Glossary of Mss

8/10/2019 Glossary of Mss

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assamese school of painting

Very few people know that Assam occupies a unique position in the history ofIndian art by representing one of the earliest indigenous Kalams, which hassurvived till the middle of the last century. We know of that tradition from agood number of illustrated manuscripts, which are found scattered in privatecollections and institutions across Assam. It is also not very well known that

the tradition of manuscript writing of Assam is one of the oldest of its kind inIndia. rom !ana"s #arshacharita, $%th century A.&.' it is known that the giftfrom !haskarbarma, the king of ancient Assam, to #arsha, included, interalia, (volumes of fine writing with leaves made from aloe bark and of the hueof ripe pink cucumber." )his is the first direct and clear reference ofmanuscripts belonging to a #indu kingdom of India. It is clear from thecontemporary *reek account, now lost but quoted in later sources, ofAle+ander"s invasion of un-ab that Indians used the inner bark of trees andwellbeaten cotton cloth as writing materials. It has been unanimouslyaccepted by the scholars that the inner bark referred to in the account is theinner bark of the common birch !etula utilis, known as bhu-apattra. #owever,the e+istence of a well documented tradition of making manuscript from the

inner bark of aloe tree known as sanchipat, in Assam as early as the %thcentury might indicate that the *reeks were aware of this tradition too whenthey referred to the ancient Indian writing process. )he other materialreferred to in the *reek account namely the cotton cloth has also been in usein Assam for a long time. )he present author has actually documented such amanuscript on /uga silk. Another important writing material of Assam ishandmade paper made from pressed cotton, which is commonly known astulapat. According to #emchandra *oswami $&escriptive catalogue ofAssamese manuscripts, 0niversity of 1alcutta, 2345' tulapat was (used forinferior manuscripts, for letters, for private document, and for official orders,despatches and records." It has been generally accepted that paper wasintroduced in India by the )urks after their conquest of 6orth India in the24th century. !ut there are concrete evidences, revealed by the discovery of

a large cache of paper manuscripts in *ilgit, that papermaking was practisedin India as early as the 7th century A&.

It is known from !ana"s account that in Assam there was a tradition ofpainting miniature pictures. !ut there is no clear indication about illustratedmanuscript in his account. /ost of the scholars on Indian art believe that it isonly from the 27th century that the #indus started illustrating theirmanuscripts, long after the !uddhists and the 8ains. !ut from 8eremiah .9osty"s account $)he Art of the !ook in India, )he !ritish 9ibrary' it is knownthat there was a #indu tradition of manuscript illustration in 6epal as early as2:th century A&. ;o the e+istence of such a #indu tradition in Assam in anearlier date cannot be ruled out.


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)he present author has made a documentation of the illustrated manuscriptse+tant mostly in private collections in Assam. )he documentation, so farmade, of the Assamese manuscript and the initial studies of the paintingscontained in those manuscripts reveals that there e+isted two distinct schoolsof the paintings of Assam. /ost of the paintings of the 2%th century can begrouped together for their common features and they share some of thecharacteristics with the early western Indian tradition. >egarding the!hagavata of !ali ;atra, a well known Assamese illustrated manuscript whichshows similar characteristics with the above group of manuscripts, /oti1handra $(>eviews" in the 8ournal of the 0niversity of *auhati, Vol. V, 23?@'remarked that the paintings of the !ali ;atra !hagavata are similar toeighteenth century 6epal scroll and !engal paintings. )he documentedpaintings of the above group will prove 1handra"s view wrong. A comparisonwith some of the published 2=th century 6epali and !engali paintings showthat the Assamese paintings are by far closer to the 2?th and 27th century6orth Indian tradition rather than the 2=th century paintings of 6epal and!engal. It may be pointed out here that many scholars believe that the 6orthIndian style of painting has originated from the western Indian tradition. Inthis regards Karl 8. Khandalavala and /oti 1handra had opined that thewestern Indian or *u-arati school was not a localied mode of e+pression

confined only to *u-arat, >a-asthan, /alwa and 8aunpur but had become aform of e+pression common to many parts of India $6ew &ocument of Indianaintings, rince of Wales /useum' . )he e+act structural similarities of thecompositions of some of the Assamese paintings of the above group withthat of the 9aur1handa $2@?52@%?A&' and /rigavat $2?:?2?%5A&' of!harat Kala !havan proves beyond doubt that they have originated from thesame tradition. !ut at the same time, some of the most conspicuouspeculiarities of the Assamese paintings prove that the Assamese school hadoriginated before the ersian influence became vogue in 6orth India.

It is very significant that !ana in #arshacharita has mentioned that the giftsfrom !haskarvarma, the %th century king of Kamrupa $present day Assam'to King #arsha has included a pair of wooden panels, to one side of whichwere attached colour pots of small gourds and brushes. 6ow there could beonly one interpretation for the e+istence of these were that they weredefinitely used for painting miniatures. It proves that there was a tradition ofsmall paintings in Assam as early as the %th century A&. It is curious thatmost of the scholars of Indian paintings have so far evaded such aninterpretation.

)he documented 2%th century manuscripts are undoubtedly the remnants ofan old tradition. ;ome of the similarities of the Assamese paintings withthose of the Western Indian and the 6orthern Indian schools may indicatethat a more or less common style was popular in many parts of India during%th century. It is possible to compare a few more manuscripts of 6orth India

with the 2%th century paintings of Assam. In Aranyaka arvan $2?27A&' wefind that the compositions are often staked in several panels one on top ofthe other in the same folio. In some of the Assamese paintings too we findseveral panels in the same folios, though not in an e+act fashion. !esides,the depiction of the four headed !rahma is similar in both the manuscripts.)he /ahapurana from alam $2?@5 A&' also share some common featureswith the Assamese paintings. !eside the similar palette, the almost identicalmale costume and the conventional ways of depicting the plants and animalsare striking. In an early >agamala of !harat Kala !havan $2?%?A&' also wefind similar male costume. )he turban depicted in this >agamala is an


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indication that the socalled Akbari atpati turban, which abounds inAssamese paintings and which most of the scholars wants to associate withthe /ughal school has really been in e+istence in Indian art form prior to thee+istence of the /ughal school. )his view is further substantiated by thepresence of an atpati type turban in a ;unga sculpture, the photograph ofwhich was reproduced by /oti 1handra. $racin !harat Ki Vesbhusa, !harati!handar, rayag,'. 6orman !rown also reproduced a photograph of the 22thcentury sculpture bearing three male figures two of which were shown withturbans e+actly similar to the socalled atpati turban $Barly Vaisnava/iniature paintings from Western India, Bastern Art,Vol22,2345'.

