A focus on Area of Study 1 Global Actors

The state and challenges facing state sovereignty The notion of a sovereign state is a comparatively modern construct, yet the state is the principle actor within Global Politics because the entire population of the world (with very few exceptions) is divided into these territorial political communities and as such, each citizen makes demands of their state to serve their needs and meet their interests. The extent to which states meet these needs varies considerably. The pursuit and attainment of sovereignty is a cyclical feature of global politics and raises the prospect that the state will not necessarily remain as the primary model of political community. State sovereignty is continually being challenged; state borders are habitually contested, whether by war or arbitration and the globalisation of labour, capital, communication, technology, weapons and crises have fashioned problems that cannot be solved alone by states. Issues such as ecological destruction and financial instability pressure the expansion of political communities on the supranational level, as seen in the European Union whose members co-operate across a wide range of traditional ‘state issues’ from foreign policy to justice and as such presents a possible future structure of social-political organisation beyond the state. On 9th July 2011 South Sudan became the newest state in the global arena. Previously part of Sudan, 98.83% of the population voted for independence in a referendum in early

2011. The state is already a member of the UN and the African Union and ‘has dispensed with nursery school and gone straight back to playing with guns’ (BBC News 30.12.11); border disputes with Sudan continue and the government in the capital Juba is at war with at least seven armed groups (Al Jazeera 24.04.11).

Regional groupings The ability of regional groupings such as the EU to impact on state sovereignty, and their future likely capacity to do so, has been seen in the current crises in Eurozone states Italy and Greece. The ongoing economic crisis gripping Greece has highlighted the power and influence of the EU over individual states and how the supranational organisation can challenge state sovereignty. Negotiations for a second economic bailout for Greece, required by Athens in order to avoid bankruptcy, prompted the Dutch Finance Minister to call for ‘some kind of permanent presence’ by the EU, IMF and European Central Bank over Greece's revenues and public expenditure (BBC News Europe 20.02.12). Such a presence could be perceived as a direct challenge to the economic sovereignty of Greece and the ability of the government to make independent economic decisions. The Globe and Mail went further arguing that a second bailout agreement would ‘deprive the country of much of its sovereignty, in effect turning it into the colony of the wealthy euro zone countries and the IMF’ (The Global and Mail 20.02.12). Further to which the role of the state, to meet its citizens’ needs, is compromised by the second bailout which compels the government to pass legislation giving priority to debt repayments over the funding of government services.

The replacement of Italian PM Berlusconi by former EU commissioner, Mario Monti, while welcomed by many European and business leaders was highly criticized. Technocrat Monti was not elected to the position but asked to assume the office of the PM by President Napolitano because an ‘election campaign now would be “very negative” for the markets’ (ABC News 15.11.11); a concern for the wider EU. The derailment of the democratic process (Monti became eligible for the position only a few days before his appointment when he was made a Senator for Life by the Italian President and his entire Cabinet is composed of unelected professionals) has been interpreted as a move to placate Eurozone fears over Italy’s burgeoning economic and debt crisis, and an act to stymie global fears over the future of the Eurozone. Such a move highlights the ability of the EU and TNCs to subtly challenge state sovereignty.

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The power and influence of regional groupings to challenge state sovereignty has also been witnessed through their use of economic sanctions. Both the Arab League and the EU have imposed sanctions on Syria in an attempt to pressure the government to halt its heavy-handed military response to protests calling for the end of Assad family rule (see later section).

Contested and changing borders The sovereignty of the Chinese government continues to be challenged by the Tibetan people, an ethnic group who see themselves as ethnically dissimilar from the majority Han Chinese and thus call for the independence of Tibet. Under the control of Beijing since the 1949 invasion by Chinese troops, Tibetans have continually pressed for greater autonomy and ultimately, independence. Recent protests have focused on the systematic persecution and crackdown of Tibetan religious freedoms and seen 21 ethnic Tibetans set themselves on fire in protest over the last year (The Age 18.02.12). Despite such protests and global pressure on China to address its human rights record, Beijing’s control over the restive state remains very much intact. Tensions between North and South Korea have escalated since the death of Kim Jong-il in December 2011. The border between the two states is one of the most densely militarized zones in the world, and this is set to increase given the untested leadership of Kim Jong-un; ‘the big issue is whether new leadership will lead to an acceleration of economic reform, increase the risk of a meltdown that ultimately leads to re-unification with the South, or simply maintain the status quo’ (International Business Times 19.12.11). The two states are still technically at war as they never signed a peace treaty following the 1950 – 53 war.

