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GINGER (Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)
PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING,
PROCESSING AND MARKETING:
A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE
MANUAL
Organized by:
Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)
December, 2013
Hawassa, Ethiopia
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GINGER (Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)
PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING, PROCESSING
AND MARKETING:
A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE MANUAL
Organized by:
Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)
December, 2013
Hawassa, Ethiopia
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iii
Copyrights 2013 FARM AFRICA and Authors
All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher and
Authors.
For permission to use material from this Manual please contact the authors (detailed contact
information under List of Authors) and FARM AFRICA Ethiopia Country Office via:
Telephone: +251114674129
P. O. Box: 5746 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. viii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xi
LIST OF AUTHORS ........................................................................................... xiii
TECHNICAL EDITION: ...............................................................................................................................xiii
LANGUAGE EDITION: ........................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS ...............................................................................................................xiii
THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL .................................................................... xiv
PART I ............................................................................................................. 1
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Uses of Ginger .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology.................................................................................. 4
1.3 Ginger Production in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Ginger Production in SNNPRS ..................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS.................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS .......................................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Climate and soil .................................................................................................................. 19
1.5.3 Temperature ........................................................................................................................ 19
1.5.4 Soil Requirement for ginger production ............................................................................. 20
1.5.5 Rainfall ................................................................................................................................ 20
1.6 References ................................................................................................................................... 21
2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER ...........................................................................23
2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger ............................................................................................ 23
2.1.1 Land Preparation ................................................................................................................. 23
2.1.2 Method of propagation and management of planting materials .......................................... 24
2.1.3 Rhizome Seed size .............................................................................................................. 26
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2.1.4 Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting ...................................................... 27
2.1.5 Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers ................................................................. 28
2.1.6 Weeding/Cultivation of ginger ............................................................................................ 30
2.1.7 Crop rotation and intercropping .......................................................................................... 31
2.1.8 Mulching ............................................................................................................................. 31
2.2 Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger ........................................ 32
2.2.1 With-in-the Season Harvesting ........................................................................................... 33
2.2.2 Extended harvesting/over seasoning/ perennation .............................................................. 34
2.3 Organic Ginger Production ......................................................................................................... 35
2.1.1 Consequences of Modern, intensive agriculture ................................................................. 35
2.1.2 Benefits of Organic farming ............................................................................................... 37
2.1.3 Methods and materials used for organic farming ................................................................ 37
2.1.4 Steps in organic ginger production ..................................................................................... 38
2.2 References ................................................................................................................................... 39
3 PROTECTION OF GINGER .........................................................................41
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 41
3.2 Factors affecting ginger production ............................................................................................ 42
3.2.1 Major diseases of ginger ..................................................................................................... 42
3.2.2 Major Pests of ginger plant ................................................................................................. 49
3.3 References ................................................................................................................................... 52
PART II .........................................................................................................53
4 HARVESTING AND POSTHARVESTHANDLING OF GINGER ..........53
4.1 Harvesting ................................................................................................................................... 54
4.1.1 Harvesting Maturity ............................................................................................................ 55
4.1.2 Harvesting Time .................................................................................................................. 55
4.1.3 During Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 56
4.1.4 Harvesting Methods ............................................................................................................ 56
4.1.5 Harvesting Tools ................................................................................................................. 58
4.1.6 Loosening the soil and Lifting ............................................................................................ 60
4.2 After Harvest ............................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.1 Trimming and Washing ...................................................................................................... 61
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4.2.2 Curing ................................................................................................................................. 61
4.2.3 Cleaning .............................................................................................................................. 62
4.2.4 Cleanliness specifications for ginger .................................................................................. 62
4.2.5 Grading, packaging and labeling......................................................................................... 63
4.2.6 Transport ............................................................................................................................. 66
4.2.7 Ginger Storage .................................................................................................................... 66
4.2.8 Storage practices ................................................................................................................. 69