/ost of the scholars who have discussed the Assamese manuscript paintingswant to associate the turban of the Assamese paintings with the /ughalpaintings. !ut they fail to see that e+cept the turban no other elements ofthe Assamese paintings can be even remotely associated with the /ughal;chool. 1onversely, there are many elements in the Assamese paintings,which are not found in the /ughal ;chool or the 9ate >a-asthani ;chool.)hose who are really aware of the workings of the influences in the art formswill agree that it is not -ust simply picking up an element or two from theforeign source. In this case it is even more absurd to think that the

Assamese painters have chosen -ust the turban, which is quite insignificantvisually or from pictorial perspective, and ignored all the rich and fabulousattributes of the /ughal ;chool.

)he convention of the Assamese paintings of placing figures under archedcanopies is also leading many scholars to wrong conclusions. )hey want toassociate this tradition with the !uddhist paintings of the ala ;chool. !utthis convention also e+ists in the Western Indian tradition. In the manuscriptof ;ardhashataka $c.22:?22?5 A&' and /ahapurana from alam $2?@5 A&'similar arched canopies are noticed. It is also noteworthy that we find similarconvention in some rock cut sculptures of Assam belonging to the 25th C22thcentury A&.


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India and survived in two e+treme edges of India. Another significant aspectof the Assamese school is the representation of landscapes. In many casesthe painting contains simply the landscape, a feature that is not found inother Indian schools.

)he characteristics of the Assamese paintings of the 2%th century can belisted as followsD

2. )he general composition consists of a large central area, generallypainted red, where the sub-ects are depicted and a narrowsurrounding border in green or blue, broader at the top, forming aseries of canopies over the central area. )here is no attempt todifferentiate the various planes. )hough red is used as backgroundcolour almost invariably, yet in e+ceptional cases yellow, pink and blueare also used.

:. )he male and female figures are always conventional and, e+ceptin the portrayal of !rahma, all figures are depicted in profile.

4. )he male costume consists of a &hoti and a scarf hanging from theneck with its two ends freely falling over the shoulders on either side.)he female costume consists of a mekhala $long skirt' and a riha$scarf ' tied round the waist and bosom that runs further behind tocover the hair knot forming a balloon like appearance.

@. )he male headgear consists of threepointed or fourpointed tiarain some cases and the atpati type turban.

?. )he treatment of the landscape is always conventional. Water isalways painted in basket pattern inside squares and rectangles. )reesare generally painted like the sprays. )he mountains are depicted aspiles of multicoloured

conve+ bodies.

7. &epiction of animals and birds are both conventional andnaturalistic.

%. )he architecture is very simple consisting of the cross section viewof the Assamtype house with roofs and supporting pillars. In manycases, instead of drawing the complete house simply the door isdepicted. In rare cases even a single pillar is depicted independently.

=. )he umbrella is almost always depicted as hanging from a hook likehandle. )he documented manuscripts of to the 2=th century form a

style in which the 2%th century elements as well as the >a-put/ughalelements have been found to converge in a unique manner. )heflavour of the >a-put/ughal idiom when translated from its verticalformat to the horiontal format of the Assamese manuscript and beingblended with the local idioms, they naturally resulted in a uniquestyle. In this group of manuscripts, green seems to have replaced redas the background colour. !esides, many new shades of colourhitherto unknown to Assamese painters began to appear in most ofthepaintings.


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)he 2%th century convention of dividing the composition in to the centralarea and surrounding border has been almost abandoned in this group ofpaintings. !ut here, an attempt to differentiate the various planes of thecomposition is clear. !ut in spite of this effort of defining perspective, most ofthe paintings lack the depth that is found in the >a-put/ughal idioms.#owever, the solidity of the body is fairly achieved in the depiction of maleand female figures. )he male and female faces are depicted in differentways. ;ome are depicted in profile, some in threequarter and others in theirfrontal view. )he costume, particularly those of the female, became veryelaborate and in many cases they became identical with the costume of late>a-asthani paintings. )he plants and animals in this group of manuscripts areboth conventional and naturalistic. *reat varieties of flowering trees arefound in some of the manuscripts of this group, which are truly unique anddepicted in ornamented decorative pattern rather than like natural plants.)he depiction of the hills and mountains is also different from the 2%thcentury manuscripts. )he architectural depiction is quite comple+ hereborrowing elements from the >a-put/ughal paintings. )here are alsoinstances where a new type of architecture has been found to evolve fromsuch borrowing. !ut there are also instances where, instead of the completebuilding, simply the door is depicted following the 2%th century convention.

)he chariots are depicted in many ways. In some cases they are like simpleplatform mounted on four wheels. In some cases they are elaboratelydecorated and are mounted on two wheels. While in some there are canopiesoverhead in others there are no such canopies. )he umbrella is differentlydepicted in this group from that of the 2%th century hanging type.

It must be borne in mind that the main purpose of the traditional paintings ofAssam was to supplement the te+t of the manuscripts. In other words theywere the illustrations of the te+ts. As such artists were basically concernedon the content of the te+ts. ;o instead of creating new meaning with formand colour they were content with the already e+isting meanings of thete+ts. It is now hard to detect how much the artists were inspired even bythe te+t itself. !ecause in most cases artists" -ob was -ust to copy them fromanother manuscripts. )here was a special class of people in Assam known askhanikar. )hey were both artist, and the craftsmen. !esides paintings, theyalso made idols in wood. It may be pointed out here that the word pratimawas applied indiscriminately to both sculptures and paintings. Khanikar alsomade masks to be used for theatrical performance.

)he scribe of the manuscript was usually a different person called 9ekhak.*enerally he did the writing first and left blank spaces to be filled withillustration later, by the Khanikar. 9ekhaks were invariably literate persons.!ut some Khanikars were illiterate as well. !ut he could all the same copypaintings as well as writings. ;o it is obvious that some times Khanikars didthe works without fully understanding the essence of the te+t. !ut as all the

themes of the manuscripts were part of the general folklore tradition ofAssam the Khanikars were not totally unfamiliar with them. #owever, tosome e+tent such factors were also responsible in determining the natureand characteristics of the traditional Assamese paintings.