Issues and crises that require multilateral resolution The sovereignty of Syria is being challenged. Originating as a civilian protest to the four-decade ruling of the Assad family in March 2011, this internal challenge to Syria’s sovereignty has spread throughout the state. Human rights groups estimate that more than 7,000 people have been killed during the 11-month uprising with the Syrian government estimating at least 2,000 members of the security forces have been killed fighting militants (BBC 19.02.12). The scale of the military force used by the Assad government has turned this civilian protest into a human crises and thus forced the intervention of the wider global community into the internal affairs of the Syrian government; an external challenge to her sovereignty. This external challenge has been seen in a number of ways:

The Arab League: Qatar and Saudi Arabia voted to suspend Syria in Novermber 2011 and economic sanctions were later imposed when Damascus

hesitated over allowing the deployment of an observer mission.

The European Union: 10 rounds of sanctions have

been imposed by the 27 member-state bloc against the state targeting some 120 people and companies with an asset and travel ban, as well as an arms embargo and a ban on imports of Syrian crude oil. The EU in 2010 was Syria’s largest trading partner accounting for 22.5% of Syrian trade.

The United States: Washington currently has three types of sanctions in place against the Syrian government, Executive Order 13572 is the most recent and targets a range of individuals and businesses seen to support the government. Syrian assets in the US have also been frozen.

The imposition of such economic sanctions limits the sphere of actions available to the Syrian government and thus their ability to exercise effective control within their territory (a basic premise of sovereignty) or to meet their citizens needs (the central role of the state). The Arab League and EU sanctions also reflect the ability of regional groupings (see earlier section) to challenge state sovereignty and the role of the state.

The institutions of global governance

The United Nations The inability of the UN to ‘keep peace throughout the world’ and to ‘encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms’ has been sadly highlighted by the ongoing conflict in Syria. In response to an 11-month uprising against his rule, President Assad’s use of violence against his own citizens has been globally condemned but action by the UN to stop the violence has fallen far-short of actually doing so. A UN Security Council resolution calling for Assad to step down was vetoed by Russia and China in early February 2012. The veto was exercised on the basis that the resolution could pave the way for military intervention or regime change in Syria and creates a precedent for intervention in

humanitarian crisis, even though such intervention could potentially violate state sovereignty; both Moscow and Beijing fear that if such a precedent is set their own sovereignty could be challenged. Russia also has significant economic and military ties with Syria, current

contracts for arms and military equipment are estimated to be worth at least $2.5bn. The inability of the UN to act effectively in stopping the bloodshed in Syria highlights, yet again, the need for UN reform and the limited nature of the organisation’s power and influence.

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The IMF The power and influence of the IMF is dependent on it’s ability to achieve its aims, a central mechanism of which is the provision of loans to help states overcome economic difficulties. IMF funding comes from members based on a quota of their resources proportionate to the size of their economy, essentially the work of the organisation is dependent on members’ contributions. Thus statements by Tokyo and Washington that an agreement to raise funds for the IMF’s plans to raise an additional $600bn in emergency capital for the eurozone crisis were by no means decided (Wall Street Journal 20.02.12) highlights that the power and influence of the organisation is dependent on its members.

The World Trade Organisation The ability and power of the WTO to ‘promote economic growth and stability’ has been evidenced with its approval of the EU move to waive duties on 75 Pakistani products. The EU is one of Pakistan’s largest trading partners and the action is an effort to revive the state’s export sector after the devastating floods in 2011 which badly hurt the manufacturing sector. After 18 years negotiating its membership, Russia joined the WTO in December 2011. As the world’s seventh largest economy (based on GDP), her accession will ‘strengthen the multilateral trading system and enhance global economic cooperation’ (The Wall Street Journal 10.11.11) as well as boost the power and influence of the organisation. It is estimated that Russia’s membersip will boost gross domestic product by 11% over 10 years and force the average maximum import tariff to fall from 10% to 7.8% (The Wall Street Journal 10.11.11). With Russia’s membership the WTO will account for 97% of global trade (The Telegraph 16.12.11). The power of the WTO through its dispute settlement mechanism was evidenced by a number of rulings, including:

August 2011: the Phillipines government tax on

alcohol imports was deemed illegal; and June 2011: Chinese subsidies to domestic wind

power manufacturers ruled to violate WTO rules.

