competent to ensure compliance

with the requirements o legislation or any other authority to which that central authorityhas delegated that competence; it shall also include, where appropriate, the corresponding

authority o a third country (3)

Commercial Sterilisation (Commerciall Sterile) is a heat treatment designed to

render a ood ree o microorganisms capable o growing in the ood at room or ambient

temperatures

Facultative microorganisms grow with or without oxygen

Food (or oodstu) means any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed

or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans. Food

includes drink, chewing gum and any substance, including water, intentionally incorporatedinto the ood during its manuacture, preparation or treatment (5)

Food business means any undertaking, whether or prot or not and whether public or

private, carrying out any o the activities related to any stage o production, processing

and distribution o ood (5)

Food business operator means the natural or legal persons responsible or ensuring that

the requirements o ood law are met within the ood business under their control (5)

Food law means the laws, regulations and administrative provisions governing ood in

general, and ood saety in particular, whether at Community or national level. It covers

any stage o production, processing and distribution o ood, and also o eed produced

or, or ed to, ood producing animals (5)

Microbiological criteria are tools that can be used in assessing the saety and quality

o ood products. The use o microbiological criteria should orm an integral part o the

implementation o HACCP-based procedures and other hygiene control measures (7)

Microaerophilic microorganisms require a reduced level o oxygen or growth

Pasteurisation is a mild heat treatment applied to oods to inactivate heat labile

microorganisms such as vegetative bacteria, yeasts and moulds which may cause ood

spoilage or ood poisoning. Thereore, a pasteurised ood is unlikely to cause illness i it

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is stored correctly and consumed beore the end o its shel-lie, typically indicated by

a use-by-date()

Pathogenic microorganisms are disease causing microorganisms

Precision is the degree o agreement between numbers o independent measurements

o the same property, e.g. temperature taken under the same conditions

Prereuisite(s) are practices and procedures required prior to and during the

implementation and ongoing operation o a HACCP system, e.g. premises, equipment,

sta training, pest control, waste management

Perishable ood is ood which is subject to rapid decay, spoilage and/or growth o

pathogenic microorganisms with or without production o toxins or metabolites in quantities

that may present an unacceptable risk or human healthProcessed products are ood resulting rom the processing o unprocessed raw materials/

ingredients. These products may contain ingredients that are necessary or their manuacture

or to give them specic characteristics (3)

Read-to-eat means ood intended by the FBO or direct human consumption without

the need or urther cooking or other processing eective to eliminate or reduce to

acceptable level microorganisms o concern (6)

Reormed products use intact meat/poultry/sh pieces physically or chemically bound

together to resemble whole unprocessed products.

Restructured products use minced, diced or chopped pieces o meat/poultry/shphysically or chemically bound together into a restructured shape

Shel-lie means either the period corresponding to the period preceding the use-by

or the minimum durability date as dened respectively in articles 9 and 0 o Directive

000/3/EC (6)

Sterile product is a product in which all viable microorganisms are absent

Uncertaint o measurement is a quantitative measure o the quality o a measurement

result, enabling the measurement results to be compared with other results, reerences,

specications or standards (49). Typically, uncertainty o measurement is represented by

the observed reading on the reerence equipment ollowed by ± the uncertainty o

measurement, e.g. 30oC ± oC

Validation is a procedure or checking i a process satises a specic criterion or ood

saety

Verifcation is the conrmation by examination and provision o objective evidence that

specied requirements or a process have been achieved

Viabilit (Viable) is the ability o microorganisms to reproduce when conditions suitable

or growth occur

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APPENDIx 1. INTRINSIC AND ExTRINSIC PROPERTIES

The intrinsic properties are those properties that are an inherent part o the ood suchas pH and a

w. The extrinsic properties are the properties o the environment in which

the ood is stored such as temperature and packaging atmosphere. Minimum values orpathogenic growth related to singular intrinsic or extrinsic properties are infuenced byother intrinsic and extrinsic properties. Pathogenic growth is best when intrinsic andextrinsic properties are optimal.

Water Activit (aw)

Water activity is the availability o water in a ood. Water activity will determine thelower limit or pathogenic growth and survival. Water activity ranges in value rom 0 to.0. Most pathogens grow best at a

wnear .0. However, minimal a

wrequired or growth

can be between 0.88 – 0.9 (50).

The heat resistance o some pathogens may increase as aw

decreases. However, manyheat processed oods will have a high a

wwhich doesn’t signicantly aect pathogenic

heat resistance in the ood. In ood processing aw

can be decreased by the addition o ingredients , e.g. salts, sugars, starches which bind and make water unavailable to pathogens.Evaporation o water rom oods during heat processing, e.g. cooking, drying, etc. can also

decrease aw.

pHThe pH is a measure o a oods acidity or alkalinity (43). The pH scale ranges rom to4 with the relative extent o acidity and alkalinity dened by their pH value on this scale.

Most pathogens grow best at a neutral pH near 7.0. Typically, a pH o 4.0 to 4.5 willinhibit the growth o most oodborne pathogens. However, low-acid oods with a pH o 4.5 typically require heat processing or saety reasons (i.e. growth o Clostridium botulinum can occur at or above pH 4.5).

The pH o oods may vary with time due to microbial activity and ood compositionor ormulation. Specic oods such as vegetables and resh meats may be prone to pHchange.

At a processing level a ood may have a pH which prevents the growth o pathogens.

However, i the pH changes during product shel-lie, conditions may become avourableor pathogens to grow in the product. This can increase the saety risk to the product.Thereore, products o this nature require control o pH and/or heat processing. Organicacids such as ascorbic, sorbic, acetic, lactic, benzoic acid etc. while antimicrobial in natureare extensively used in the ood industry to control product pH (i.e. acidity regulators).