It is quite obvious from the above that for the full appreciation of theAssamese manuscript painting it is almost essential to know theaccompanying te+ts of the manuscript. In many cases it is the te+t, whichonly gives the significance to the painting. 6evertheless there is always akind of beauty in the Assamese manuscript paintings. It derives its beauty


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basically from its uniqueness and the provincial flavour of simplicity. Whenwe contrast the Assamese paintings with those of the schools of late>a-asthani, Kangra, /ughal, etc. which are basically the product of urbancultures we may see the uniqueness of the Assamese paintings which areprimarily a product of the village culture. )hough some kings and queens ofthe late mediaeval Assam used to commission scribes and painters toprepare manuscripts yet there is no evidence to think that they had theirown royal ateliers. )he traditional scribes and painters who lived in thevillages generally prepared manuscripts. It may be pointed out here that thematerials for the Assamese manuscripts were mainly prepared from the barkof the Agar tree which are found only in the countryside. As the painters andscribes had to prepare the base materials for the manuscripts themselves,which involved a very long process, it was advantageous for them to do thework there itself. !esides painting was never been a viable profession inAssam. )he traditional painters known as Khanikars had to depend for theirlivelihood basically on farming. ;o it was not possible for them to settle inurban centre near their clients to do the paintings e+clusively. )he Vaisnavamonasteries, ma-or centres for the production of manuscripts, were alsosituated away from the urban centres. )he seclusion of the traditionalpainters away from the urban centres was a determining factor in shaping

the style of the Assamese paintings. It also helped retain the characteristics,perhaps, of a very old tradition which had been abandoned elsewhere inIndia long before.

AGAR: The Liquid Gold & Natures gift to Nagaon

Botanists call it Aquillaria Agallocha Roxb. maufacturers call itAgaru, traders call it

profit, the poor call it survival, the common man simply calls it agar.

It has long been an olfactory prize for discerning noses. Agar oil , is highly valued and

universally prized as tto of Roses!. Agar though little "no#n in Assam and the $orth

%&ast is a highly sought after comodity , and the premiums it commands today in theinternational mar"ets has dramatically transformed the lives of families and economies of

areas #here its trade exists or #here it is procured. ne such area that has reaped andflourished from this #onderful

resource is the 'o(ai )ub*

division of $agaon district.

+he use of agaruisprehistoric.+he aromatic Aloe

#ood mentioned in the Bible

#as no other but the heart#ood

of Aquilaria ovata ,or agar.+hereis mention of the use of Aloe

#oodudul-Hind)in -aradise asincense in the famousAhadith-Sahi Al-Bukhari.Agar also finds

a place in the travelouges on

ancient amrup by /hinesepilgrim 'iuen*+sang, besides


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earning a mention inAbhijnanmam Shakuntalamof alidasa andArthashastraof/hana"ya.

Agar is inextricably lin"ed to Assam0 s rich cultural heritage. In antiquity, Assam0 s

monarchs employed the used bar" of the )asi Agar tree for chronicling their royalcirculars and di"tats.

+he first historical bigraphies in )ans"rit %theHarsha Charita#ritten by Bana in 123 A4

also chronicles the fact that among the many gifts sent by Assamese "ing Bhas"ara

5arman to 'arsha,volumes of fine #riting in leaves made from aloe bar" and balc" aloeoil occupied a very prominent place.+heNowgong grantof Balavarman gives a graphic

desciption ofPragjyotishanagara #here areca nuts are #rapped in leaves of creeper of

betel*plants andKrishnagurutelegu for Agar#ood6 or blac" aloe #ood trees #ere

surrounded #ith cardamom creepers.It is also recorded that after conquering the last "ing7aur 7obind in 89:;A4 ,in )ylhet ,)aint :?0s that some

enterprising families hailing from

the erst#hile )ylhet district ofAssam,no# in Bangladesh, had the

expertise to identify agar#ood

and agar*attar from these trees forcommercial ends.But #ith


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partition,and a truncated India,the Agar entrepreneurs relocated at 'o(ai ,#ho thenventured to build agar business as a cottage indusry.+he $orth east in particular at that

time #as host to many an agar mahal,a system of leased forest plantation exclusively

for Agar.

+oday ,numerous families particularly in 'o(ai are engaged in the extraction of Agar oil

from the Agar #ood. +hese families are in the business of #holesaling of agar as #ell as

the #ood and the oil. +he positive spin*offs on the economy, are there for everyone to

see. +he magnificent and #ell*equipped A(mal @a(id @emorial /haritable 'ospital,stands out ,in its presence, and the range of facilities it provides. -hilanthropy apart, the

multiplier effects are tangible.'igher rates for Agar, translate into more employment for a

range of s"illed and semi*s"illed #or"ers. 'igher #ages affect buying po#er and that inturn affects the #hole economy and ma"es it more buoyant.

Agar :A High Premium

Both natural and man*made factors are responsible for the extra*ordinarily high premium

attributed to Agar. @an*made factors that have contributed to the high premiums areessentially the buying po#er of Agars chief patronizers and consumers*the Arabs of

middle*&ast. +he oil boom of the ?0s has greatly enhanced the value that Agar

commands. ;2 has

also encouraged the gro#th of Agar +rade.

Natures Value addition

It is nothing but a rare fungus that attaches itself to the agar tree that has made agar sucha valuable and sought after product. +his fungus once it establishes itself on the tree turns

the #oody trun"s into a deep bro#nish blac" colour. +he dar"er the #oody bar" turnsdue to fungal infection, the more valuable the #ood It is the fungus that gives the agar#ood its unique aroma, #hen it is burnt. +he oleoresin is usually found #here the

branches for" out from the stem.Agaru or agarwood is th" h"a#ily ol"r"osin im$r"gnat"d

solid !hi$s o% wood obtain"d and $ro!"ss"d %rom th" %ungus a%%"!t"d $art o% th" tr""s.

'"#oid o% th" %ungus, th" agar tr"" in its"l% has no #alu". )o it is natures value addition tothe tree that commands a premium in he mar"et.

Where is Agar used?

+he uses of Agar are many.Its aromatic bar" popularly "no#n asAgar Battiis used as

incense in many a home. Its by*product Agar oil used as a base for Attars and perfumes.+he heavy base notes of the Agar oil lends itself to blend #ell #ith other essential oils

such as rose,ylang ylang,and (asmine that collectively po#er the perfume industry,the

#orld over.)ome &uropean perfume houses especially see" out Agar oil to create heaviermus"ier perfume that have enhanced Agars demand and thereby carved a special niche

mar"et for these agar dependant perfumes.


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Agar il also has thereupatic uses as it is used in a large number of Enani and Ayurvedicmedicines. Interestingly agar is also used to flavour common and #idely used betel nut

prepartions such asPan Paragand andBaba (arda

Inverted Pricing.