The International Criminal Court The ICC ruled in January 2012 that four prominent Kenyans, including the Finance Minister Uhuru Kenyatta, will face prosecution over post-election violence in the state in 2007-8. More than 1,200 people were killed in the unrest that

followed the 2007 election with some 600,000 people forced to flee their homes (BBC News 26.01.12).The ICC indicted Saif al-Islam Gaddafi for crimes against humanity in 2011. The new Libyan government, however, refuses to hand

him over preferring to trial him in the state. The ICC has accepted this but is seeking assurance that a fair trial can be provided by the Libyan judicial system. The end of November 2011 saw the transfer of Laurent Gbagbo to the ICC detention centre at The Hague on four counts of crimes against humanity. Charges against Mr Gbagbo will be heard on 18 June 2012. Even though the Cote d’Ivoire is not a signatory to the Rome Statute, the state has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court, highlighting the growing power and influence of the ICC. However the transfer of Gbagbo has entrenched accusations that the ICC unfairly focuses its work on Africa.

Non-state actors Dramatic changes in communications technology have facilitated the growth of non-state actors, both altruistic and destructive ones. Their ability to impact on the global political arena has recently been witnessed in a number of ways.

Human rights organizations The role of human rights organisations in highlighting situations of human rights abuse has been exemplified through the work of Human Rights Watch (HRW). HRW is ‘dedicated to protecting the human rights of people around the world’ and its advocacy has placed pressure on the global community to defend and protect human rights through focusing attention on situations of violation. For example:

HRW’s advocacy helped to draft the Council of Europe’s Convention on Domestic Violence which aims to protect the estimated 25% of women in the European region who experience sexual and physical abuse. As of September 2011, 15 states had ratified the Convention.

A September 2011 report on the use of forced labour in Vietnam drug detention centres to produce goods compelled transnational corporations (TNCs) Columbia Sportswear Co. and Verstergaard Frandsento to cut ties with these facilities.

Environmental organisations The veracity of claims made by environmental organisations in pursuit of their goals was further muddied when internationally respected water and climate change expert, Peter H Gleick (President of the Pacific Institute), admitted to lying about his identity to obtain internal funding and strategy documents from the climate skeptic group Heartland Institute. Such admissions support accusations that ‘NGO campaigners sometimes gloss over facts because they are in a hurry to make their point’ (John Clark). The growing influence of NGOs in achieving their aims through technology was highlighted with the use of remote-controlled drones by the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to disrupt the 2012 Japanese whale hunt in waters off Antartica. The drone allows the Society to more easily track the Japanese whaling ships and thus thwart their hunting.

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Global terrorist movements The long-term impact of the death of Osama bin Laden on the power and influence of al-Qaeda to achieve its aims remains to be seen, but in the short-term at least the movement’s impact seems to be waning; ‘A multi-agency task force has completed its assessment, and according to first reports, it has found that al Qaeda members have primarily been engaged in dodging drone strikes and complaining about how cash-strapped they are’ (Foreign Affairs 02.08.11). Further to which the death of bin Laden ‘could unleash internal divisions and fractures within the movement and call into question the very legitimacy of Al Qaeda’ (The New York Times 02.05.11) at a time when the groups relevance is being questioned. Despite these hopes, the deaths attributed to terrorism are a long way from reaching pre-‘War on Terror’ levels and shows the influence and impact of global terrorist movements on the political agenda:

Organised crime syndicates In February 2012 UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called on the global community to intensify efforts to combat transnational crime syndicates in West Africa. Citing the upheaval in Libya, Ban said: ‘A growing food crisis rooted in drought, high food prices and conflict currently affects millions and has raised fears that the situation could worsen further still ... And there are reports of links between insurgent groups, criminal groups and terrorist organizations’ (Defence Web 22.02.12). Transnational organized crime is considered one of the major threats to human security.