4.3 References ................................................................................................................................... 72
5 GINGER AGRO-PROCESSING ...................................................................73
5.1 Principles of Ginger Processing .................................................................................................. 73
5.2 Major Ginger Processing ............................................................................................................ 73
5.2.1 Green Ginger Processing .................................................................................................... 73
5.2.2 Dried and powdered Ginger Processing .............................................................................. 74
5.2.3 Ginger Essential Oil Extraction .......................................................................................... 83
5.2.4 Ginger Oleoresins ............................................................................................................... 84
5.3 Quality and Safety Requirements for ginger and its products .................................................... 87
5.4 References ................................................................................................................................... 94
6 NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GINGER ......................96
6.1 Nutritional Significance of Ginger .................................................................................................... 96
6.1 Health Benefits of Ginger ........................................................................................................... 97
6.2 References ................................................................................................................................... 98
PART III ....................................................................................................100
7 GINGER VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS ......................................................100
7.1 Ginger Marketing ...................................................................................................................... 100
7.1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 100
7.1.2 Ginger marketing and Market Place ................................................................................. 101
7.1.3 Spice export by country of destination.............................................................................. 107
7.1.4 Future Perspectives of the Ethiopia Spices ....................................................................... 109
7.1.5 Ginger Market requirements of quality standards and grading ......................................... 110
7.2 Ginger Value Chain .................................................................................................................. 112
7.2.1 Over view of ginger Value Chain ..................................................................................... 112
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7.2.2 Ginger Value Chain Map .................................................................................................. 113
7.3 Level of Support for ginger Value Chain .................................................................................. 117
7.3.1 Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117
7.3.2 Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117
7.3.3 Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX) ........................................................................... 118
7.3.4 Farmers Organizations ..................................................................................................... 119
7.3.5 Some activities initiated by private businesses ................................................................. 120
7.3.6 Development partners and donors ..................................................................................... 120
7.4 Overall issues in Value Chain Analysis .................................................................................... 121
7.4.1 Constraints ........................................................................................................................ 121
7.4.2 Opportunities ..................................................................................................................... 123
7.5 References ................................................................................................................................. 125
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right) ............................................................................ 3
Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs (middle), and
rhizome (right) ........................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower ........................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right) ........................................................... 13
Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single tap root (right)
................................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right) .................................................... 18
Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece .............................................. 25
Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece ............................................................................ 26
Figure4-1: Manual harvesting (hand picking holding the stems/branches) of ginger ............................... 57
Figure4-2: Harvesting Machines ................................................................................................................ 58
Figure4-3: Machine harvesting of ginger ................................................................................................... 58
Figure4-4: Row planting for easy and effective machine harvesting ......................................................... 59
Figure4-5: Spade (A) and digging fork (B) used for ginger harvesting ..................................................... 60
Figure4-6: Ginger Plant (left) and Ginger Rhizomes (right) ..................................................................... 60
Figure4-7: Different Primary Packages of Ginger ..................................................................................... 64
Figure4-8: Packaging of ginger right at the farm ...................................................................................... 65
Figure4-9: Tertiary packaging of ginger for shipment ............................................................................... 65
Figure4-10: Ginger seed rhizome storage structure .................................................................................. 67
Figure4-11: Inspection of produce and cleaning of the storage structure ................................................. 69
Figure4-12: Cleaning and maintaining the storage structure .................................................................... 70
Figure4-13: Disinfect used sacks: .............................................................................................................. 70
Figure4-14: Water proof sheets .................................................................................................................. 71
Figure4-15: Wooden Pallets ....................................................................................................................... 71
Figure5-1: Flow Chart for green ginger processing .................................................................................. 74
Figure 5-2: Electrical Ginger Slicer ........................................................................................................... 75
Figure 5-3: Manually operated Ginger slicer ............................................................................................ 75
Figure5-4: Direct type solar dryer (combined radiation collector and drying chamber) .......................... 77
Figure5-5: Illustration of Food drying in a direct solar dryer. .................................................................. 78
Figure5-6: Design and structure of a typical direct solar dryer. ............................................................... 78
Figure5-7: Illustration of an indirect type solar dryer (opaque drying chamber) ..................................... 79
Figure5-8: Flow sheet for dried and/or powdered ginger processing........................................................ 81
Figure5-9: Illustration of tent solar dryer .................................................................................................. 82
Figure5-10: Industrial tunnel solar dryer .................................................................................................. 83
