Appendix!

Glossary of Terms for Cryocoolers and List of Organizations

Adiabatic Compression and Expansion: Thermodynamic process of volume, pressure, temperature change, and also adiabatic process change that occurs without heat transfer to or from the system.

Aftercooler: Water- or air-cooled heat exchanger used to cool compressed fluid leaving a compressor.

Axial Compressor: A type of fluid compressor with a rotor carrying blades arranged radially on a drum or disks; corresponding blades are arranged on the stator. The fluid flows through the compressor in the axial direction increasing in pressure and density during the compress­ion process.

Beale Free-Piston Stirling Engine: A type of Stirling engine in which the piston and displacer move entirely under the action of fluidic forces. There are no connecting mechanisms between the piston and displacer. The load is direct coupled to the piston.

Brayton Cycle: See Joule-Brayton cycle. Bucket Brigade Loss: Finkelstein's term for shuttle heat transfer. Centrifugal Compressor: A type of fluid compressor with a high-speed

rotating impeller which accelerates fluid to a high centrifugal velocity, the energy of which is subsequently transformed to pressure energy in a volute casing.

Claude, Georges: French scientist who conceived the combination of expansion engine and Joule-Thomson valve for gas liquefaction.

Claude Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle in which a fraction of the high-pressure fluid is expanded in an expansion engine and the remainder in a Joule-Thomson valve. The cold, low-pressure fluid from the engine cools the remaining high-pressure fluid passing to the JT valve. All the fluid is compressed adiabatically at ambient temperature and is cooled (at high pressure) prior to expansion in

375

376 Appendix I

contraflow recuperative heat exchangers by the low-pressure return stream.

Clearance: The amount by which a cylinder is greater in diameter than a piston or a bearing than the shaft rotating in it.

Clearance Space: (a) The minimum volume of the compression and expansion spaces of Stirling or Vuilleumier engines. (b) The small volume in the cylinder above the piston at the end of compression (in a compressor) or at the start of admission in an expander.

Coefficient of Performance (COP): The ratio of heat transferred to input work. For refrigeration the COP = heat (refrigeration efiect)/work supplied. For a heat pump the COP = heat rejected/work supplied (i.e., the inverse of thermal efficiency).

Coldfinger: The long, thin cylinder of a cryocooler containing a displacer, or regenerative displacer. Refrigeration is generated at the end of the cold finger. Also cold sting.

Collins, Samuel: American cryogenic engineer of the 20th century best known for development of helium liquefiers working on the Claude cycle.

Collins Cryostat: A helium liquefier working on the Claude cycle. Compound Working Fluid: The working fluid of a Stirling engine that

consists of two or more components and which may exist as a liquid gas, vapor, or dissociated elements.

Compression Space: The variable volume of the working space in a Stirling engine where the working fluid is principally concentrated when the total system volume is decreased, the pressure rises, and heat is rejected to the cooling medium. In a prime mover, the compression space is cooler than the expansion space. In a refrigerator or heat pump, the compression space is warmer than the expansion space.

Compressor: A machine used to elevate the pressure of the fluid; may be a reciprocating, rotary, or screw compressor.

Constant-Enthalpy Process: Thermodynamic compression or expansion at constant enthalpy--e.g., a Joule-Thomson expansion.

Constant-Entropy Process: Thermodynamic compression or expansion process that occurs reversibly with no transfer of heat and hence no change in entropy.

Constant-Pressure Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant pressure. This mayor may not be regenerative.

Constant- Temperature Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant temperature. This mayor may not be regen­erative.

Constant- Volume Process: Thermodynamic heating or cooling process that occurs at constant volume. This mayor may not be regenerative.

Cooler: The heat exchanger provided to facilitate the transfer of thermal

Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 377

energy from the working fluid to the cooling medium, water, air, or some other fluid.

Crank Drive: One form of kinematic drive consisting of a crank and connecting rod used to convert reciprocating to rotary motion and to convey power between pistons and drive shaft.

Cryocooler: Any device, system, or ensemble capable of generating refriger­ation at cryogenic temperatures, i.e., less than 120 K.

Cryogenerator: A cryocooler capable of achieving refrigeration at cryogenic temperatures (less than 120 K).

Dead Volume Ratio: That part of the total working space not included in the variable volumes of the expansion and compression spaces, expressed in terms of the variable volume of the expansion space.

Direct Heating: A system in which the hot products of combustion pass directly over the heater tubes in which the working fluid flows, so that heat is transferred directly from the combustion products to the heater tube walls and hence to the working fluid.

Discontinuous Piston Motion: The nonsinusoidal motion of the piston and displacers required to achieve the necessary volume variations of the idealized thermodynamic cycles.

Displacer: A lightweight structural reciprocating element in a Stirling engine characterized by a large temperature difference but a negligible pressure difference across the upper and lower transverse faces.

Double-Acting Engines: A family of Stirling engines having a single reciprocating element per thermodynamic system. There is a minimum number of two cylinders but no maximum number.

Dual-Pressure Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle with two or more stages of expansion in engines or JT valves. Many variations are possible involv­ing several stages of expansion and intermediate pressure separation of saturated liquid and vapor.

Duplex Stirling Engine: Two Stirling engines arranged so that one, operating as a prime mover, receives heat at a high temperature and produces work to drive the second Stirling engine, acting as a cooling engine, refrigerator, or heat pump.

Ericsson Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of isothermal compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by constant-pressure regenerative processes.

Exhaust Gas Heat Exchanger: See Regenerative Cycle. Expansion Space: The variable volume of the working space in a Stirling

engine where the working fluid is principally concentrated when the total system volume is increased, the pressure falls, and heat is ab­sorbed. In a prime mover, the expansion space is hotter than the compression space. In a refrigerator or heat pump the expansion space is cooler than the compression space.

378 Appendix I

Finkelstein Adiabatic Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle for Stirling engines with no heat transfer in the compression and expansion spaces and infinite rates of heat transfer in the heat exchangers.

Free-Displacer Engines: A form of Ericsson regenerative engine (Bush type) where the displacer moves under the action of fluidic forces. Used principally as a pressure generator or pump.

Freezer: The heat exchanger provided in a refrigerator or heat pump to facilitate the transfer of heat to the working fluid from an external low-temperature source.

Gifford-McMahon Engine: A regenerative expansion engine to generate refrigeration at cryogenic temperatures. Valves regulate flow of com­pressed gas to and expanded gas from the expansion cylinder.

Harmonic Piston Motion: The near sinusoidal motion of the pistons and displacers used in practical Stirling engines.

Heater: The heat exchanger provided in a prime mover to facilitate the transfer of thermal energy from an external source to the working fluid.

Heat Pipe: A device used in an indirect heating system in which an intermediate fluid is used to transfer heat from an external energy source to the working fluid. Usually the intermediate fluid a liquid metal, i.e., soli urn) is evaporated at the thermal inlet and condenses at the thermal outlet. Large rates of heat transfer can be effected with minimal temperatures differences.

Heat Pump: A machine driven from external power supply absorbing heat at ambient temperature and rejecting the heat at some higher tem­perature.

Heylandt Crown: The addition of an extension to a reciprocating piston to remove the hot or cold fluid from the region where the piston rings and seals operate.

Hybrid Free-Displacer-Crank-Controlled Piston Engine: A form of Stirling engine where the reciprocating piston has kinematic coupling to a rotating shaft but the displacer is oscillated under the action of fluidic forces.

Indirect Heating: A system in which thermal energy from an outside source heats an intermediate fluid (i.e., sodium) which conveys the energy to the heater tubes and hence to the working fluid (see Heat Pipe).

Intercooler: Water- or air-cooled heat exchanger used to cool compressed fluid between stages in a multistage compressor.

Intermediate (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than 25 W at 1 K, 100 W at 4 K, 1 kW at 20 K, or 15 kW at 80 K.

Isentropic Process: Thermodynamic process of volume, pressure, and tem­perature change that takes place at constant entropy.

Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations

Isobaric Process: See Constant-Pressure Process. Isometric Process: See Constant-Volume Process.

379

Isothermal Compression and Expansion: The process of volume and pressure change that occurs without change in the temperature of the system.

Isothermal Process: See Constant-Temperature Process. loule, I.P.: English scientist of the 19th century best known for understand­

ing that energy can be transformed from one type to another, but not created or destroyed.

louie-Brayton Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle comprising adiabatic compression and expansion separated by constant-pressure heating and cooling processes.

louie Cycle: See Joule-Brayton cycle. loule-Thomson Expansion: Expansion of fluid to a low pressure constricted

so that it occurs slowly with much frictional dissipation of energy. An irreversible thermodynamic process occurring at constant enthalpy. Much used for the final stage expansion in gas liquefaction.