Enli"e other products that tiltillate the olfactory senses #here byproducts are morevaluable than the ra# products, in the case of agar, it is the ra# article or the #ood of the

infected tree that fetches the highest rate. +he 4ouble super variety from areas such as

Imphal is highly prized for its intoxicating aroma #hen burnt. +his bar" commands thehighest premium among Agar #ood, and its other derivatives. +his dar" coloured #ood

is s"illfully cut into smaller pieces, #hich are sold to be burnt as a "ind of room incense

especially popular in the @iddle &ast.

Its by*product agar oil, #hich is extracted through a method of crude distillation, in'o(ai,is sold at a rate of 8??*1??? rupees per tola or 88.13 grams. In economic terms ,its

value is pegged at one and half times the price of gold.

-rocess of il &xtractionF.ho# it is doneG

nce the Agar #ood is procured, t is classified on the basis of quality. +he less dar"er

pieces are put into larger #ater drums to soften.

nce these #ood pieces soften, they are ground into a po#der and are put into vessels

called'"gs#ith #ater.'"gs ar"then heated so as to encourage the ground agar to

release the oil#ithin it.nce the #ater inside the'"greaches a certain boilingtemperature then the oil from the #ood along #ith the #ater vapour reaches a container

called the #abka. Before reaching the #abkathe #ater vapour that passes through a steel

pipe bet#een the'"gand the #abka is cooled #hat therefore reaches the 5ab"a is a

combination of #ater and agar oil,#ith the oil floating over the #ater.+his oil is carefullyextracted #ith a fine syringe and then stored into a fine glass bottle to be sun %dried for

the final product %the Agar il.

Research a ust!"a#e Agar

+he need for research into this d#indling valuable resource is compelling .&xcept in$agland, there is no Agar left in India. +raditional sources are drying up. Reserves in

alibanthan and )alabasi in Indonesia are also diminishing day by day .


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Antiphonary.Also calledAntiphonerorAntiphonal.

Liturgical book containing antiphons, the sung portionsof the Divine oice, both texts and notation. Such bookswere often of a large format, to be used by a choir. ftenincluded decorated and historiated initials.

Applied covers. Decorative pla!ues, generally ofmetalwork or ivory, which are set into or onto the boardsof a binding.

Benedictional.Also calledLiber Benedictionalis or

Liber Benedictionum. Service book containing blessingsdelivered during the "ass and arranged according to theliturgical year. Some benedictionals were produced forindividual bishops and lavishly decorated.

Bestiary and Physiologus. #he $ook of $easts,bestiarium, consisted of descriptions and moralinterpretations of animals, birds, fantastic creatures and,sometimes, stones and plants. #he bestiary wasimmensely popular during the twelfth and thirteenth

century, functioning as a didactic reading, picture book,schoolbook , and a homiletic source material. #he textwas usually richly illustrated. #hePhysiologus, apredecessor of the bestiary was arranged in a similarway and served the same purposes. #hePhysiologuswascompiled in Alexandria in the second century A.D., wastranslated into almost all %hristian languages, andretained its in&uence over 'urope for more than athousand years.

Biblical concordances. (erbal indexes to the $ible, orlists of biblical words arranged alphabetically withindications to enable the in!uirer to )nd the passages ofthe $ible where the words occur.

Bifolium.A sheet of writing support material folded inhalf to produce two leaves *four pages+. A number ofbifolia folded together form a !uireor gathering.
http://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#binding%23bindinghttp://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#quire%23quirehttp://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#gathering%23gatheringhttp://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#binding%23bindinghttp://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#quire%23quirehttp://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/glossary.html#gathering%23gathering


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Binder.A person wholly or partly responsible for sewinga codextogether and supplying it with covers. Althoughthere is evidence that scribes occasionally undertook thepreliminary sewing of their own sections of manuscripts,the binder was often another member of scriptorium.ollowing the rise of universities in the late twelfth

century, bindingbecame the preserve of a stationer. #heterm binder can also be used of a binding medium.

Binding.#he sewing and covering of a book. -hen theleaves of a codexhad been written and illuminated, theywere assembled into gatheringsand sewn together.enerally they were sewn onto supports *cords+. #he loseends of the cords were then attached to boards.

Binding medium. An ingredient on paint or ink thatbinds pigment and makes it adhere to the surface to beembellished. %lari)ed egg white *glair+ was the principalbinding medium used in manuscript illumination. um*such as gum arabic from the acacia+ glue *such asichthyocollon, a )sh glue, casein, a dairy/product glue,and gelatin, made from the parchmentocuts+ were alsoused for this purpose as well as for gilding.

Blocked.A techni!ue of decorating bindingsin which a

design or picture is stamped into the leather cover by ablock, into which the image has been carved or incised.

Boards. #he sti covers at the front and back of a book.-ood was the material generally used until the earlysixteenth century, preferably oak or another hardwood tominimise worming. #hese covers could be very thick andoften had beveled edges. 0asteboard became popular inthe sixteenth century. #he boards were attached to the!uiresby the cords, which were threaded through the

boards and secured. #he boardsand spinewere thenusually covered with damp leather *although parchment,fabric, or papermight also be used+, which was foldedover the edges of the boards *forming what are known asturn/ins+ and glued down, pastedownscould then beapplied to conceal this mechanism.
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Bookmarker.A variety of devices for making keyopenings in a book have survived, most of them datingfrom the twelfth century on. #abs or knotted strips ofparchment, sometimes coloured, were attached to thefore edgeof the book at appropriate points1 ribbons oflinen, silk, or parchment could be attached to the

headband and descend vertically into the book. Somebookmarkers even carry a device used in con2unctionwith the text to be marked to assist in relevantchronological or astronomical calculations. lowers andother pressed organic materials were also used asbookmarkers.

Book of Hours, also called a primeror horae.#hisvariation of the $reviarywas mostly used in privatedevotion. 3ts central text, the Little ice of the $lessed

(irgin, is modelled on the Divine ice and represents ashorter version of the devotions performed in the eightcanonical hours. #he text, known from the tenth century,entered into lay use by the end of the twelfth century,often being attached to the 0salter.

Bounding lines. #he marginal lines supplied duringrulingto guide the 2usti)cation of the text and itsancillaries.

Breviary.Liturgical book containing the texts, hymns,and notation necessary for daily prayer. ften richlydecorated with initials and miniatures.

Burnishing. 'nhancing the smoothness and shininess ofa surface such as metallic pigmentby polishing with aburnishing tool.

Burnishing tool. #ool used to polish gold once it has

been applied to the manuscript page.