Figure5-11: Flow sheet for single-stage oleoresin extraction .................................................................... 85
Figure5-12: Flow sheet for two-stage oleoresin extraction methods ......................................................... 86
Figure7-1: Marketing channels of ginger (fresh/dried) in Kenbata Tembaro Zone ................................. 102
Figure7-2: Hadero old marketplace collection by local traders (left) small volume marketing (right) ... 103
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Figure 7-3: New transaction of ginger Primary market center (HaderoTunto) ....................................... 104
Figure7-4: The value chain map of ginger from local to export market .................................................. 114
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011) ........................................................... 7
Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012) ............. 9
Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS (2006/07) ....... 10
Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas, SNNPRS ......... 11
Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS .................................... 16
Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS ........................... 21
Table 2-1: Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting ................................................. 34
Table 4-1: Fresh ginger grading categories (Henry and Adriano, 1999) .................................................. 64
Table 4-2 Fresh ginger requires particular temperature, humidity/moisture and ventilation conditions .. 68
Table 5-1: Food Chemical Codex (FCC) specifications for ginger oil ...................................................... 84
Table 5-2: Limits for residual solvents in spice oleoresin .......................................................................... 86
Table 5-3: Approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications ............................... 87
Table 5-4: American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) Cleanliness Specification for Ginger ................... 88
Table 5-5: EU standards for ginger ............................................................................................................ 88
Table 5-6: Microbiological specification for spice under German Law ................................................... 88
Table 5-7: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in ginger under American Regulations ....................... 89
Table 5-8: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in spices under German Regulations .......................... 89
Table 5-9: Defect Action Level (DAL) for Ginger (Food and Drug Administration (FDA)) ..................... 91
Table 5-10: Tolerance levels for aflatoxins in Spices ................................................................................. 91
Table 5-11: Maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder (Japanese) .......................... 91
Table 5-12: International Standards Organization (ISO) Specification for ginger .................................... 92
Table 5-13: Indian Standard Specification for ground ginger ................................................................... 92
Table 5-14: ISO Specification for ground ginger ....................................................................................... 93
Table 5-15: Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) rules for ginger powder ........................................... 93
Table 6-1: Nutritional Data for 100 g dry ginger ....................................................................................... 96
Table 6-2: Chemical Composition of dry ginger ........................................................................................ 97
Table 7-1: Ginger Marketing in SNNPRS ................................................................................................. 104
Table 7-2: Ginger price during 2003/2004 2007/2008 at Hadaro market place .................................. 106
Table 7-3: Export Spice by type for 2008/9-2010/11 volume in tons and value in "000 USD ............... 106
Table 7-4: Indias Import (Trade Indicators) ........................................................................................... 107
Table 7-5: Export of spices (amount) by country of destination 2008/9-2010/11 .................................... 108
Table 7-6: Targeted export volume and revenue generation by 2015 ...................................................... 109
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANSAB Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources
ASTA American Spice Trade Association
AGP Agricultural Growth Program
BA Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS
BHT Butylated Hydroxytoluene (commercial antioxidant)
BMC Bureau of Marketing and Communication, SNNPRS
BRC British Retail Consortium
CBI Confederation of British Industries
DAL Defect action level
DAP Diammonium Phosphate (Phosphorus Fertilizer)
ECBP Engineering capacity building program
ECX Ethiopian Commodity Exchange
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
ESA European Spice Associations
ESEF Ethiopian Spices Extraction Factory
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization [of the United Nations]
FCC Food Chemical Codex
FDA Food and Drug Administration [of the United States of America]
GAP Good Agricultural Practices
GACP Good Agricultural and Collection Practices
GRAS Generally recognized as safe
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
GTZ German Organization for Technical Cooperation
HABP Household Asset Building Program
HYV High Yielding Varieties
ICT International Trade Center
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IPC International Pepper Community
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ISB Indian Spice Board
ISO International Standards Organization
JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency
MA Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia
MT Ministry of Trade, Ethiopia
MRL Maximum Residue Level
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PFA Prevention of food adulteration
PONV Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting
SME Small and Medium Enterprises
SNNPRS Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State [Ethiopia]
SNV Netherlands Development Organization Value Chain
UAE United Arab Emirates
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UREA Urea ammonium Nitrate (Nitrogen Fertilizer)
USA United States of America
USAID United States Agency of International Development
WHO World Health Organization [United Nations]
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LIST OF AUTHORS
TECHNICAL EDITION:
TADESSE FIKRE
ASFAW KIFLE
LANGUAGE EDITION:
AKALEWOLD SAMUEL
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS
ABRHAM ASTATIKE
Mobile phone: +251911384833
E-mail:[email protected]
Expert (Crop Quality Control) Bureau of
Agriculture,
SNNPRS
ALYE TEFERA
Mobile phone: +251913386201
E-mail: [email protected]
Lecturer and Researcher, School of
Plant and Horticultural Sciences
Hawassa University
ASFAW KIFLE
Mobile phone: +251911984042
E-mail:[email protected]
Researcher, Areka Research Center
Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI)
BRIHANU SIMA
Mobile phone: +251927151900
E-mail:[email protected]
Expert (Spice) Bureau of Agriculture,
SNNPRS
SINEDU ABATE
Mobile phone: +251911738248
E-mail: [email protected]
Expert (Plant Protection), Bureau of
Agriculture,
SNNPRS
TADESSE FIKRE
Mobile phone: +251912116036
E-mail: [email protected]
Lecturer and Researcher, School of
Nutrition, Food Science and Technology
Hawassa University
TESFAYE HABTE
Mobile phone: +251910040367
E-mail: [email protected]
Expert (Agronomy)
FARM AFRICA,
AKALEWOLD SAMUEL,
LANGUAGE EDITOR:
Mobile Phone: +251 916826299
E-mail: [email protected]
Lecturer, School of Language &
Communication Studies,
Hawassa University
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THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL
Tesfaye Habte
Ginger is one of the most important spice crops. The Arabs, in the 13th
Century brought ginger
from India to east Africa and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and
predominantly grown in the wetter parts of the South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
Regional State. East Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. It also finds immense usage in
many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a wide variety of disorders. It has been
a good source of income and is a favorite crop that improves the economic status and, hence the
quality of life of the grower significantly. As an export commodity, the contribution of ginger to
the national economy is not negligible.