IT Valve: A valve designed to accomplish isenthalpic J oule-Thomson expansion.

Kapitza, Peter: Russian cryogenic scientist of the 20th century. First used gas-lubricated piston in Claude cycle helium liquefier and discovered thermal boundary resistance to liquid helium.

Kinematic Drive: A system of cranks, connecting rods, levers or swash­plates used to regulate and control the reciprocating motion of pistons or displacers and to convey power between the pistons and drive shafts.

Large (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity exceeding 25 W at 1 K, 100 W at 4 K, 1 kW at 20 K, or 15 kWat 80 K.

Linde, Karl von: German scientist of the 19th century best known for first liquefaction of air in quantity.

Linde Cycle: See Linde-Hampson cycle. Linde-Hampson Cycle: A cryocooler process for gas liquefaction with

isentropic compression and isenthalpic (JT) expansion separated by constant pressure heating and cooling in recuperative contraflow heat exchangers.

Metallurgical Limit: The maximum temperature of operation for the materials used in the hot spaces of the engine.

Microminiature (Capacity) Cryocooler: Very small cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than! W at 20 K or 1 W at 80 K.

Miniature (Capacity) Cryocooler: Small cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than t W at 4 K, 2 W at 20 K, or 8 W at 80 K.

Multifuel Capacity: The ability of an engine to operate on various fuels or energy sources.

380 Appendix I

Oil-Flooding: The process of adding oil to a compressor to prevent over­heating and to assist cooling.

Phase Angle: The angle by which volume variations in the expansion space lead those in the compression space.

Piston: A heavy structural reciprocating element of a Stirling engine charac­terized by a large pressure difference but a negligible temperature difference across the upper and lower transverse faces.

Porosity: The total volume of void volume expressed as a fraction of the volume envelope of the porous solid (frequently expressed also as a percentage).

Postle, Davy: Nineteenth century Australian inventor of the Postle refrigerator.

Postle Engine: A form of regenerative free-displacer refrigerator with self-acting valves regulating admission and exhaust of fluid in the expansion cylinder (invented about 1873).

Precooled Cycle: The process of adding supplementary refrigeration from an external source to assist the cooling of compressed fluid en route to an expansion engine or JT valve. Used in multistage gas liquefiers operating on the Linde-Hampson or Claude cycles.

Pressure Drop, Pressure Loss: The difference in pressure that arises when fluid flows through a duct or heat exchanger because of aerodynamic friction effects.

Pressure Excursion: The range of variation of the cylical pressure change of the working fluid in the cylinder.

Pressure Ratio: The ratio of the maximum and minimum pressures of the working fluid.

Prime Mover: A Stirling engine used to produce mechanical work from heat supplied at high temperatures.

Rallis Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle with regenerative pro­cesses that occur partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. The process of compression and expansion may occur isother­mally or adiabatically.

Reciprocating Machine: Compressor or expander with reciprocating pistons operating in cyclinders.

Recuperator (Recuperative Heat Exchanger): A form of heat exchanger (tube and shell, or finned tube) with separate channels for the hot and cold fluids. Usually the flow is continuous and constant in the channels.

Refrigerating Capacity: The rate of refrigeration generated by a cryocooler measured in watts.

Refrigeration Load: The extra refrigeration required following the addition of a detector element and its associated leads to the coldfinger of a cryocooler.

Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 381

Refrigerator Temperature: The temperatures at which the refrigeration generated by a cryocooler is available.

Regenerative Annulus: A narrow annular gap between the displacer and cylinder through which the working fluid passes en route from the expansion or compression spaces. There is a temperature difference along the length of the annulus and as the gas passes through, a measure of regenerative heat exchange is accomplished.

Regenerative Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle in which some attempt is made to utilize the heat in the fluid being rejected from the cycle at low temperatures to heat the incoming fluid and so reduce the amount of "new" heat required and hence improve the efficiency of the cycle. The regenerative action may take place periodically as in the Stirling engine or continuously as in the Brayton cycle gas turbine. In the latter case, the heat transfer unit which accomplishes the regenerative action may be either a regenerative or a recuperative heat exchanger. Great care must be exercised to avoid confusion when discussing exhaust gas heat exchangers for regenerative thermodynamic cycles.

Regenerative Matrix: A porous volume of finely divided material (usually metallic) contained in the working space between the compression and expansion spaces. It acts as a reservoir of thermal energy.

Regenerator (Regenerative Heat Exchanger): A form of heat exchanger consisting of a porous solid mass with a single set of flow passages through which pass periodic, alternate flows of hot and cold fluids.

Regulation: The process of temperature or power control used to regulate the output of a Stirling engine.

Reitlinger Cycle: Generalized thermodynamic ideal cycle with isothermal compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by regenerative processes of any nature.

Rhombic Drive: A special kinematic drive for Stirling engines which regu­lates the motion of the piston and displacer in single-acting-type engines. It is possible to achieve perfect dynamic balance while operat­ing the reciprocating elements at the required phase difference. There are no side forces on the cylinder walls.

Roll-Sock Seal: A rolling diaphragm seal developed by Philips for contain­ing the working fluid in the working space.

Rotary Machine: Compressor or expander with no reciprocating parts. Schmidt Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle for Stirling engines with

sinusoidal volume variation of the isothermal compression and expansion spaces at different temperatures.

Screw Compressor: A form of fluid compressor with two long contrarotating rotors with meshing lobes.

Shuttle Heat Transfer: Heat transfer similar in effect to conduction heat

382 Appendix I

transfer arising from the displacer reciprocating in a cylinder with the result that surfaces at different temperature levels are put close together and heat flow facilitated.

Siemens, Karl Wilhelm: An inventor extraordinaire, born German and became naturalized English, Sir Charles William Siemens. Credited with conception of the contraflow heat exchanger, the multiple-cylinder Stirling engine with adjacent cylinders coupled, and much else.

Siemens Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle with isothermal com­pression, isentropic expansion separated by constant-pressure cooling and heating processes in contraflow recuperative heat exchangers.

Siemens Engine: An arrangement of three or more cylinders for a Stirling engine in which the cylinders are interconnected so that only one reciprocating element is required per Stirling system.

Single-Acting Engine: A family of Stirling engines with two reciprocating elements per thermodynamic system.

Small (Capacity) Cryocooler: Cryocooler having a refrigerating capacity less than 1 W at 1 K, 10 W at 4 K, 100 W at 20 K, 0.8 kW at 80 K.

Space Power System: An energy conversion device used to provide power for spacecraft.

Sting: See Coldfinger. Stirling Cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of isothermal

compression and expansion processes at different temperatures bounded by constant-volume regenerative processes.

Swash-Plate Drive: A system used in double-acting Siemens-type Stirling engines for regulating the motion of the displacer pistons and transmit­ting power to the drive shaft. The pistons are connected to an inclined disk on a rotating shaft which causes the pistons to reciprocate as the disk rotates.

Swept Volume Ratio: The volume variation in the compression space expressed in terms of the volume variation in the expansion space.

Temperature Ratio: The ratio of the temperatures of the working fluid in the compression and expansion space.

Thermal Efficiency: The fraction of total heat supplied that is converted to useful work.

Thomson, William (later Lord Kelvin): renowned English scientist of the 19th century.

Total Working Space: See Working Space. Turbocompressor: Rotary compressor of the centrifugal or axial flow variety. Turboexpander: Rotary expander of the centrifugal or axial flow variety. Two-Phase Two-Component Working Fluid: See Compound Working

Fluid. VM Cooler: A Vuilleumier engine.

Glossary of Terms/List of Organizations 383

Void Volume: The total volume of the void spaces in the working space of a Stirling engine including the porous volume of the regenerator and the associated heat exchangers and connecting ducts or ports.

Volume Compression Ratio: The ratio of the maximum and minimum volumes of the total working space.

Vuilleumier, Rudolph: Inventor of the engine which bears his name. An American citizen, resident in New York at the time his patent was granted in 1918.

Vuilleumier Engine (also VM engine): A regenerative cryocooler sometimes described as a Stirling engine with a thermal rather than mechanical compressor. Pressure perturbations are generated in a large hot cylin­der by the motion of a displacer. Refrigeration is generated in a small cold cylinder connected to the hot cylinder and utilizing the pressure perturbations.