Food CompositionThe composition o oods can have an eect on the heat resistance o pathogens. Table 8outlines the typical eects on heat resistance (43).

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Table 8. Eect o Compositional Characteristics on General Pathogenic HeatResistance

Food Compositional Characteristics Increase Heat Resistance

Increasing Fat A Yes

Increasing Carbohydrate B Yes

Increasing Protein Yes

Increasing Salt C Variable

Food Structure D Variable

A Heat-resistance studies or inactivation o L. monocytogenes have shown that heat-resistance increases withincreasing at content

B The heat resistance o pathogens will increase in the presence o high concentrations o sugars. This ispartially due to a decrease in a

wassociated with high concentrations o sugars. However, the relative

aects o dierent sugars on the heat resistance o pathogens varies widely even i the aw

remains thesame. The heat resistance o pathogens will also increase in the presence o starch(s) in a product

C The eect o salt on the heat resistance o pathogens is variable and largely depends on the type o salt and its concentration. Sodium salts, e.g. sodium chloride , will decrease a

wand thereore may increase

heat resistance. Other salts such as calcium and magnesium salts increase aw

and thereby decrease heatresistance

D Many oods will not have a uniorm internal structure. As a consequence micro-environments mayorm within the ood. The location o pathogenic cells in the ood may also aect their resistance toheat treatment. Micro-environments may have dierent properties to the ood as a whole. This can beproblematic i the properties within these micro-environments allow the growth o pathogens i as awhole the product’s properties do not allow their survival and growth

The eect o ats, proteins, carbohydrates and high solids contents on the heat resistance

o pathogens can be quite signicant. Some o these components can increase heatresistance o pathogens by a actor o –3 (44). The current industry trends to reducesalt, sugars and other additives in oods should be considered by the FBO during productdevelopment. Changes in these components may aect the inhibitory properties o a oodand thereore, the required heat treatment to maintain ood saety.

Storage TemperaturePathogens have dierent temperature requirements or survival and growth in oods.The minimal temperature or pathogenic growth is also infuenced by other intrinsicand extrinsic properties. However, it is lowest when these properties are optimal, e.g.

pH, aw

etc. or a specic pathogen. Thereore, when sub-optimal levels or other intrinsicand extrinsic properties are combined with low storage temperature, the saety o heatprocessed ood increases. The eect o storage temperature on the growth and survivalo pathogens is very dependent on the relative humidity o the environment and thepresence and concentration o gases (43).

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Gas AtmosphereModied atmosphere packaging (MAP) and vacuum packed (VP) alter the concentration

and types o gases ound under normal atmospheric conditions. MAP and VP are inhibitoryto aerobic pathogens but may permit the survival and growth o acultative, e.g. L. monocytogenes, anaerobic, e.g. Cl. botulinum and microaerophilic, e.g. Campylobacter jejuni, pathogens in oods.

Modied atmosphere packaging and VP also increase product shel-lie and as such, mayalso increase the risks o anaerobic, acultative or microaerophilic pathogens growing overthe extended shel-lie. This can aect the type o heat processing the ood requires ormicrobiological saety ().

Relative HumiditThe relative humidity o a gaseous mixture at a particular temperature is the ratio o the amount o water vapour in the gaseous mixture to the maximum amount o watervapour which the mixture can hold at that temperature. Relative humidity is usuallyexpressed as a percentage.

When ood with low aw

is placed in high relative humidity environments, the ood willabsorb moisture until equilibrium with the environment is established. Food with higha

wplaced in low relative humidity environments will lose moisture by desorbtion until

equilibrium with the environment is established. Thereore, the selection and storage o a product at the correct relative humidity is very important in relation to the growth

and survival o pathogens.

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APPENDIx 2. OTHER VALIDATION TECHNIqUES

Under specic processing conditions, e.g. heating chamber/vessel with scrapers, or dueto the characteristics o specic products it can be dicult to validate the saety o a

process based on temperature measurement using temperature probes. In these cases,another means o validation may be employed. Typically, these processes and products willinclude:

1. Products produced in steam injection, steam inusion, plate, tubular or scraped suraceheat exchangers such as milk and milk products, sauces and dressings, some soups,

jams and preserves2. Products produced in deep at/oil rying units and continuous ovens such as biscuits,

breads, processed meats, poultry and sh, particularly breaded products3. Products produced in agitated steam jacketed vessels such as those containing discrete

meat, poultry, sh and vegetable pieces including soups and ready meals.

In these and other cases, alternative methods other than temperature measurement usingprobes, are required or validation o product saety including:

1. Use o biochemical time-temperature integrators (TTIs). Typically, TTIs use an enzymethat denatures on heating. I the heat reaction kinetics o the enzyme are the same asthe microbial death kinetics o the target pathogen, it is possible to use the enzymeas an indication o product saety ater heat processing

2. Simulated laboratory trials where the process conditions are replicated and thetemperature can be conventionally measured using temperature probes

3. Microbiological methods including challenge tests, inoculation studies, predictivemicrobiological methods and end-product testing

4. Use o mathematical process models which predict the temperature and time

characteristics o products as they pass through a process such as cooking5. Process saety being inerred rom temperature probing o the bulk product and/or the

processing environment (where applicable)6. Over processing o product to ensure that its core or central part(s) receive sucient

processing to ensure product saety, e.g. heating a product at the same temperaturebut or a longer period o time.

In all cases where alternative methods other than temperature measurement using probesare required or validation o product saety, consultation with an expert is stronglyrecommended.

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NOTES

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NOTES

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NOTES

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