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PART I
1. INTRODUCTION
Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosccoe) is monocotyledonous, herbaceous, tropical plant
belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial plant, but is usually grown as an
annual crop for harvesting as a spice. Ginger is native to South East Asia, and now it is
grown commercially in most tropical regions (Abeykeraet al., 2005). It has a long and
well -documented history of both culinary and medicinal use throughout world history,
especially in Chinese, Indian and Japanese medicinal care.
The Arabs, in the 13th
century brought ginger from India to East Africa (Jansen, 1981)
and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and predominantly grown in
the wetter parts of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State
(SNNPRS). Ginger production to a lesser extent, has been also extended to some parts of
Western Oromia and Northern Amhara.
large-scale commercial production of ginger by farmers in SNNPRS is practiced with the
administrative districts of Kacha Bira and Hadaro-Tunto (both are located in Kambata-
Tambaro zone), Boloso Bombe and Boloso Sorie (both are located in Wolaita zone), and
part of western Badawacho (Hadiya zone) taking the leading position in the region as
well as in the country as far as the total production and supply to the central market is
concerned. The statistical information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development indicates that 99% of the crops production was in SNNPRS (Geta and
Kifle, 2011). The standard of living of the farmers cultivating ginger in this region is by
far better than those farmers whose livelihood is based on any other crop. Its contribution
to the national economy has also been considerable.
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In Ethiopia, ginger has been used as a flavoring agent, carminative and stimulant and it
has become the most important spice for the local as well as the export market. The
underground rhizome of this crop is also valued throughout the world as a spice of
flavoring agent for its two major classes of constituents, such as essential oils and
oleoresins (Baladinet al. 1998) .
The more volatile essential oil consists of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which
contribute to the characteristics flavor of ginger, and oleoresins which is responsible for
the pungent flavor, which is also a source of antioxidants (Sanwalet al., 2010). The
principal compounds responsible for the pungency of ginger are gingerols and shagols.
Ginger is commercially available in various forms, such as green ginger, dry ginger,
ginger powder, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin and preserved ginger (Kizhakkayi and
Sasikumar, 2009).
The area under ginger cultivation in the world was estimated to be 314350 hectares in
2011, with a total production of 2025571 tones,; out of which the share of Ethiopia was
7746 tones, that is about 0.38%. Ginger yield on farmers field is very low i.e., 15.87 t ha-
1, which is far less than the crops potential. This is attributed to several factors of which
shortage of improved varieties, poor agronomic practices and poor soil fertility are the
most important ones (Hailemichael et al., 2008). The top five ginger producer countries
are India, China, Nepal, Nigeria, and Thailand. India is the largest producer of ginger
accounting for more than 34% of the world production in 2011 followed by China. For
the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood 10th
and 14th
position in terms
of area harvested and total production of ginger, respectively among the 36 countries
engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013).
Ginger has been produced as an important commercial spice crop in Southern Ethiopia. It
has been a good source of income for farmers who grow it. Despite its remarkable uses
and contribution to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and to the economy of the
country, due attempt has not been made so far to improve its pre- and postharvest
management. The aim of this comprehensive manual is therefore, to avail the full
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package on ginger production, marketing and processing which, in turn, may play a
substantial role in the improvement of both pre- and postharvest management of the crop
and its products, respectively.
1.1 Uses of Ginger
Ginger is used throughout the world as a spice or fresh herb for cooking and varieties of
other value added products (Bartley and Jacobs, 2000). It is available in the form of oil,
oleoresins, ground and fresh ginger. The crop has multiple advantages in that it is highly
productive per unit area, tolerant to drought, can be stored for long period of time in dried
form ,and can also be intercropped with other crops like beans, maize and taro.
Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. Especially, powdered dry ginger is an
important component of curry powder. Dry ginger (Figure1-1) is used for the
manufacture of several products ,such as ginger oil, ginger essence, ginger oleoresin, and
vitaminised effervescent ginger powder used in soft drinks, local foods and drinks (Idris
et al., 2010). It is widely used for culinary purposes in ginger bread, biscuits, sauces, and
cakes. Besides, it is used in breweries for the preparation of ginger beer, ginger ale, and
ginger wine in different countries.
Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right)
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Ginger finds immense usage in many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a
wide variety of disorders. It is used in traditional medicines to treat several ailments
including nausea, diarrhea, motion sickness, migraine, dyspepsia, heart problems,
arthritis, and to reduce flatulence and colic. Moreover, ginger is believed to relief the
common cold, flu-like symptoms, headaches, and even painful menstrual periods. Ginger
is known to be effective as an appetite enhancer and an improver of digestive system
(Wresdiyatiet al., 2007).