Wobble-Plate Drive: See Swash-Plate Drive. Work Done: The work done by or on the working fluid during a change

in volume. Working Fluid: The gas, liquid, or vapor which experiences periodic com­

pression and expansion at different temperatures in the working space of a Stirling engine.

Working Space: The ensemble of variable volumes and constant volumes comprising the Stirling engine system, including an expansion space, a compression space, void volumes of the regenerator, heater, cooler, and the volumes of clearance spaces and connecting ducts or ports.

Appendix II

Organizations Having Substantial Interest in Cryocoolers and Cryocooler Manufacturing

ORGANIZATIONS

AFFDL: Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory at WPAFB. ERDA: Energy Research and Develcpment Administration (now the

Department of Energy), Washington, D.C. GSFC: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. IPL: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,

Pasadena, California. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NEL: Naval Engineering Laboratory, Washington, D.C. NVL: U.S. Army Night Vision and Electro-Optics Laboratory, Fort Bel-

voir, Virginia. NWRL: Naval Weapons Research Laboratory, China Lake, California. RRE: Royal Radar Establishment, Malvern, Worcester, England. SAMSO: U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Systems Command, Los

Angeles, California. WPAFB: U.S. Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.

MANUFACTURERS

ADL: Arthur D. Little Incorporated, Cambridge, Massachusetts. AiResearch Manufacturing: Torrance, California. CTI: Cryogenic Technology Incorporated, Waltham, Massachusetts. Cryomech: Jamestown, New York. ERG: Energy Research and Generation, San Francisco, California.

385

386

HAC: Hughes Aircraft Company, Culver City, California. MM: Martin Marietta Corporation, Orlando, Florida. Malakar Labs: now defunct, High Bridge, New Jersey. Magnavox: Philips Company in the United States. Hymatic Engineering Ltd: Redditch, Worcester. NAP: North American Philips, Briarcliff Manor, New York.

Appendix II

PRL: Philips Research Laboratories, Briarcliff Manor, New York; also Eindhoven, Holland.

SBRC: Santa Barbara Research Center, Santa Barbara, California. TI: Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas.

Appendix III

Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature

INTRODUCTION

The literature of cryogenic engineering is surprisingly diverse and much is concerned with cryocoolers. It can be divided into two principal groups: (a) government reports and (b) open literature.

It is important to have access to both, for many government reports are never summarized in the open literature. Furthermore, many of the reports, although unclassified, are restricted in circulation to agencies of government and their contractors. Still others are classified at various levels of restriction.

GOVERNMENT REPORTS

Government reports on cryocoolers are, in the main, those of contrac­tors to the government agencies, principally, NASA, the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Department of Energy. These are concerned mos'tly with small or miniature cooling systems for infrared thermal sensing and other electronic applications. The main contractors include: Hughes Air­craft Co., Texas Instruments Inc., Martin Marietta Co., Cryogenic Tech­nology Inc., Philips Laboratories, R.c.A., AiResearch Manufacturing Corp.

United States government reports can sometimes be obtained simply by requesting a copy from the contractors or the department of government concerned. This only works when the request is made soon after the report is published and spare copies are likely to be on hand. One must, therefore, know the report is due, but one then is probably already on the distribution list and receives the report anyway. An unofficial approach is always worth

387

388 Appendix III

a try, particularly where a report is required urgently, but the chance of a favorable response declines exponentially with elapsed time following publication.

The official sources of United States government reports are (a) National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

U.S. Department of Commerce Springfield, Virginia 22161

(b) Defense Documentation Center (DDC) Defense Logistics Agency Cameron Station Alexandria, Virginia

NTIS handles the distribution of copies of all U.S. government unclassified, unrestricted reports in all fields. DDC supplies copies of reports on defense and security related matters at all levels of security classification to approved requesters. Only approved "DDC Users" will likely have success in requesting material from DDC. One becomes a "DDC User" by working for U.S. Government agency or government contractor on defense related matters.

NTISearches

In addition to simply filling orders for copies of reports, NTIS provides another important service. They will generate bibliographies on specified topics of reports that they have on file. The NTIS data base includes over 800,000 document/data records covering U.S. government sponsored research from 1964. Several hundred bibliographies have already been assembled and are listed in the NTISearch Subject Index, obtainable on request from NTIS.

In the subject field of our interest here, cryocoolers, three NTISearches already exist: Reed 1975, 1977, and 1978. All are by William Reed and entitled Cryogenic Refrigeration-A Bibliography with Abstracts. Volume 1 covers the period 1964 to 1972. Volume 2 covers the period 1973 to 1977. Volume 3 covers the period 1977 to 1978.

Superintendent of Documents (SupDocs)

Another U.S. government agency responsible for the dissemination of government information is the Superintendent of Documents. This is the sales organization of the U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO). Various reports from government research laboratories are published by the GPO and distributed through SupDocs. They do not handle government contractor reports nor is there any obligation to maintain stocks of particular

Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 389

items, so that frequently one's requests are met with an "out-of-print" response. NTIS handles the same material as SupDocs plus of course the government contractor reports.

The Cryogenic Data Center

Another U.S. government source that was important to those inter­ested in cryogenic information was the Cryogenic Data Center at the laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Boulder, Colorado. Over the past 20 years the Cryogenic Data Center had amassed the world's best collection of cryogenic literature. The material was all included in a computerized data base system organized to facilitate subject, author or chronologic searching. This system has been recently turned over to Prof. H. Weinstock, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, for continuance.

Conference Proceedings

From time to time agencies of the U.S. government organize conferen­ces dealing with cryocoolers on matters relating thereto.

The most recent open meeting (October 1977) was held at the National Bureau of Standards, sponsored jointly by the Bureau and the Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Virginia. The proceedings (Zimmerman, 1978) of the conference, edited by James Zimmerman and Thomas Flynn, both of the Boulder laboratories, have been published as NBS Special Publica­tion 508, available from the superintendent of Documents, and NTIS (or simply by writing to the editor at NBS, Boulder). These proceedings are required reading for anyone interested in the contemporary status of cryogenic cooling systems for small superconducting or other low-capacity electronic applications.

Infra-Red Information Symposia (IRIS) are held annually (about May /June) at various centers in the United States. The symposia are a joint service-classified meeting organized by the Office of Naval Research devoted to military applications of infrared radiation. The proceedings of the symposia are edited by the Infrared Information and Analysis Center, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, P.O. Box 8618, Ann Arbor, Michigan. The proceedings of the 1977 San Francisco IRIS meeting (Zissis, 1978) were published as Proc. IRIS, Volume 22, NA V SO-P 2315, February 1978, a volume of 810 pages.

Various other government-sponsored symposia have been held from time to time. Although not specific to cryocoolers the proceedings do contain significant contributions of interest. The Office of Naval Research

390 Appendix III

organized a workshop on naval applications of superconductivity in Novem­ber 1970 at Panama City, Florida. The proceedings (Cox and Edelsack, 1971) contain an authoritative review of cryogenic refrigerators by John Daunt, Professor of Physics, at the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Foreign Government Sources

The above review of government reports and information sources refers entirely to U.S. government activities. This comes about because of my close proximity to that country and the wonderfully refreshing American characteristic of frank, open disclosure. I know there must be corresponding efforts in cooler developments taking place in other parts of the world for both military and civil applications but am unaware of the details. I shall, therefore, be grateful to readers if they would send me any information or otherwise draw my attention to these deficiencies that I may seek to rectify in a subsequent edition (should the Editors believe it worthwhile!)

OPEN LITERATURE SOURCES

Advances in Cryogenic Engineering

The principal body of cryogenic engineering literature is exceedingly well organized. The jewel in the crown is the 25 or so volumes entitled Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, edited by Klaus Timmerhaus, Associ­ate Dean of Engineering at the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, and, more recently, by Ronald Fast of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois. These volumes are well presented, uniformly bound books containing the proceedings of the annual (now biannual) Cryogenic Engineering Conference extending back to the first conference in 1954. Volume 20 contains a complete subject/author index for the series up to that time. It is the first reference to be consulted when approaching a new topic in cryogenic engineering.

Cryogenics

The other important reference collection is the international journal Cryogenics published in Great Britain. This started in 1960 under the guidance of Professor K. Mendelssohn of the University of Oxford Claren­don Laboratory. Cryogenics publishes a broad range of papers on research topics, general topical and book reviews, reports of conferences, and notices of interest to the cryogenics community.

Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 391

International Cryogenic Engineering Conference

The proceedings of the biannual International Cryogenic Engineering Conferences are sufficient in number (6 volumes in 1979) to be an important reference source, particularly for material emanating from sources outside the United States. The conference schedule now appears to have settled down to a harmonious relationship with the U.S. based Cryogenic Engineer­ing Conference. Both are now biannual events, one occurring in years alternate to the other.