Calendar. A list of liturgical feasts.

Canon tables.A ospel concordance system devised inthe fourth century by 'usebius of %aesaria, in whichospel passages are numbered in the text andcorrespond to tables, arranged in columnar form,indicating the concordance of passages among the
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ospels. %anon tables were usually placed at thebeginning of the book and were popular in ospel books,$ibles, and 4ew #estaments.

Capitulare. A list of biblical passages *pericope+ withmarks indicating on which Sunday or feast they are to be

read.

Chalk. %hie&y composed of calcium carbonate, chalkwas used for a variety of purposes in manuscriptproduction5 as a pounce when preparing the parchmentsurface1 as a component of gessoor another ground1 as awhite pigment1 as an alkaline component in pigments*serving to modify the colour of certain organicpigments, such asfolium, and to lighten and increase theopacity of others+1 or as a drawing medium.

Channelling.A system of grooves cut into bindingboards to carry the cordsthat attach the boardsto!uires. #he use of channels meant that the cords wouldnot stand proud on the inside of the boards.

Chemise. #he medieval precursor of the modern dust2acket, a chemise is a slip/on cover of leather or of atextile such as velvet or linen that protected the bindingof a book and its fore edge. %hemises varied in form fromhigh/grade luxurious embellishments for $ooks of 6oursand 0rayer $ooks to functional wrappers foradministrative records and library books.

Clasp.A metal )tting attached to the boardsat the foreedgeof a bindingin order to hold the book shut and topreserve the parchment*unless kept at an appropriatetemperature and humidity level, parchment tends tocockle and return to the original shape of the animal

skin+. %lasps became popular during the fourteenthcentury initially as a combination of metal )ttings andleather straps and then entirely of metal.

Classical texts. "anuscripts, containing classical textsof reek and 7oman Anti!uity, normally did not merelyreproduce the full text but either presented acompilation or digest of it, or supplied the text with
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extensive commentaries, to the eect of creating apeculiar layout of such manuscripts.

Clothlet. A piece of cloth impregnated with pigment*generally a vegetable dye+. A portion of such cloth,when soaked in a little binding medium, releases its

colourant and produces an artist8s pigment. %lothletswere convenient way of carrying or shipping vegetalpigments, and they were especially popular from thefourteenth century on, with the growth of the textiletrade. la9es of vegetal dyes were often used to enhanceother colours in a book illumination, since they created arich, glowing, and transparent eect.

Codex.riginating on the )rst century, the codex *fromcaudex, the Latin word for the tree bark+ is a bookcomposed of folded sheets sewn along one edge, distinctfrom other writing vehicles such as the rollor tablet.

Cord. #he hori9ontal supporting band onto which !uiresare sewn at the spineto form the book. cords aregenerally bands of leather *or sometimes other materialssuch as hemp+ and could appear in single or double form1in the latter, the cords are split along most of their lengthto allow a double, )gure/eight sewing around them for

additional strength. #he ends of the cords are thenthreaded into boardsand the structure covered. #hecords appear as raised bands when seen through thecovering of the spine, but beginning in the later sixteenthcentury could )t into grooves :sawn/up: to the !uire toproduce a &atter spine.

Cornerpiece. %ornerpieces are metal pla!ues attachedto the corners of the boardsof a bindingto protect them,a popular feature from the )fteenth century on. #he term

also refers to a decorative motif in the corners ofminiature or border.

Directorium. #he same as Ordo. Liturgical bookprescribing the order of the "ass.

Egg glair. -hite of an egg used as a binding mediuminmixing pigments into paints.
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Egg tempera. A paint which uses egg as a bindingmedium.

Endbands. 'ndbands are bands placed at the headandtailof a spineof a book in order to consolidate its ends,strengthen the attachment of the boards, and impede the

entry of worms. #hey consist of cores generally of alumtawedleather, hemp, parchment, or linen cord*with caneand rolled paper also used at later dates+ and are usuallycovered by silk or thread embroidery, with highly variedpatterns and techni!ues. 3deally, the endbands should betied down in the centres of the !uires*often at the samepoint at the kettle stitch+ and their ends laced into thebinding boards *see channeling+. #he identi)cation ofdierent details of endband sewing techni!ue andpatterning may help us group books together and assignthem to speci)c production centres.

Endpapers. #wo or more blank or decorated leaves atthe beginning or end of a book that can either line theboards *ful)lling the function of pastedownsordecorative doublures+ or serve as &yleaves.

Epistolary.Liturgical book containing the 'pistlereadings for the "ass arranged according to the

liturgical year. #he 'pistles were taken from the 4ew#estament 'pistles.

Evangeliary. Liturgical book containing those portionsof the ospels which are read during "ass or in thepublic oices of the %hurch.

Evangelistary. the same as the %apitulare. #ablesindicating the biblical passages to be read at the "ass,as well as the Sundays and 6oly Days on which they are

to be read.

lesh side. #he side of a sheet of parchmentthatoriginally faced the animal8s &esh. #his is generallywhiter and softer than the hair side. #he two sides areoften readily distinguishable.

lyleaf. lyleaves at the beginning or end of a bookserve to protect the text in the event of worming or
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damage to the binding. #hey often carry pen trials andinscriptions concerning provenance. lyleaves weresometimes used for trying out designs.

olio.A sheet of writing material, one half of a bifolium.#he front and back of a folio are referred to as the recto

andverso, respectively. #he numbering of leaves, asopposed to pages, is termed foliation and is commonlyfound in manuscripts. :olio: and :folios: *or :folia:+ areoften abbreviated asf. and!. #he term can also be usedto denote a large volume si9e.

ore edge. #he edge of a book opposite the spine. #hefore edge sometimes carries painted decoration orimages *fore edge painting+ or labeling for shelvingpurposes.

"allnut. A swelling that forms on the bark of an oak treeafter it has been stung by an insect laying its eggs.#annic and gallic acids contained in gallnuts can besoaked out in water, the gall solution forming the basis ofink. all can also be used in tanning processes.

"athering.#he same as !uire. olded section ofparchmentor paperleaves which can be bound togetherwith other gatheringsto form a book.

"esso. A thick, water/base paint commonly formed ofplaster, chalk, or gypsum bound together with a glue.esso is used in manuscript illumination as a groundforsome gildingprocesses, since it forms a raised surfaceideal for burnishingand tooling. "ethods of gessopreparation varied.