Across the world, ginger is considered - as an important cooking spice. Young rhizomes
that are harvested early are also used in pickles and confectionery. The rhizome yields
essential oil which is obtained as a result of steam distillation, a yellow liquid lacking the
pungency. It is used in the manufacture of flavoring essences and perfumery. An
oleoresin, which marks the full presence of spices - is used for flavoring purposes, and
also has medicinal values-. As a matter of fact, ginger contains a number of different
pungent and active ingredients. For instance, the oleoresin contains the constituents that
are responsible for pungency of ginger. It can be deduced that these multiple properties of
ginger come from its chemical composition. -
1.2 A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology
The ginger plant is an erect, perennial herb with thick, hard laterally compressed, often
palmately branched rhizomes, covered with small scale leaves and fine fibrous roots.
Rhizome is pale yellow in cross section. The stems are erect and vertical, generally
sterile, covered with leaf sheaths, and reaches up to 1.5 m height. It is a perennial reed-
like plant with annual leafy stems. Leaves are alternate, sessile, distichous, linear,
lanceolate, acuminate, lamina 15-20 cm long and 2-3 cm wide, continuing into a
transparent sheath on the stem (Figure1-2).
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Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs
(middle), and rhizome (right)
Flowers bloom at the axil of a bract. The ginger plant has greening calyx, and three sepals
joined at the base. Corolla is yellowish-orange. It has three stamens and only one is
fertile. The two sterile stamens are joined together to form a blade, which is 2 cm long
and 1.5 cm wide, divided into three lobes. This blade (lip) is reddish purple with lighter
patches. Stigma is in a fringed disc.
Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers
(Figure1-3). In ginger, fruit capsule are with three loculi and fruits are very rarely found.
Seeds are angular, small, black, arillated and they develop very rarely. Because of its
aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is often used as
landscaping around subtropical homes
Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower
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1.3 Ginger Production in Ethiopia
Some ancient literatures claim that, in Wolaita (Jansen, 1981) and in the neighboring
areas of Kambata-Tambaro, SNNPRS ginger has been cultivated long ago applying some
modern agronomic management practices. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub-
optimal rain- fed conditions with the rain fall often less than 1500 mm per annum and at
lower temperatures (Jansen, 1981). However, reasonable yields, i.e., as high as 30 tons of
fresh rhizome yield per hectare has been recorded in some parts of the country, mainly in
SNNPRS under farmers management condition (Geta and Kifle, 2011). However, the
average yield reported for ginger in the region was only 16 tons/ha according to the
report of BoARD (2008).
Long ago, ginger production in Ethiopia was restricted to a home garden using local
cultivars at the level of small-holder farmers to be used for household consumption
and/or for small local trading. Nowadays, farmers in some parts of SNNPRS have been
engaged in large scale commercial production covering more than ten hectares of land
using newly introduced relatively high yielding cultivars, especially at Boloso Bombe, at
Wolaita Zone, SNNPRS. Moreover, the level of ginger production in Ethiopia has also
been -advanced to the level of large scale commercial farms at the level of big investors.
For instance, Horizon Plantations P.L.C., at Bebeka, south western part of SNNPRS has
started ginger cultivation in its estate spreading to an area of about 985 ha, which may be
the largest single location to cultivate ginger in the country. This company is said to be
able to identify suitable cost effective technology for sustainable crop production, harvest
and postharvest management with a vision to increase the productivity and quality of
final product. As a result, the area and production (Table 1-1) of ginger in Ethiopia have
shown a trend of progressive increase in the past 10 years, except in 2011 where a sudden
drop was occurred due to a market price fall of ginger in the previous year.
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Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011) Year Area (ha) Production (tonnes)
2002 1200 4000
2003 1500 5000
2004 2000 6000
2005 2100 7000
2006 2400 8000
2007 2700 9000
2008 3000 10000
2009 3300 11000
2010 2717 12130
2011 2046 7746
Source: faostat.fao.org (2013)
For the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood --10th
and 14th
position in
terms of area cultivated and production of ginger, respectively as compared to the 36
countries engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013). In this regard, the global
position of the country will further be augmented by simply improving the production
and postharvest quality of the crop since the current position has only been obtained from
the traditionally managed production of the crop. To this effect, improved varieties that
would satisfy international quality standards in terms of oleoresin and essential oil as well
as other quality parameters need to be cultivated extensively making the use of well-
established extension systems. Using improved agronomic practices will also play a
significant role in the improvement of yield in ginger production.