Applications of Cryogenic Technology

Proceedings of the conferences of the Cryogenic Society of America are published as Applications of Cryogenic Technology, volumes 1 through 7 (in 1979). The books are edited by Robert W. Vance of the Aerospace Corporation in Los Angeles. They are very well presented, and the papers contained therein are of exceptional interest for they tend to be lengthy reviews written by experts in their field.

International Institute of Refrigeration

The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), located in Paris, is the oldest organization devoted to refrigeration technology. Presently the main meetings of the Institute are held every four years and are called the International Congress of Refrigeration. The proceedings are published (in three or four volumes) under the title of Progress in Refrigeration Science and Technology.

The IIR is organized in ten interest groups, called Commissions, as follows:

1. Cryophysics and Cryoengineering 2. Heat and Mass Transfer 3. Refrigerating Machinery 4. Refrigeration of Perishable Produce 5. Cold-Storage Facilities 6. Air Conditioning 7. Refrigerated Land Transport 8. Refrigerated Sea Transport 9. Applications of Refrigeration to Chemical, Civil, and Industrial

Engineering 10. Cryobiology and Freeze Drying

For the XIII Congress, the Proceedings were organized in four volumes.

392 Appendix III

Volume 1 dealt primarily with low-temperature applications and contained the papers of Commissions 1 and 9. Volume 2 consisted of the papers of Commissions 2 and 3. Volume 3 covered the papers of Commissions 4,5, and 10. Volume 4 contained the papers of Commissions 6, 7, and 8.

In addition to the regular quadrennial Congress meetings, the various Commissions meet either singly or in combinations having mutual interests to consider specific topics or a range of topics. For example, one meeting of Commission 1 in 1970 addressed itself to: measurement of temperature, He3 /He4 refrigeration, heat transfer to liquid gases, superconductivity, and experimental techniques. In London in 1969, one meeting of Commission 1 was concerned with liquid natural gas; simultaneously, but at another separate meeting in London, the topic was low temperature and electric power. The proceedings of all these meetings are published by the IIR as a supplement or annex of the Bulletin, a regular bimonthly publication of about 250 pages including review papers, original studies, information on current research in refrigeration, information on forthcoming meetings of interest, and the program abstracts of papers of the next Congress.

In addition to all these, the IIR has many other important publications including three Bibliographic Guides to Refrigeration for the periods 1953-1960, 1961-1964, and 1965-1968, an international dictionary of refriger­ation, and many different charts and tables of thermodynamic properties.

The veritable plethora of activities, interests, and publications with many variations due to the input of local characteristics makes recovery of publications somewhat more difficult. To obtain a list of publications or further information, application may be due to:

Institut International du Froid (International Institute of Refrigeration) 177 boulevard Malesherbes F 75017 Paris France

Low-Temperature Physics

The cryogenics field has been a playground of the physicist for a hundred years, four or five times as long as it has been a topic of substantial engineering interest. Therefore, one should not overlook the physics sec­tions of the library. Many choice items of great interest to cryogenic engineers will be found there. For example, Daunt has given an excellent and very comprehensive treatment, 136 pages, a book in itself, in the Handbuch der Physik, Vol. XIV on "The Production of Low Temperatures down to Hydrogen Temperature."

Guide to the Cryogenic Engineering Literature 393

Then there are the proceedings of the Conference of Low Temperature Physics. Meetings are held at three-year intervals in different parts of the world, with the proceedings of the conference produced by the local organizing group. The proceedings and sources known to the author are

LT 14 (1975) (Otaniemi, Finland) Ed. M. Krusius and M. Vuorio, American Elsevier Publishing Co., New York.

LT 13 (1972) (Boulder, Colorado) Ed. K. Timmerhaus, W. H. Sul­livan, and E. F. Hammel, Plenum Press, New York.

LT 12 (1971) (Kyoto, Japan) Ed. E. Danda, Academic Press of Japan, Tokyo.

LT 11 (1968) (St. Andrews, Scotland) Ed. J. F. Allen, D. M. Finky­son, and D. M. McCall, University of St. Andrews, Printing Dept.

LT 10 (1967) (Moscow, USSR) Ed. unknown, USSR Academy of Sciences.

LT 9 (1964) (Columbus, Ohio) Ed. J. G. Daunt, D. O. Edwards, and Y. M. Milford, Plenum Press, New York.

LT 8 (1962) (London, England) Ed. R. D. Davies, Butterworths Press Ltd., London.

LT 7 (1960) (Toronto, Canada) Ed. G. M. Graham and A. S. Hollis­Hallett, University of Toronto Press.

Books, Monographs and Course Notes

In addition to the above, many excellent books too numerous to mention on cryogenics and experimental techniques may be found on the shelves of a good technical library. One volume of exceptional interest to the cryogenics engineer is the Russian work translated and published by Pergamon Press, entitled Plant and Machinery for the Separation of Air by Low-Temperature Methods, Ed. I. P. Usyukin.

Occasionally the proceedings of summer courses or workshops may be published in book form. One example of great interest is The Science and Technology of Superconductivity, Ed. W. D. Gregory, W. N. Mathews, and E. A. Edelsack, published by Plenum Press, New York, 1973, based on a summer course held in August 1971 at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

The proceedings of the 1968 summer study on superconducting devices and accelerators was published by the Brookhaven National Laboratory Associated Universities Inc. as BNL 50155 (C-55) under contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission.

394 Appendix III

Again the proceedings of a Cryogenic Workshop, March 1972, were published by the NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. This is an excellent summary of contemporary cryogenic matters with particular reference to spacecraft.

House Journals

Two house journals have, over the years, contributed very substantially to the cryogenic engineering literature, particularly with regard to cryogenic cooling systems.

One of these two journals is the Philips Technical Review. Since the first publication, by J. W. L. Kohler in 1954, of two articles about the new Philips Stirling cooling engines, there have been many other papers dealing with subsequent developments and improvements. The Philips Technical Review is an excellent journal devoted to research topics and new product development in the Philips groups of companies. Subscriptions or single copies of the Review may be obtained on application to

N.V. UITGEVERSMAATSCHAPPIJ CENTREX (Centrex Publishing Co.) N.W. Emmasingel9 P.O. Box 76 Eindhoven, Netherlands

Another journal of exceptional relevance and interest to the field of cryocoolers is the Linde Reports in Science and Technology. This monthly publication contains six to ten articles describing recent Linde developments and plant construction in the field of cryogenic gas processing and chemical engineering. An index to the articles or copies of the reports may be obtained on application to

Pressestelle der Linde Aktiengesellschaft Wiesbaden, Hildastrasse 2-10 West Germany.

Name Index

A. D. Little Company,[I] 10, 12, 14,237-240 AEG-Telefunken A. G., [I] 14 Ai Research Manufacturing Company, [I]

16, 199-202; [2] 387 Air Products and Chemical Incorporated

(APCI), [I] 15, 77, 238, 240, 293 American Motors, [I] III

Baumann Institute of the Moscow High Technological School, [2] 262

Beale, William, [I] 52, 166 British Oxygen Company, [I] 8,19 Bush, Vannevar, [I] 188

Carnot, Sadi, [I] 39 Chellis, Fred, [I] 171 Claude, Georges, [I] 8, 9, 322, 323; [2] 375 Collins, Samuel, [I] 9,10,326-329; [2] 376 Cowans, Ken. [I] 14 Crummett, Charles, [I] 9 Crummett, Orin, [I] 9 Cryogenic Data Center, U.S., [2] 389 Cryogenic Society of America, [2] 391 Cryogenic Technology Incorporated (CTI),

[I] 10, 12, 14, 15, 100, 103,238; [2] 387 Cryomech Incorporated, [I] 14,238

Daniels, A., [I] 101 Daunt, John, [I] 14 Davis, Harvey, [1] 9 Defense Documentation Center (DOC),

U.S., [2] 388 du Pre, F. K., [I] 96,101

395

Energy Research and Generation Incorporated (ERG), [I] 20

Fairchild Space and Electronics Company, [I] 150

Finkelstein. Theodore, [I] 109, 131, 142, 147 Flight Dynamics Laboratories, [I] 13 Ford Motor Company, [I] III Franchot, Charles Louis, [I] 109

General Motors, [1] 111

Gifford, William, [I] 14,237-263 Gorrie, John, [I] 8

Hampson, W, [I] 8 Harwell Atomic Energy Establishment, [I]