"ilding.#he application of gold or silver to a surface.

old could be applied as an ink, in an expensivepowdered form, for use in detailed work, but it was morefre!uently applied in medieval illumination in the form ofgold leaf. #he gold leaf could simply be laid down on anarea to which a binding mediumsuch as glair or gum*perhaps mixed with honey to prevent it from cracking+had been applied, as was the case during the early"iddle Ages1 it could also be laid on a raised ground ofgesso. 3n order to enrich the tonality of the gold and to
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make the areas to which the groundhad been appliedmore visible, a colorant such as bole *a pink earth colour+was often added to the base. esso grounds enabled thegilded surface to be tooled. 6owever it was applied, thegold could be burnishedor left in its slightly duller state.ilding formed the )rst state in the painting processes of

illumination, since it was a messy activity, the gilded areaoften re!uiring trimming with a knife. #he gilding of amanuscript illustration was carried out by the artist or bya specialist.

"radual. Liturgical book, the same as theAntiphonary.#he name derives from the practice of singing thegradual on the steps *gradus+ of the raised pulpit.

"round. #he writing or painting surface which mayalready have been covered with a layer of paint, or thebase for metallic pigmentsuch as gessoor gum.

Hair side. #he side of a sheet of parchmentthat oncecarried the animal8s hair. #his side is generally darkerand smoother than the &esh side and may carry speckledtraces of hair follicles.

Hardpoint. A pointed implement of metal or bone *oftena stylus+ used for ruling, drawing, and annotation. Ahardpoint leaves a ridge/and/furrow eect on the writingsurface rather than a graphic mark.

Head. #he top edge of a manuscript.

#nk. #he word derives from Latin encaustum*:burnt in:+,since the gallic and tannic acids in ink and the oxidationof its ingredients cause it to eat into the writing surface.#he basis of medieval ink was a solution of gall *fromgallnuts+ and gum, coloured by the addition of carbon*lampblack+ and;or iron salts. #he ferrous ink producedby iron salts sometimes faded to a red/brown or yellow.%opper salts were occasionally used too, sometimesfading to grey/green. 3nk was used for drawing andrulingas well as for writing and, when diluted, could beapplied with a brush as a wash.
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$ettle stitch. A stitch at or near to the headand tailof amanuscript that links a !uireto the preceding one duringsewing.

%eadpoint see plummet.

%ectionary.#he word lectionarium, in a wider sense,may be applied to any liturgical book containingpassages to be read aloud at the "ass. 3n a strictersense, however, theLectionarium, also known as Comes,

Liber comitis,Liber comicus*from comes, companion+, isa liturgical book containing the daily lessons from theld #estament, the 'pistles from the 4ew #estament,and portions of the ospels to be read during the "ass.

%imp binding. A bindingcomposed of parchment,

paper, or fabric, without boards. Limp bindings weregenerally used during the later "iddle Ages and earlymodern period for less expensive books.

%unellum. %rescent/shaped knife for scraping skinduring the preparation of parchment.

&etal point. A writing implement, made of metal andused for annotation, drawing, and ruling, which leaves atrace element to the metal used *and any alloys present+,with a ferrous point leaving a brown mark, silver andlead *leadpoint+ leaving a silver/grey trace, and copperalloys sometimes leaving a grey/green mark. #he marksproduced are more discreet than those made with inkbutmore visible than those made with a hardpoint.

&issal. Liturgical book containing all texts necessary forthe performance of the "ass. #he )rst missals appearedin the tenth century1 by the thirteenth century, the

Missalcompletely replaced such older liturgical books asthe Directorium, the Sacramentary, theAntiphonary, the'vangeliary, the 'pistolary.

'xidation. A chemical reaction resulting from exposureto oxygen. #his can cause certain metal/based pigments*notably silver and white, yellow, or red lead+ to fadeand;or turn a silver/black and to bleed. A coating of glair*see binding medium+ is thought to reduce such
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tendencies in certain cases, but theconditions in which amanuscript is stored and the length of exposure toadverse atmospheric conditions seem to determine theextent of oxidation.

Palette. #he range of colours used in a work. #he term

derives from the name of the &at surface on which paintsare sometimes mixed, although shells were morecommonly used to contain prepared pigmentsduring the"iddle Ages.

Palimpsest. rom the reek palimpsestos*:scrapedagain:+, a palimpsest is reused writing support materialfrom which theunderlying text has been erased *bywashing in the case of papyrusand by using scrapingdevices in the case of parchment+. 'rasure was notalways complete and an underlying text can often beread with the assistance of ultraviolet light.

Panels. 3n the context of binding, panels are engravedmetal blocks used to impress a design on a large part orthe whole of a book cover, producing either a blind orgilded impression *see tooling+. 0anels were )rst used inthe thirteenth/century landers. See also blocked.

Paper. 3n the mid/eighth century, the Arabs learnedtechni!ues of paper manufacture from the %hinese. #heoldest reek paper manuscripts were produced duringthe ninth century. 0aper *cartaor charter+ was made in"uslim Spain beginning in the late eleventh century.During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it was usedin 3taly and the "editerranean for merchants8 notes andby notaries for registers1 from the thirteenth century on,paper was actually manufactured in 3taly. During thefourteenth and )fteenth centuries, production spread to

Swit9erland, the 7hineland, and rance. 3n 'nglandthere was limited production in the )fteenth century1only in the mid/sixteenth century was the paper makingindustry permanently established. *3n the late )fteenthcentury, the famous publisher -illiam %axton and hiscolleagues were still largely importing supplies from3taly and rance.+ %orrespondence was often written onpaper beginning in the fourteenth century, and paper
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was commonly used in low/grade books from c. > andin legal documents from the sixteenth century *althoughparchmentalso continued to be used+. 7ulingon papergenerally consists of frame ruling only. #he humanistsrevived hardpointruling for a time,but it damaged thepaper. 3n general, inkor leadpointwas used for ruling

paper codices. 3n early paper books, !uiresare oftenprotected by parchment outer sheets or guards. 0aperwas traditionally made from cotton or linen rags,although more exotic substances such as silk were oftenemployed in the rient. #he rags were soaked andpulverised until reduced to a pulp and were then placedin a vat with a solution of water and si9e. A woodenframe strung with wires *producing hori9ontal laid linesand vertical chain lines+ was dipped into the mixture and

agitated until the )bers fused to form a sheet of paper.#his was then placed between sheets of blotting paperand pressed. #he paper produced was then eithertrimmed or left with its rough *deckle+ edge. 0aperframes often incorporated wire devices *in the form ofdesigns or monograms+, which leave an image in thepaper known as a watermark. #here exist reference

volumes containing reproductions of watermarks frombroadly datable or localisable contexts, and it isfre!uently possible to identify watermarks by matching

them against such reproductions.