Some farmers as a culture continue growing ginger at commercial level even at the time
of great fall of the market price in previous year, speculating the re-rise of the price. In
some parts of Omo Sheleqo, SNNPRS including Umbukuna and the neighboring Peasant
Associations (PAs), other crops are rarely grown as the result of damage caused by wild
lives except -ginger. In such PAs, ginger has been grown year after year irrespective of
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8
any condition including at the time of low market price, which ensures sustainability of
ginger production in the country.
1.4 Ginger Production in SNNPRS
The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) of Ethiopia,
is endowed with a verity of horticultural crops, especially with spices including
Kororima (Aframomum kororima), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Cardamom (Elletaria
cardamomum), Black pepper (Piper nigrum), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), and
ginger (Zingiber officinale) more than any other regions of the country for which ginger
is the most important. Spices are high value and export-oriented crops, playing important
roles in agricultural economy of the country. Spice crops have significant contribution to
raise the socio-economic status of the rural people. For instance, they contribute to earn
foreign currency and decrease environmental degradation. Among all spices, ginger is the
main cash crop that is improving and backing up the livelihood of its growers in the
region.
Table 1-2 shows the land area covered by some spice crops including ginger and the total
production for respective spice crops grown in SNNPRS in the past five consecutive
years (2008-2012) (BoARD, 2013). Over these years, ginger has shown apparent
progressive increase both in terms of area coverage and amount of production in the
region.
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9
Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012) Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Spice Crop
Area
covere
d (ha)
Producti
on (qt)
Area
covered
(ha)
Producti
on (qt)
Area
covere
d(ha)
Productio
n (qt)
Area
covere
d (ha)
Production
(qt)
Area
covered
(ha)
Production
(qt)
Pepper 58054 427140 36362 342310 48494 615345 43590 377695 48518. 485980
Ginger 19452 2176375 19802 2358802 20241 3069142 20966 5449296 26972 6500497
Kororima 1495 7088 3252 20721 4140 24342 1892 11106 13300 75226
Cinnamon 0 0 5 6 5 5 8 8 67.7 38
Turmeric 778 77800 924 147233 1106 288665 1120.6 279907 1971.2 395209
Black
pepper 0 0 0 0 24 192 98 637 3334.5 14777
Cardamom 6 72 6 78 26 520 34 221 47.014 277
Chili 0 0 0 0 1164 12789 1145 13450 1389.9 7680
Other spices 738 75200 1047 13563 275 1760 1225 28933 649.8 2818
Source: Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS, 2013, unpublished data
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10
In 2006/07, about 2,896372 quintals of fresh ginger was produced from an area of 18,240
hectares of land indicating the regional average rhizome yield of 160 qt/ha (BoARD,
2008), (Table 1-3). However, in 2012, a total ginger rhizome fresh yield of 6500497
quintals was reported (BoARD, 2012) at a regional level from the area of 48518 hectares,
which indicates an increase of production by over 44% within five years -. The statistical
information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development indicated that 99%
of crop production was from the SNNPRS.
Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS
(2006/07) Administrative
zone/special
wereda
Woreda Area (ha) Production
(qt)
Yield
(qt/ha)
Hadiya West Badawacho 423 67680 160
Wolaita Boloso Bombe 7000 1120000 160
Kambata-Tambaro Hadaro-Tunto Kacha
Bira
8223 1308652 159
Dawro Gena Bosa 1500 225000 150
Kafa Gimbo 55 8800 160
Shaka 379 60640 160
Bench Maji Sheko 187 29920 160
Konta 473 75680 160
Total 18240 2896372
Source: Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS, 2006/07, unpublished
data
Demographic data (Table 1-4) on land use pertaining to ginger production in the major
ginger cultivating woredas of SNNPRS indicated that 80 and 85% of the total population
at Hadaro-Tunto and Boloso Bombe woredas respectively have been engaged in ginger
production. Similarly, considerable amount of ginger production undergoes in some sub-
optimal woredas for ginger production that encompasses some parts of Kadida Gamela,
and Belle woredas of the region
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11
Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas,
SNNPRS
Woreda Total
population
Population
density
(persons/km2)
Arable
land
(ha)
Total area
allotted to
ginger
production(ha)
Percentage
of ginger
producing
farmers
Total
ginger
production
(qt)
Hadaro-
Tunto
121,715 600 12,559 3986 80 637760
Boloso
Bombe
108,342 406 - 5000 85 600000
Source: Agriculture and Rural Development Offices of Hadaro-TuntoZuria and Boloso
Bombe woreda, SNNPRS, 2008, unpublished data
Considering individual farmers who are engaged in commercial production of ginger,
especially in Boloso Bombe woreda, it is not unusual to see more than a hectare of land
allotted to ginger. This indicates sustainability of ginger production in the region.
In general, the region has a huge potential of ginger production attaining a total of
300,0000 qt of fresh ginger per annum (Table 1-3), which is expected to sufficiently
satisfy a number of companies/enterprises interested to take part in various sorts of
ginger processing investments in the region.