108 Herschel, John, [I] 6, 95 Heylandt, D., [I] 8 Higa, Walter, [I] 16, 171 Horn, Stuart, [I] 171 Hughes Aircraft Company, [I] 14, 103,

191-193; [2] 387 Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center, [I]

14 Hymatic Engineering Limited, [I] 19,

288-290

International Institute of Refrigeration, [2] 391-392

396

Japanese National Railways, [2] 306

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, [I] 16, 150

Johnson, Joseph, [I] 9

Joule, J. P., [2] 379

Kapitza, Peter, [I] 9, 20, 326; [2] 379 Kinergetics Incorporated, [I] 14

Kirk. Alexander, [I] 6, 95 Kohler, Jan W. L., [I] 11,52,96; [2] 43

l.'Air l.iquide l.imitee, [I] 8, 19,323 l.a nda u, L., [2] 258 Linde, Karl von, [I] 7; [2] 379 l.inde Company, [I] 7, 9,19; [2] 91 Longsworth, Ralph, [I] 15,240

Magnavox Company, [I] 14 Malaker Corporation, [I] 14, 103 Martini, William, [I] 152 Martin-Marietta Corporation, [I] 14, 103;

[2] 387 McDonnell Douglas; Richland Energy

l.aboratory, [I] 108 McMahon, Howard, [I] 237 Mechanical Technology Incorporated, [I]

III Meijer, Rolf, [I] 179

NPO Cryogenmash, [2] 262 National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), [I] 13, 16.20, 187, 199; [2] 226

NASA Lewis Research Center, [I] 151; [2] 387

National Bureau of Standards Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13

National Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13 National Technical Information Service

(NTIS), U.S., [2] 388 Naval Engineering Laboratory, [I] 13

North American Philips Laboratories, [I] 12,

13,101,195-199; [2] 387

Office of Naval Research, [I] 13 Onnes, Kamerlingh, [I] 8 Oxley, A. J., [I] 53

Parsons, Sir Charles, [I] 9 Perkins, C., [I] 265

Name Index

Philips Company, [I] 11,12,20,96-101,106, 144, 172-176, 179; [2] 43

Pictet, R., [I] 7 Postle, Davy, [I] 7, 237-238, 261-263; [2] 380

Rayleigh, Lord, [I] 9 Reitlinger, J., [I] 44 Rinia, H., [I] 96

Schmidt, Gustav, [I] 126, 131 Siemens, Sir Charles William (also

Karl Wilhelm Siemens), [I] 8; [2] 382 Siemens, Sir William, [I] 110; [2] I Solvay, E., [I] 7

Stirling, Robert, [I] 6, 95; [2] I Submarine Systems, Incorporated, [I] 14 Sunpower Incorporated, [I] 148-150

Taconis, T. W., [I] 188 Texas Instruments Incorporated, [I] 14, 103;

[2] 387 Thermo-Electron Corporation, [I] 108 Thomson, William, [2] 382 Thrupp, Edgar, [I] 9 Trevethick, Richard, [I] 6

United Stirling, [I] III Urieli, Israel, [I] 147-148 U.S. Air Force, [I] 13, 191, 195; [2] 387 U.S. Army Night Vision and Electro-Optics

Laboratory, [I] 13, 103, 192, 198;[2]387 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), [I] III,

150; [2] 387 U.S. National Institutes of Health, [I] 20

van Weenan, F. L., [I] III

Vuilleumier, Rudolph, [I] 188; [2] 383

Werkspoor, N. V., [I] 176-179

Zerkowitz, Guido, [I] 9

Subject Index

Active volume, [I] 210 Adiabatic compression, [2] 375 Adiabatic-cycle simulation programs, [I]

142-145,151,152 Adiabatic demagnetization rotating frame

(ADRF), [2] 247-249 Adiabatic expansion, [2] 375 Adsorption pumping, [2] 183-185 Advanced Surveillance Technology

program, [I] 195 Aftercooler, [2] 375 Air compressors, [I] 349 Air cooling, [2] 104-105 Air liquefaction, [1]7, 8, II, 12, 18, 19,26,

309-3 II, 314; [2] 2 Air Products Co. coolers, [I] 293 Air separation, [2] 259, 277 Ai Research Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [1]

199-202 Applications, [1] 2, 3,10-12,16,17,24,26,

52,53,111,187-188,191,201 Artificial hearts, [1] 20; [2] 52 Automotive applications, [1] 52, 53, 111 Auxiliary refrigerating system, [I] 278-279 Axial flow compressors, [1] 350; [2] 375 Axial flow dynamic heat exchangers, [2]

30-32 Axial heat conduction, [2] 22-24

Balancing, [2] 68-69 Ball and roller bearings, [2] 81-82 Bearing rings, [2] 80 Bearings, [1] 200-201; [2] 79-88 Bellows, [2] 96 Bellows expansion engines, [I] 339-342

Blockage, [I] 345 Blow period, [2] 38, 41-42 Boiling heat transfer, [2] 281 Bounce space, [I] 166 Boyles law, [I] 270 Brayton cycle, [I] 258; [2] 262, 375, 379 Brushless direct-current motors, [2] 108-109 Bubble point, [I] 34 Bucket brigade loss: see Shuttle heat transfer

(loss)

Calrod-type sheathed heater, [I] 229 Carbon-filled fluorocarbon piston rings. [I]

324 Carnot cooling engines, [1] 41 Carnot efficiency, [2] 132 Carnot thermodynamic cycle, [I] 1, 39-42,

44.47,238; [2] 103-104, 130-134 Carryover loss, [1] 311; [2] 30,33 Cascade-cycle refrigeration, [1] 162, 179, 180;

[2] 30 Cascade system, [I] 277-280 Casting leaks, [2] 121 Centrifugal flow compressors, [1] 350; [2] 375 Charcoal, [2] 35 Charcoal adsorption pumps, [2] 183-184 Check valving, [2] 124 Chemical cooling system, [2] 163-165 Claude cooling engines, [I] 5,179,180,257.

297-350

397

Claude cycle, [1] 84, 257, 302-307; [2] 286, 375

Claude stepped piston two-stage expander, [1] 316-318

Clearance, [2] 376

398

Clearance space, [2] 376 Close tolerance seals, [2] 96-98 Closed-cycle refrigeration, [2] 130 Cluster heat exchanger, [2] 5, 19 Coefficient of performance (COP), [I] 42, 43;

[2] 376 Coiled foil regenerator, [2] 53 Coiled tubular exchangers, [2] 6-9, 283-284 Cold finger, [2] 62-68 Coldfinger seal, [I] 199; [2] 376 Cold string: see Cold finger Collins cooling engines, [I] 5, 309-311 Collins helium liquefier (or cryostat), [I] 10,

318, 326-344; [2] 376 Collins low-pressure air liquefier, [I]

309-311, 329 Combination Stirling engine: see Duplex

Stirling engine Composite regenerative heat exchanger, [2]

34-36 Compound working fluid, [2] 376 Compression space, [I] 46, 140; [2] 376 Compressors, [I] 87-90, 344, 347-350; [2]

295-298, 376 Computer simulation programs, [I] 143,

144-152,161,192;[2]26,28,43,266-272 Concentricity, [2] 51-52 Condensing cooling engine, [I] 41 Conduction, [I] 257 Conduction heat leakage, [2] 64-65 Contamination, [I] 345, 348-349; [2] 82-83,

119-120 Continuous He] refrigeration, [2] 185-187 Continuous magnetic refrigerators, [2]

185-187 Continuous system simulation language CSSL

IV, [2] 26 Convection, [I] 257; [2] 282-283 Cooldown characteristics, [I] 274-275; [2] 26,

65-66, 119 Cooler, [2] 376 Cooling, [2] 103-106 Copper powder, [2] 196-198 Corblin diaphragm compressors, [I] 277 Cost, [2] 114 Counterflow, [2] 15-16 Counterflow heat exchangers, [I] 7 Crankcase, [2] 107 Crank drive, [2] 377 Critical point, [I] 35 Cross-flow, [2] 15

Subject Index

Crowned piston, [I] 8 Cryocoolers, [I] I; [2] 377 Cryogenerator, [2] 377 Cryogenic engineering, [I] I Cryogenics, [I] I; [2] 392-393 Cryomatic gas balancing, [I] 251-255 Cycle simulation, [I] 145-146; [2] 266-272 Cylinder walls, [2] 93, 99

heat loss through, [I] 222

dc brush-type motor, [I] 230 Dead space, [2] 44 Dead volume ratio, [I] 156; [2] 377 Dense mesh wire screens, [2] 47 Design, machine: see Machine design Design charts, [I] 157-159 Dew point, [I] 34 Diamagnetic materials, [2] 220 Diaphragm compressor, [I] 339 Diaphragm expansion engine, [I] 9 Diaphragms, [2] 96 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CChF2), [2] 141 Dielectric materials, [2] 160 Differential pistons: see Stepped pistons Dilution refrigerators, [I] 19;[2]55, 144-145,