Papyrus. A writing support material made from thepapyrus plant, a species of water/grown sedge that grewabundantly in ancient 'gypt, where it was used formabout ?>>> $%. #he outer skin of the stem of the papyrusplant was peeled o and the rest cut into strips that werelaid side by side vertically, with another layer of stripsthen overlaid hori9ontally. #he whole was dampened andbeaten or pressed in the sun. #he resin released by the

)bers during this process fused them into a sheet thatwas then trimmed and smoothed with pumice. #he nextstep was to attach the sheets with a &our paste to form aroll. 0apyrus was also used for single sheet documents orfolded to form codices. #he side with the hori9ontal)bers visible would generally be used for writing with areed pen5 the hori9ontal )bers guided the writing on theinner surface, while the vertical )bers strengthened the
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outside. 0apyrus was sturdy and plentiful, and itapparently was rarely reused. #here is some indicationthat trade embargoes during Anti!uity led toexperiments with other materials, such as parchment. 3nfact, in the fourth century, parchment generally replacedpapyrus. $ut it was the collapse of the western 7oman

'mpire and, more signi)cantly, the spread of 3slam fromthe seventh century on, with a conse!uent reduction of"editerranean trade, that led to the abandonment ofpapyrus as an all/purpose writing material. 3t continuedto be used, however, for documents produced in thechanceries of "erovingian aul and 7avenna during thesixth and seventh centuries, and the papal chancery usedit as an exotic material until the eleventh century.

ParchmentA writing support material that derives itsname from 0ergamon *$ergama in modern #urkey+, anearly production centre. #he term is often usedgenerically to denote animal skin prepared to receivewriting, although it is more correctly applied only tosheep and goat skin, with the term vellumreserved forcalf skin. @terine vellum, the skin of stillborn or very

young calves, is characterised by its small si9e andparticularly )ne, white appearance1 however, it wasrarely used. #o produce parchment or vellum, the animal

skins were de&eshed in a bath of lime, stretched on aframe, and scraped with a lunellumwhile damp. #heycould then be treated with pumice, whitened with asubstance such as chalk, and cut to si9e. Dierences inpreparation techni!ue seem to have occasioned greaterdiversity in appearance than did the type of skin used.0archment supplanted papyrusas the most popularwriting support material in the fourth century, althoughit was known earlier. 0archment was itself largelyreplaced by paperin the sixteenth century *with the rise

of printing+, but remained in use for certain high/gradebooks. See also &esh sideand hair side.

Parchmenter.*also 0archment/maker+. A personresponsible for making parchment. $efore around >,parchment making was presumably conducted largelywithin monasteries, the primary producers of books. Aslay and commercial production of manuscripts increased,
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parchmenters often formed a trade group, with shopslocated in the same part of a town, near the water supplyneeded for production. See also stationer.

Passional, the same as theLegendary. %ollection ofnarratives of variable length, in which are recounted the

life, martyrdom, translation of relics, or miracles of thesaints.

Pastedo(n.A leaf pasted onto the inside of a boardtoconceal channelingand peggingand other mechanics ofthe binding. 0astedowns are often formed of fragmentsof earlier manuscripts that were considered dispensible.

Pegging. #he securing of cordsto the boardsof abindingby means of dowels or pegs, generally of wood.

Pen. A split reed, termed calamus in Latin *!alam inArabic+, was used to write on papyrusduring Anti!uity1 afrayed reed was used as a brush. #hese were replaced inthe sixth century bt the !uill pen and animal/hailbrushes, which were more &exible and thus better suitedfor work on parchment, a tougher material than papyrus.

A !uill is formed of the &ight feather *one of the )rst )vefeathers+ of the wing of a bird, often a goose / the word:pen: derives from the Latin for feather, penna. #hefeather was )rst hardened by heating or by soaking it inwater and then immersing it in sand. 4ibs were oftenthen cut with a knife, the angle of the cuts aecting theappearance of the script produced. %ursive *i. e. morerapidly written+ scripts were generally produced with athin pen and formal bookscripts with a broad pen. A nibcut at an obli!ue angle to the shaft produces a formal,straight/pen script that has hori9ontal head to the letterstrokes.

Pigment. #he colouring agent in paint. #he paints usedin illumination consist of vegetable, mineral, and animalextracts, ground or soaked out and mixed with glair as abinding medium, perhaps, with some glue and wateradded. ther additives were also used, including staleurine, honey, and ear wax, to modify colour, texture andopacity1 inert whites such as chalk, eggshell, or white
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lead were added to increase opacity. Some pigmentswere obtained locally *such as turnsole, or crozophoratinctoria+1 others were exotic imports *such asultramarine, made from lapis lazuliimported from 0ersiaor Afghanistan+. During the early "iddle Ages, scribesand;or illuminators ground and prepared their own

pigments, perhaps, with the aid of an assistant, but withthe growth of specialised, more commercial productionaround >, they often purchased their ingredients inprepared form from a stationeror an apothecary. -iththe rise of experimental science and international tradein the fourteenth century, many colours were added tothe traditional palette, which signi)cantly aected stylesof illumination. #he production of syntheticallymanufactured pigments *such as mercury/based

vermilion and copper blues+ and imports *such as saronyellow from crocus stamens and red &akes from $ra9ilwoods largely imported from %eylon+ increased at thistime. 0igments are diicult to identify precisely withoutchemical analysis, although other techni!ues of analysis,such as radiospectroscopy and B/ray &uorescence, aswell as reconstructions from medieval recipes, areadvancing rapidly. Some pigments also change in aconsistent fashion over time5 for example, the red leadoften used for rubrics fre!uently fades and turns silver/

black through oxidation, and copper/based verdigrisgreen sometimes eats through the support as it corrodes.

Plummet. A leadpoint, also known as plummet, is apiece of lead alloy, sometimes contained in a holder *theprecursor of a pencil+, which could be used for drawing,annotation, and ruling. Leadpoint began to be widelyused in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. raphite,derived from carbon, was not generally used before theseventeenth century.

Ponti)cal. Liturgical manual containing episcopaloices *ordination, consecration of the church,con)rmation, etc.+

Pounce. A substance like chalk, ash, powdered bone,bread crumbs, or pumiceis rubbed into a writing surfacein order to improve it. 0ounce can reduce greasiness,
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raise the nap, and whiten parchment+. #he term is alsoused for a post/medieval techni!ue employed in thetransfer of an image by reproducing a dotted outline on asheet beneath.