1.5 Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS
Higher and more extensive production of ginger occurs following the rise of market price
in the previous year in SNNPRS. Consequently, it tends to replace enset and permanent
cash crops including coffee and banana. Farmers were accustomed to sell-their dairy
cattle and oxen out to use them as cash source for purchasing-ginger seed. However, in
the subsequent years, it has been a common phenomenon to see a sudden fall of the price
shortly followed by a high supply, which in turn, results in a low market demand of the
production. Consequently, a total production and the size of land allotted by farmers to
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12
ginger drops down at a very fast rate, especially in areas having little traditions of ginger
production (Geta and Kifle, 2011)
Currently, a sudden outbreak of bacterial wilt disease has occurred on ginger throughout
the -region showing a tendency of -complete crop loss. -Diseases have devastated all
cultivars of ginger cultivated currently in the region including the local cultivars and the
improved varieties released so far in the country. This in turn, calls for the urgency of
searching for an effective remedy so as to bring about resistant varieties and improved
disease management practices.
1.5.1 Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS
Ginger is a vegetative plant that comes from the family of Zingiberaceae. This family is
the largest family in the order of Zingiberales that include approximately 50 genera and
more than 1000 species (Rashid, et al, 2013). There is a wide variability among ginger
accessions in Ethiopia, which has an important implication for breeding ginger for yield,
morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et al, 2011). SNNPRS can be considered as
treasure house of ginger germ plasmas because there are several cultivated types of
ginger available in the region, which are generally named after the localities they are
being grown in. In line with this, farmers in SNNPRS have identified two broad groups
of ginger varieties: local and introduced, each group, in turn, comprising two varieties
with distinct morphological characteristics (Geta and Kifle, 2011). Accordingly, farmers
in Wolaita, SNNPRS, have classified the local cultivars as Masculine- and Feminine
Wolaita. Similarly, farmers in Kambata-Tambaro, identified one local cultivar known as
Hargema (Figure 1-4), which shows great resemblance with the cultivar Masculine
wolaita of Wolaita.
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13
Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right)
In both administrative zones, the local cultivars have been under production since time
immemorial. However, cultivars categorized in the other group (Bilbo and Volvo
(Figure1-5)) were introduced to the area very around 1998. (Geta and Kifle, 2011). As
farmers` believe, these two cultivars have been transferred from Kacha Bira to Hadaro-
Tunto and then to Bombe area through an informal seed system of farmer-to-market-to-
farmer seed distribution mechanism. Most farmers have substituted the local cultivars
with the new introductions. Each quarter of ginger production of the region has unique
cultivars. The occurrence of variability among ginger germ plasms has an important
implication for breeding ginger for yield, morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et
al., 2011). The different characteristics/requirements of the major ginger vernaculars
currently cultivated in SNNPRS as pointed out by the farmers as presented in Table 1-5.
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14
Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single
tap root (right)
Some preliminary research conducted at Tepi, Ethiopia indicated that the local and exotic
ginger germ plasms showed variability in their morphological characters, fresh rhizome
yield, oil and oleoresin content (Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008). As can be seen from
Table 1-5, farmers also identified a lot of variations among the different cultivars for pre-
harvest requirements and postharvest characteristics as well as their distinctions in
commercial values. However, no attention so far in the region was given towards solving
the multifaceted bottlenecks of the crop to improve its productivity and quality.
Following are areas of research interventions identified for evaluating variability existing
among and within the locally introduced and released ginger varieties:
Drought tolerance
Fertilizer requirements
o Chemical fertilizers
o Organic fertilizers
Farmyard manure
Compost
Coffee- husk and pulp
o Combination of both chemical and organic fertilizers
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15
Variability in indoor storability in maintaining the required quality
Variation in suitability for extended harvesting
Variation in susceptibility to mould development during wet weather drying
condition
Variation in response to dry planting
Variation in productivity per unit area
Cost analysis of root trimming
Cost analysis of harvesting
Variability in stage of maturity
Variation in suitability for fresh ginger
Analysis of variation in dry matter content
Analysis of variation in chemical composition
Analysis of variation in fiber content
Analysis in variation of pungency
Analysis of variation in oleoresin and volatile oil content
Variation in rate of drying
Analysis of quality deterioration as affected by storage duration
o Percentage of weight loss
o Percentage of oleoresin and volatile oil content
Variability for disease tolerance
Variability for seed production
o Variability for mass propagation employing tissue culture techniques
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16
Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS
Category Vernacular Unique
characteristics
common characteristics
Local Feminine
Wolaita
Highly
palmated
rhizomes
Large sized
rhizomes
More
productive
Drought tolerant
Less fertilizer requirement
Long postharvest storability (up to 10 years)
suitable for perenniated harvesting
Less susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet
weather condition.