146,179,187-211,244-247,259 Direct heating, [2] 377 Discontinuous piston motion, [2] 377 Displacer, [I] 105,208; [2] 377 Displacer motion, [I] 117-123,208,255 Displacer seal, [2] 125 Displacive materials, [2] 161 DOE! NASA Stirling Engine Automotive

Program, [I] 150 Doll-Eder valveless expansion engines, [I]

334-339 Double-acting free-piston Stirling engines,

[I] 180 Double-acting Stirling engines, [I] 108-116,

119-123,180;[2] 377 Double-bundle nuclear refrigerator, [2]

235

Double-circulation dilution refrigerator, [2] 210-211

Double-expansion engines, [I] 161-164, 191 Drive motors, [2] 106-108 Dry heli urn compressor, [2] 295-298 Dry-rubbing bearings, [2] 87-88 Dry-rubbing materials, [I] 20 I, 348-349 Dry-rubbing piston rings, [I] 324

Subject Index

Dual-pressure Claude cycle system, [I] 314-315; [2] 377

Ductile-brittle transformation, [2] 100 Duplex Stirling engines, [I] 50-53, 185-187,

222; [2] 377 Dynamic nuclear polarization, [2] 247-251 Dynamic regenerative heat exchangers, [2]

30-33 Dynamic seals, [2] 91-93

Effectiveness, exchanger, [2] 17-19,21,47 Efficiencies, regenerator, [2] 47 Electric resistance heating, [I] 187-188 Electrical and electronic systems, [2] 106-110 Electrocaloric refrigeration systems, [I] 19;

[2] 160-162 Electromagnetic inlet valve, [2] 275 Electron spin systems, [2] 216-226 Electronic applications, [I] 169 Electronic controls, [2] 109-110 Electrons, [2] 145-152 Enhancing heat transfer, [2] 30 Enthalpy, [I] 30, 32 Entropy, [I] 30, 32; [2] 138-172, 270 Entropy analysis method, [2] 270 Ericsson cooling engines, [I] 5, 75, 237-263;

[2] 28 Ericsson thermodynamic cycle, [I] 44, 48, 53;

[2] 160, 377 ideal, [I] 59-60 pseudo, [I] 67-68, 83

Ettingshauser effect, [2] 151 Europium sulfide, [2] 33 Exergy, [2] 271-272 Exhaust, [I] 247 Expanders, [I] 91-93 Expansion, [I] 247

isentropic, [I] 93-94 isothermal, [I] 93-94

Expansion engines, [I] 3, 4, 333; [2] 272-276 Expansion space, [I] 46,138-140; [2] 377 External annular regenerator, [I] 231 External regenerator, [I] 230-231

Fanning friction factor, [2] 49 Ferroelectrics, [2] 161 Figure of merit, [I] 283; [2] 119 Film coefficient, [I] 224

Finegold-Vanderbrug nodal analysis, [I] 150-151

Finkelstein adiabatic cycle, [I] 131-132, 142-145, 160; [2] 378

Finkelstein nodal analysis, [I] 147, 151 First Law of thermodynamics, [I] 38-39 Flame-trap construction (matrices), [2] 32,

46 Flash loss, [2] 30 I, 302 Flexibility, [I] 280 Flow maldistribution, [2] 19-22 Flow regulation, [I] 5, 246 Fluid friction loss, [2] 43 Fluid-lubricated bearings, [2] 80-81 Fluidic-driven dis placer, [I] 251-255 Fluon, [I] 349 Fluorocarbons, [2] 102 Free-displacer split-Stirling engine, [I]

169-171; [2] 378

399

Free-piston Stirling engines, [I] 20,164-169, 344

Freezer, [2] 378 Friction, [I] 38,127-128,169,171,223,339;

[2] 24-25, 66, 81-82,102 aerodynamic, [I] 127-128

Furnace-type heater, [I] 229

Ga p regeneration, [2] 52-53 Gas liquefaction, [I] 2, 180,271-288,294 Gas-lubricated bearings, [I] 350; [2] 82-83,

84-87 Gas-lubricated pistons, [2] 83-84 Gaseous cooling engine, [I] 41 Generalized Finkelstein analysis, [I] 131-132 Giaque-Hampson exchangers, [2] 7 Giff ord- Mc Mahon cooling engines, [I] 5, 15,

16,77,237-240,245-261; [2] 1l7, 378 Gifford-McMahon cycle, [I] 77, 245-261 GLAG theory, [2] 258 Grease-lubricated bearings, [2] 81 Guide rings, [2] 52, 66, 79

Hampson cooling engines, [I] 5 Hampson heat exchanger, [I] 128-131,265;

[2] 6-7, 15 Harmonic drives, [I] 211 Harmonic piston motion, [2] 378 Harwell Fluidyne engine, [I] 168 Hausen regenerator, [2] 36-39

400

He' refrigerators, [2]179-187 He4 -circulating dilution refrigerators, [2]

207-211 He' - He4 dilution refrigerator, [2] 55,

144-145,146,187-211,259 Heat-balance analysis, [I] 259-261 Heat exchanger thermal potential, [I]

128-129 Heat exchangers, [1]5; [2]1-55,279-280,

283-284 Heat pipes, [2] 54-55, 106, 378 Heat pump, [1]48-49; [2] 378 Heat rejection, [1]231; [2]117-118 Heat transfer, [2] I, 19, 279-283 Heat transfer losses, [1]220-225 Heater power input, [1]225 Heaters, [I] 229; [2] 378 Helically wound wire heaters, [I] 229 Helium, [1]175; [2]82,120-121,139-141,

144-145,265 Helium', [2]179-180,187-190,211-215 Helium4 , [2]187-190 Helium expansion engine, [1]9 Helium-hydrogen liquefier, [1]10 Helium liquefaction, [1]10, 18,250,277,

326-334; [2] 257-258, 286-288, 293-294, 299-302

Hermetic sealing, [I] 195; [2] 95-96 Heylandt crowned piston, [1]325; [2]378 Heylandt cycle, [1]307, 309, 314-315 Hi-Cap Vuilleumier cooling engine, [I]

192-193 Historical background, [1]6-10 Hot-end temperature controller, [1]225-226 Hot-rider ring wear, [1]230 Hughes Vuilleumier cryocooler, [1]191-193 Hybrid free-displacer-crank-controlled

piston engine, [2] 378 Hydraulic seal, [2]96 Hydraulic work-absorbing system, [1]326 Hydrodynamic fluid lubrication, [I] 324,

326,334-339,342,349; [2]80-87 Hydrogen, [I] 175; [2] 82, 143 Hydrogen expansion engine, [I] 8, 9 Hydrogen liquefaction, [I] 8,18 Hymatic coolers, [I] 288-290 Hyperfine enhanced nuclear-spin systems,

[2] 240-244

Ideal Ericsson cycle: see Ericsson thermodynamic cycle

Ideal regenerator, [2] 36 Ideal Stirling cycle: see Stirling

thermodynamic cycle

Subject Index

Ideal thermodynamic cycles, [I] 39-41,44; [2] 130-134

Inconel 718, [I] 228 Incorporated cascade cycle, [I] 279-280 Indirect heating, [2] 378 Infrared Astronomical Satellite (I RAS)

Program, [2] 225-226 Infrared night vision equipment, [I] 12, 14,

16, 19, 169, 188, 192, 202-205, 232; [2] 61,92,108,114,179,184-185

Infrared telescope, [2] 225 Inherent thermodynamic and heat transfer

losses, [1]220-225 Inhibited heat transfer, [2] 282-283 Input power drive motor, [I] 160 Insulation, [I] 284-285 Integral Stirling engine, [I] 118-119; [2] 115 Integrated cryogenic cooled isotope engine

(ICICLE) program, [I] 202 Intercooler, [2] 378 Intermediate cryocoolers, [I] 2, 4,26, 109,