Pricking. #he marking of a folioor bifoliumby a point of

a knife to guide ruling. #he tem also refers to the seriesof marks that resulted. 0ricking was generally conductedbefore the bifolia were folded to form a !uire.

Psalter.%ollection of 0salms serving as the main prayer/book for the celebration of the Divine ice.

Pumice.(olcanic glass, used in powdered form aspounceon parchment1 in its consilidated form, it wasemployed to scrape parchment for reuse as a palimpsest.

*uire.atheringor :booklet: of which a book is formed.Cuire numeration, which began in the Late Anti!ueperiod, consists of numbers written on a !uire *usuallyon its )nalverso+ to facilitate arrangement duringbinding.

+ecto. #he front side of a folioor leaf, abbreviated as rand sometimes denoted as a.

+itual. Liturgical manual containing the prayers for theadministration of all the sacraments except the'ucharist.

+oll. #he roll was, along with the tablet, the principalvehicle for writing during Anti!uity. 7olls were originallyformed of sheet of papyruspasted together and werestored in capsae, cylindrical boxes. #hey were unrolledhori9ontally from left to right, with about four columns oftext visible at any one time. #he drawbacks of the rollform in terms of portability and cross/referencing led toits general replacement by the codexin the fourthcentury. #he roll survived, however, throughout the"iddle Ages, ful)lling certain specialised functions //although it was now made of parchment*sewn or gluedtogether+ and was read vertically. Such forms wereuseful for storing lengthy records and thus werefre!uently used for administrative purposes. 7olls also
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carried genealogies and pedigrees, and some of thesemanuscripts were )nely illuminated. 7oll chroniclesoften accompanied royal genealogies. 3lluminated 'xultetrolls, with texts for the blessing of the 'aster candle,were designed for public viewing, with the text facingthe reader and the image placed upside down in relation

to the text, to face the congregation over the lectern.0rayer rolls also survive1 they may have been carried asamulets.

+uling. #he process by which a frame and;or hori9ontallines are produced to guide the hand in writing1 the wordalso refers to the linear guide thus produced. 7uling wasguided by pricking. $eginning in the %arolingian period,templates were sometimes used in pricking and ruling.$efore the late eleventh century, ruling was generallyexecuted with a hardpoint, producing a ridge/and/furroweect. #hereafter leadpointwas used in the layout ofindividual pages,enabling greater &exibility. -hen thethin penused to produce cursive scripts was revived inthe later twelfth century, ruling was also done in ink,especially from the late thirteenth century on. %olouredinks were employed in some manuscripts, such as thepink ruling in )fteenth/century $ook of 6ours. #he3talian humanists revived the use of hardpoint for ruling.

-hen paperwas used as the writing support material,this could result in tears in the paper.

,acramentary. Liturgical book containing the prayersrecited by the celebrant during the "ass.

,criptorium.7oom set apart for writing, especially in amonastery.

-,hell- gold. 0owdered gold mixed with gum arabic into

a kind of gold ink, and applied with pen or brush.

,houlder.#he place where one of the boardsof a book2oins the spine.

,pine.#he edge at which a book is sewn together.7ounded, glued spines that were hammered into shapewere )rst introduced in the early sixteenth century. 0riorto this, spines were &at, apart from the raised cords.
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Spines sometimes carry protective extensions at eitherend known as end tabs.

,tationer.ollowing the rise of the universities around>, the growth in secular production and in consumerdemand led to increasing specialisation and

commercialisation in book production. A group ofmiddlemen, known as stationers*cartolai in 3taly,libraires in rance+, emerged. #hey supplied materials tocraftsmen and received and subcontracted commissions,often with formal recognition from the universities. #hisdecentralisation stimulated new techni!ues of bookproduction, such as systematic marking up of leaves and!uiresfor assembly by the stationerand the provision ofinstructions.

ablet. #ablets of wood, or sometimes ivory, were usedas writing surfaces in two ways5 either inkwas appliedon them1 or they were hollowed out and )lled with waxso that one could write with a stylus. Along with a roll,the tablet was the principal writing vehicle during

Anti!uity, being used for informal purposes, teaching,letters, drafting, and for records *such as letters ofciti9enship+. #he gradual substitution of sheet ofparchmentfor wood or ivory may well have stimulated

the development of the codexform. #ablets continued tobe used into the twelfth century for informal )nancialaccounts *by rench )shermen, for example+. During the"iddle Ages, they ful)lled a variety of functions5 draftingtexts1 trying out artistic designs1 recording liturgicalcommemorations1 note taking during study1 accountingand legal contexts1 as proto/ilofaxes1 and as love token)lled with amorous poetry. #ablets ranged in format fromrobust teaching tablets to portable girdle books.

Although dierent colours of wax were used, black and

green predominated. A number of tablets weresometimes bound together with leather thongs or withina leather case. #ablets were also made with handles,whose shape could serve as a decorative motif.

ail. #he foot or lower end of a manuscript.
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anned. #anning is the process of manufacturing leatherby soaking animal skin in tannin, an acidic substancemade from tree bark, gallnuts, or a similar plant source.#anning gives leather a red/brown coloration.

ooling. #ooling is the decoration of a surface with the

aid of metal hand tools and stamps *a techni!ueemploying the latter being termed stamped+. nbindings, the tools were used to impress the decorationinto the leather covering, which was often dampened.#he impression or indentation produced is called blind ifit remains uncoloured. old tooling became popular inthe )fteenth century. 3n this process, gold leaf was laidonto a coating of glair and impressed into the leatherwith a heated tool, leaving an image in gold after theexcess was rubbed away. ilded surfaces *see gilding+ inillumination were also sometimes tooled.

urn/ins. #he edges of the covering material of abinding, which are folded over the head, tail, and foreedgeof the boardsand secured to their inner sides.

0nderdra(ing. 0reliminary drawing that lies under the)nal painted or inked image. 0rior to the eleventhcentury, underdrawing was often executed with a

hardpoint, but thereafter a metal point, especially aleadpoint, or diluted inkwas generally used. Styli,dividers, and compasses were sometimes employed inthe laying out of a design throughout the "iddle Ages.

1ellum #he word has the same origin as veal or veauinrench *calf, vitellusin Latin+, and is strictly the writingmaterial made from cow skin.

1erso. #he back of a folioor leaf, abbreviated as v and

sometimes as denoted as b.

2atermark. Distinguishing mark or design on paper,visible only when held up to the light, and made whenthe paper is in a pulp form.

2orkshop. As known by the rench name atelier, aworkshop is a studio in which a number of artists worktogether, generally under a master, either on regular or
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