The economic and political power of TNCs

The power of TNC Apple was highlighted when it was revealed that more iPhones are sold per second than babies are born. In the December quarter ending 2011, Apple sold 37 million units of the smartphone, at a rate of 4.6 per second. This compares to the current global birth rate of about 4.2 births every second (The Age 17.02.12). This follows the revelation in July 2011 that the corporation had more available cash to spend than the United States

government: $76.4bn to $73.7bn (BBC News 29.07.11). At the same time, the destructive impact of TNCs was brought to light with reports of people, employed to manufacture iPhones and iPads in developing states, dying from suicide, exhaustion and explosions as a result of poor working conditions (The New York Times 25.01.12).

The Occupy Movement has sought to highlight the negative influence of TNCs. The Movement protests global economic and social inequality, the corporate influence on democracy and the absence of legal repercussions for the recent global financial crisis (GFC). It is important to note that in the aftermath of the 2008 GFC no prosecution has emerged against a key figure of any of the banks or mortgage firms involved. Initially gaining publicity for their actions in occupying Wall Street in New York, it is estimated that by October 2011 Occupy protests occurred in over 82 states globally.

The 2011 UN Conference on Trade and Development report revealed that:

- International production is expanding, with foreign sales, employment and assets of transnational corporations all increasing. TNCs’ production worldwide generated value added of approximately $16 trillion in 2010 – about a quarter of global GDP. Foreign affiliates of TNCs accounted for more than one-tenth of global GDP and one-third of world exports

- State-owned TNCs are an important emerging source of FDI. There are some 650 State-owned TNCs, with 8,500 foreign affiliates across the globe. While they represent less than 1 per cent of TNCs worldwide, their outward investment accounted for 11 per cent of global FDI in 2010.

- TNCs are increasingly investing in developing and transition economies to maintain cost-effectiveness and to remain competitive in the global production networks.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What other forms of political community exist in

the global political arena aside from states?

2. Explain how the following can challenge the sovereignty of the state:

a. Regional groupings b. Contested and changing borders c. Issues and crises that require

multilateral resolution 3. Evaluate the relative power and influence of two

of the international institutions of global governance: the UN, the IMF, the WTO, or the ICC.

4. To what extent has the current conflict in Syria

highlighted the weaknesses of the international institutions of global governance?

5. What recommendations would you make to strengthen the institutions of global governance to allow them to better achieve their aims? Use specific examples in your response.

6. Compare and contrast the various roles of non-

state actors in twenty-first century global politics.

7. To what extent are non-state actors able to achieve their aims?

8. Explain how TNCs are challenging the state as the

traditional actor within global politics.

9. Describe the importance of TNCs to global foreign direct investment.

10. To what extent can the selection of technocrats in

both Greece and Italy be viewed as a move to placate global business markets (and therefore TNCs)?

APPLICATION EXERCISE Respond to the questions below using figure 1 and your broader knowledge of Global Politics.

Figure 1: States party to the Rome Statute, February 2012

Legend Rome statute ratified and in force Rome statute ratified but not yet in force Signatory to Rome statute Non-signatory to Rome statute

Questions: 1. The Rome Statute established which institution of

global governance?

2. Outline the aims and role of this institution of global governance.

3. Explain some of the reasons why various states have chosen to not become a signatory to the Rome Statute.

4. With your response to question 3 in mind, what would motivate a state to sign the Rome Statute?

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5. What criticisms have been levied at this institution of global governance?

6. In what ways can the Rome Statute be enhanced to make this institution of global governance more effective?

7. Using the image in figure 1 and your broader knowledge of Global Politics, evaluate the power and influence of this institution of global governance.

Acknowledgements: The author and publisher would like to thank the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism for permission to reproduce statistics and charts. Thanks also to digitalart (www.digitalart.com) and Stuart Miles for allowing the use of various pictures and images. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The publisher would welcome any information from parties who believe that copyright infringement has occurred. CPAP Updates purchased by schools include a copyright licence permitting one CPAP Update to be copied for each student in that class. In the case of two classes, a second licence must be purchased. In the case of three classes, a third licence must be purchased.