172-180,238;[2] 378 Internal annular regenerator, [I] 231 Internal energy, [I] 30, 31 Internal regenerator, [I] 230-231 Interstage heat flow, [1]225 Inversion curve, [1]267 Inverters, [I] 230 Isenthalpic expansion, [I] 297-302; [2] 300 Isentrope, [I] 34 Isentropic efficiency, [I] 88 Isentropic expansion, [1]265-267, 297-302 Isentropic process, [2] 378 Isobar, [I] 34 Isotherm, [I] 34 Isothermal analysis, [1]152 Isothermal efficiency, [I] 88 Isothermal process, [I] 299-300; [2]379 Isothermality, [I] 126-127

Japanese cryocooler development, [2] 293-313

Josephson tunnel diodes, [I] II Joule-Brayton cycle liquefiers, [1]82-83,

297,333, 342-345, 347-350; [2] 379 Joule-Thomson coefficient, [I] 268-271 Joule-Thomson cooling engines, [I] 5,18,

19,265-294, 347

Subject Index

Joule-Thomson expander, [1]250-251 Joule-Thomson expansion, [I] 79-83,

250-251,265-294,297,299,300,333;[2] 379

Joule's law, [1]270

Kapitza hydrodynamic lubricated piston, [I] 326

Kapitza resistance, [2]195-201, 206-211 Kinematic drive mechanism, [1]105; [2]379 Kirk cycle, [1]95 Krytox-AB, [2]120

Labyrinth seals, [2] 97 Large cryocoolers, [1]2, 4, 26,109, III, 180,

188-192; [2] 379 Leakage (gas), [I] 257, 335; [2] 33, 97,

120-121 Leidenfrost boiling, [1]16 Linde co-axial heat exchanger, [2] 15 Linde cooling engines, [1]5 Linde dual-pressure cycle, [I] 84, 280-282,

287-288 Linde-Francl system, [1]309 Linde-Hampson cycle, [I] 83-84, 265,

271-280,284-288,345; [2]261,379 Linear bearings, [2] 79, 80 Liquefaction process, [2] 299-302 Liquid natural gas production, [1]280

storage, [I] 18, 172 transport, [I] 172

Liquid-piston engines, [1]168-169 Literature, cryogenic engineering, [2]

387-394 Load changing, [2] 26 Long engine-operation life, [1]186-187, 191;

[2]113-114,117 Low-pressure air liquefiers, [I] 309-311 Lubrication, [1]231,348-349; [2]79-87,

96-98

Machine design, [I] 159-161, 255-257 Magnetic refrigerators, [2] 216-251 Magnetically-levitated (MAGLEV) vehicles,

[2] 306 Magnetocaloric effect, [2] 160 Magnetocaloric refrigeration systems, [1]19;

[2]155-160, 161 MAN! MWM nodal analysis, [1]151

Martini design manual, [1]152 Mass distribution, [1]124, 141 Material properties, [2] 264-265 Materials, [1]243; [2]32, 98-103,119-120

cold-regenerator matrix, [1]230 regenerator matrix, [1]256

Matrix: see Regenerative matrix Maximum inversion temperature, [I]

267-268 Mean cycle pressure, [I] 137 Mechanical efficiency, [1]88 Metal bellows seal, [1]324 Metallurgical limit, [2] 379 Methane, [2]143

401

Microminiature cryocoolers, [1]2,3; [2]379 Microphonics, [2] 118 Millikelvin temperature cooling systems, [2]

171-251 Miniature cryocoolers, [I] 2, 3, 4, 24, 103,

188, 198, 288-293, 344-345; [2] 113-128, 379

Mixed refrigerant cycle, [1]346-347 Mixed units, [1]4 Mixtures, [2] 165-168, 187-190 Motional heat leak, [1]260 Motors, [1]230 Multiple-element cooling systems, [I]

116-117 MUltiple-expansion engines, [1]12, 161-164,

247-250,316-322; [2]33 Multiple-expansion Gifford-McMahon

cycle, [I] 247-250 Multiple mixing chambers, [2] 206-207 Multiple reciprocating masses, [2]74-76 Multistage compression, [I] 90-91, 348 Multistage refrigerators, [2] 150 Multistage Vuilleumier coolers, [1]225-227 M ultistaging, [I] 249

NASA Thermal Analysis Program (TAP), [I] 147

Net refrigeration, [I] 225 Nitrogen, [2] 143 Nodal analysis, [1]145-152, 160; [2]28, 43 Nonisothermal compression and expansion,

[1]126-127 NTU (number of transfer units), [2] 20,

21-22, 29-30, 41 NTU-effectiveness method, [2]41 Nuclear-spin systems, [2]226-240 Nusselt number, [2]48

402

Oil flooding, [2] 380 Open-cycle refrigeration, [2] 130 Optimization of design parameters, [I]

153-157, 255-257; [2] 266-272 Optimum recirculation fraction, [I] 306-307 Organ nodal analysis, [I] 151 Orthohydrogen, [2] 143 Oscillatory bearings, [2] 79, 80 Oscillatory flow, [2] 4, 26-30, 41-43, 302-305 Oscillatory temperature, [2] 302-305 Outer cascade cycle, [I] 279 Overheating, [I] 228

Parahydrogen, [2] 143 Parallel flow, [2] 15 Parallel mUltiple-expansion engine

arrangement, [I] 318-322 Paramagnetic materials, [2] 218-226 Parametric effects, [I] 71-73 Peltier heat, [2] 146 Pentaerythrityl fluoride, [2] 154 Perfect dynamic balance, [2] 77-79 Perforated plate exchanger, [2] 4, 11-12 Phase angle, [I] 156,227; [2] 380 Phase equilibrium, [2] 136 Philips nodal analysis, [I] 151 Philips Vuilleumier cryocoo!ers, [I] 195-199 Phonon drag effect, [2] 152-153 Phonons, [2] 137,147,152-153 Photon cooling systems, [2]168-171 Piston crosshead system, [2] 94 Piston-displacer engine, [1]50-53 Piston-displacer single-acting Stirling

engines, [I] 106 Piston leakage, [I] 339 Piston motion, [I] 117-124, 243 Piston rings, [1]324; [2]92,274 Piston seals, [I] 169 Piston side thrust, [2] 93-95 Pistons, [I] 105, 325-331; [2] 380 Plate-fin exchangers, [2] 4, 9-11 Plated tube heat exchanger, [2] 23-24 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), [I] 749; [2]

87-88, 92 Polytropic process, [I] 87, 298-300 Pomeranchuk refrigeration, [2] 144,211-216 Porosity, [2] 121, 380 Postle cryocoolers, [I] 237-238, 261-263; [2]

380 Practical regenerative cycle, [1]123-131 Precooler heat exchanger, [I] 275-277

Subject Index

Precooling, [1]275-278, 312-314; [2]380 Pressure, [I] 30-31 Pressure drop, [I] 127-128; [2] 5, 24, 380 Pressure excursion, [2] 380 Pressure generator, [1]49-50 Pressure oscillation, [2] 305 Pressure ratio, [I] 186; [2] 380 Pressure-volume (P- V) diagram, [I] 36-37 Prime mover, [I] 48-49; [2] 380 Publications, cryogenic engineering, [2]

262-264, 387-394 Pulse-width modulation, [1]228 Pulsed refrigeration system, [2] 308-313 Pump work, [2] 5 Pumping loss, [I] 221-222

Radiation, [I] 257 Rallis adiabatic regenerative cycle, [1]53,

62-70 Rallis isothermal regenerative cycle, [I] 53-58 Rallis thermodynamic cycle, [1]53; [2] 380 RCA Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [I] 202-206 Reciprocating compressors, [I] 347-349; [2]

91 Reciprocating cooling machines, [1]2,3,4;

[2] 380 Reciprocating expansion engines, [I]

322-324 [2] 298-299 Reciprocating masses, [2] 71-79 Recuperative cycles, [I] 78-94 Recuperative heat exchangers, [1]5,78,257,

346; [2] 1-30, 32, 380 Recuperative system analysis, [1]85-87 Reduced length, [2] 39-41 Reduced period, [2] 39-41 Redundant units, [I] 347 Refrigerant, [2] 139-143 Refrigeration, [I] 256

dilution refrigeration, [1]19 electrocaloric refrigeration, [I] 19 magnetocaloric refrigeration, [I] 19

Refrigeration capacity, [1]2,128,154, 157-159; [2] 380

Refrigeration load, [2] 380 Refrigeration loss, [I] 250 Refrigeration quality, [1]1 Regenerative annulus, [1]131; [2]381 Regenerative cycles, [I] 44-77; [2] 381 Regenerative displacer, [1]233 Regenerative heat exchangers, [I] 5, 6, 257;

[2] I, 3, 30-54, 381

Subject Index

Regenerative matrix, [I] 128, 130-131, 256-257; [2] 32, 43-47, 381

Regenerator contamination, [I] 130 Regenerator heat transfer losses, [I] 223-224 Regenerator pressure drop, [I] 128,256 Regenerators, [I] 230-231, 256-257; [2]

66-67, 283-284 Regenerator thermal saturation, [I] 130-131 Reitlinger cycle, [I] 44-45; [2] 381 Reliability, [I] 258, 347; [2] 62, 150 Residence time, [2] 41 Reversal period, [2] 38 Reversible mixing, [2] 166-168 Reversing recuperative exchangers, [I] 311 Reynolds number, [2] 48 Rhombic drive mechanism, [I] 179, 195; [2]

7,8,94-95, 381 Rietdijk expansion ejector, [I] 282-283 Roll-sock seal, [I] 195; [2] 381 Rolling diaphragm seals, [2] 95, 96 Rotary bearings, [2] 79-80 Rotary compressors, [I] 4, 344, 347, 350; [2]

298 Rotary cooling machines, [I] 2, 3; [2] 381 Rotary expansion engines, [I] 344 Rotary screw compressors, [I] 350 Rotary stroking engine, [I] 342-344 Rubber seals, [2] 121 Rulon-A, [1]349; [2]88, 92 Russian cryocooler development, [2] 257-291

Saturated liquid, [I] 33 Saturated vapor, [I] 34 Saturation curves, [I] 35 Schmidt isothermal cycle, [I] 126, 131,

134-142,153; [2] 381 Schock nodal analysis, [I] 150, 151 Schulte rotary stroking engine, [I] 344 Scotch-yoke system, [2] 94 Screw compressor, [2] 381 Seal rings, [2] 9 Seals, [I] 195,201,227,238,257,324; [2] 30,

89-98, 121-128 Second Law of thermodynamics, [I] 38-39,

42 Self-acting valve arrangement, [1]261-263 Self-cleaning ability of regenerative heat

excha ngers, [2] 33 Self-regulating Joule-Thomson coolers, [I]

291

Semipermeable membranes, [2] 166

Series multiple-expansion engine arrangement, [I] 318-322

403

Shuttle heat transfer (loss), [I] 220-221, 260; [2] 67-68, 381

Siemens cycle, [I] 83; [2] 382 Siemens double-acting four-cylinder engine,

[I] 109-111 Silica gel, [2] 35 Silver powder heat exchangers, [2] 199-200,

204 Simulation programs: see Computer

simulation programs Single-acting piston-displacer Stirling

engine, [I] 161 Single-acting "rhombic drive" engine, [I] III Single-acting Stirling engines, [I] 105-108 Single-bow transient technique, [2] 40 Single-cycle He' refrigerators, [2] 181-185 Sintered powder heat exchanger, [2] 196-198,

203 Sintering, [2] 45 Sinusoidal oscillatory flows, [2] 26-29 Size, [2] 114 Small cryocoolers, [I] 3, 4, 13, 240; [2] 382 Solvay cooling engines, [I] 5, 76-77, 237-243,

257 Solvay cycle, [I] 76-77, 240-243 Space applications, [1]26, 187, 191,202; [2]

105-106, 394 Spacecraft radiative cooling, [2] 105-106 Spacers, [2] 4, I I Specific heat, [2] 33-36, 100-102 Speed, engine, [2] 76 Split-Stirling cryocoolers, [I] 16, 119, 192 Split-Vuilleumier cryocoolers, [1]192,

198-199,231-233 State of cyclic operation, [2] 36 State properties, [I] 29-32 Static regenerative heat exchangers, [2] 30,

32 Static seals, [2] 89-91 Status surveys, [I] 20-26 Steady enthalpy flow method, [2] 41 Stepped pistons, [I] 316-317 Stirling cooling engines, [I] 5, II, 14,75,

95-180,185, 192,201; [2] 26,28,41-47, 115, 272, 278-279

design parameters, [I] 152-157 Stirling cycle liquefiers, [I] 26 Stirling engine theoretical analysis, [I]

131-152

Stirling engines, [I] 185

404

Stirling Nodal Analysis Program (SNAP), [1] 150

Stirling thermodynamic cycle, [1] 44-50, 53, 75

ideal, [1] 58-59, 132-134 pseudo, [1] 68-71

Storage battery, [2] 165 Storage of liquefied gas, [1] 18, 19; [2] 284,

288-291 Straight-wire heaters, [I] 229 Straw regenerator, [2] 33 Strength, material, [2] 99-100 Sunpower nodal analysis, [I] 148-151 Superexpress trains, [2] 306 Supercond ucting electric cable

transmission, [I] 172 Supercond ucting electronic devices, [I] 18,

164, 172, 238; [2] 389 Superconducting heat switches, [2] 224-225 Superconducting magnets, [2] 306, 308-312 Superconducting quantum interference

device (SQUID), [I] 11,26 Superconductivity, [I] II Superconductors, [2] 139 Superheated fluid, [I] 35-36 Superleak, [2] 208 Swash-plate, [I] III; [2] 382 Swept volume ratio, [I] ISS; [2] 382

Teflon, [I] 349; [2] 87, 88 See a/so Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Temperature, [I] 29, 31 Temperature-entropy (T-S) diagram, [I]

33-36, 126 Temperature oscillation or instability, [2]

302-305 Temperature ratio, [I] 154; [2] 382 Terbot mixed-refrigerant cycle, [I] 346-347 Tew-Valentine nodal analysis, [I] 150-151 Thermal Analysis Program: see NASA

Thermal Analysis Program Thermal buffer, [I] 162 Thermal capacity, [I] 35-36 Thermal conductivity, [2] 100-101, 197-198 Thermal contraction coefficient, [2] 100-102 Thermal design, [2] 17-18 Thermal efficiency, [2] 382 Thermal energy input, [1] 187 Thermal fatigue, [2] 31 Thermal isolation, [2] 64

Subject Index

Thermal leaks, [I] 257 Thermal load, [I] 128 Thermal losses, [I] 160 Thermal regeneration, [I] 65-67 Thermal regenerator, [I] 208-209 Thermal resistance, [2] 230, 238 Thermal saturation, [I] 130-131; [2] 34 Thermal storage, [I] 52-53 Thermal wheels, [2] 32 Thermodynamic analysis, [2] 266-272 Thermodynamics of cryocoolers, [I] 29-94 Thermoelectric refrigeration, [2] 145-152,

168 Thermomagnetic effects, [2] 151 Thermophonics, [2] 118-119 Throttled expansion: see Joule-Thomson

expansion Tidal flow, [2] 4 Toughness, material, [2] 99-100 Transient response, [2] 25-26 Transportation of liquefied gas, [2] 284,

288-291 Triple-expansion Stirling engine, [I] 162 Tubular exchangers, [2] 4-9 Tubular regenerator, [I] 231 Turbines, [I] 3, 9,10,231 Turbo compressors, [2] 382 Turbo expanders, [2] 272, 277-278, 382 Two-phase single-component working fluid

cryocooler, [I] 18 Two-piston single-acting Stirling engines, [I]

105-106 Two-piston Stirling engine, [I] 117-118, 192

Ultra low-temperature cooling systems, [2] 177-251

Underwater applications, [I] 26 Uniflow expansion engine, [2] 272-276 United Stirling nodal analysis, [I] 151 Urieli nodal analysis, [I] 147-148, 151 USSR, cryocooler development in the, [2]

257-291 Utilization factor, [2] 39

Valveless expansion engines, [I] 334-339 Valves, [I] 5, 243-247, 255-257; [2] 275,

298-299 Van Vleck arrangements, [2] 241-244 Vapor compression machines, [I] 42

Subject Index

Void volumes, [I] 217-218; [2] 383 Volume, [I] 30 Volume compression ratio, [2] 383 Volume variations, [I] 5

Volumetric efficiency, [I] 89 Vuilleumier cooling engines, [I] 5, 14,

185-233; [2] 26, 383 accessories and components, [I] 228-229 power input section, [I] 209-210 refrigeration section, [I] 210-211

Vuilleumier cycle, [1] 75-76, 191,206-220; [2] 116

Vuilleumier cycle liquefiers, [1] 26

Wall effect, [2] 18

Water cooling, [2] 105 Wear, [2] 66, 93 Weld joints, [2] 121 Werkspoor cryocooler, [1] 176-179 Wobble-plate, [1] 111 Work diagrams, [1] 124-126 Working fluid, [1] 175; [2] 96-98, 383 Working space, [2] 383

405