More preferred to dry planting
High harvesting cost
Less productive/unit area
Large number of prominent roots
High cost of root trimming during rhizome drying
Late maturing
Less preferred for fresh rhizome market
Low dry matter content (high degree of shrinkage up on drying)
Fast rate of drying
Less attractive appearance
Much weight loss with prolonged storage period
Masculine
Wolaita
High fiber
content
Highly
pungent
Large number
of prominent
roots
(AmesaIgier)
Hargema
(Kambatigna
)
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17
Introduced Bilbo
(wolaitignaa
ndKambatiga
)
One prominent
root/digitaly
palmated
rhizome
Drought tolerant
Soil exhaustive
short postharvest storability
less suitable for perenniated harvesting, dries up with extended dry season as a
result of less number of prominent roots
Highly susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet
weather condition.
less preferred to dry planting
easy for manual harvesting; low harvesting cost
more productive/unit area
Low number of prominent roots
low cost of root trimming during rhizome drying
Early maturing
Highly preferred at fresh rhizome market
High dry matter content (less degree of shrinkage up on drying)
slow rate of drying
highly attractive appearance
High demand at the central market
Easily peeling off of the skin at frequent overturning during the process of
drying, which in turn, increases its susceptibility to mould development
Minimum weight loss up on prolonged storage period
VolVo(Wol
aitignaandKa
mbatiga)
2-3
prominent/tap
roots/digitalyp
almated
rhizomes
Relatively
highly pungent
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18
On the other hand, the recommended varieties such as Yali (180/73), Boziab (37/79),
38/79, 39/79, 141/79, 180/73, 181/73, 190/73, and 305/73 from Tepi Sub Research
Center have not been introduced to the area through the formal extension system. Yali
and Boziab (Figure 1-6) were officially released in 2007. They are high yielding (200-
250 qt/ha of fresh rhizome), and are reported to be promising in satisfying international
quality parameters (high content of the essential oil, 1.8-2.5% and oleoresin, 6.01-8.22%)
of the ginger export market. The vernaculars Volvo and Bilbo (Figure 1-5), which have
been informally introduced recently to the region, need to be tested for their genetic
variability with the released varieties employing scientific method(s) of characterization
because some of them, for example, Boziab and Volvo closely resemble each other and it
is hardly possible to distinguish between them in terms of both the foliar and
subterranean morphological characters.
Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right)
They are supposed to be duplicates. In the same way, their similarity for ecological and
agronomical requirements together with other quality parameters needs to be studied.
Furthermore, attempts should be made to introduce varieties that may exceed domestic
varieties in terms of some of agronomic, socio-economic and disease/pest resistance.
Moreover, the varieties intended to be introduced should fulfill the global quality
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19
standards for most of the quality parameters including appearance of the ginger rhizomes,
contents of the essential oil, oleoresin, and fiber as well as pungency, flavor and odor.
Besides, exhaustive germ plasm collection from the whole country, which is an important
tool of selection breeding, is required in order to broaden the genetic base of the crop for
further breeding and utilization.
In general, there is moderately high diversity of ginger varieties in the country, which
might serve different purposes in the ginger market if they are supported with good pre-
and postharvest management practices.
1.5.2 Climate and soil
Ginger has wider adaptability for different climatic requirements. It prefers brilliant
sunshine, heavy rain fall and high amount of relative humidity for a promising yield. Dry
spells during land preparation and before harvesting are required for large scale
cultivation. Ginger prefers warm and humid climate, with most soils that have proper
water holding capacity and aeration. The crop is sensitive to water logging, frost and
salinity and is also tolerant to wind and drought. Steep slopes in hilly areas are not
recommended for cultivation as it leads to soil erosion during heavy rainfall because
rhizome yield has negatively correlated with slope. Ginger is cultivated in the tropics
from sea level up to 1500 m altitude, but partial shade also increases its yield.
1.5.3 Temperature
The base temperature requirement for ginger is 13C and the upper limit is 32C/27C
(day/night), where as the favorable range is 19-28C. The optimum soil temperature for
germination is between 25-26C, and for growth it needs 27.5C. A temperature in excess
of 32C can cause sunburn; on the other hand, low temperatures induce dormancy. The
day and night length does not have significant variation in Ethiopia; however, in other
ginger growing countries as day length increase from 10 to 16 hours, the vegetative
growth was enhanced, while it was inhibited and rhizome swelling promoted as the day
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20
length was decreased from 16 to 10 hours. Nevertheless, further increase in day length
above 16 hour did not promote rhizome swelling.
1.5.4 Soil Requirement for ginger production
Ginger prefers soils that mostly have proper water holding capacity and aeration. It also
prefers deep, sandy loam soils. The upper layer needs to be permeable. For higher yield,
the soil should be loose, friable and offer minimum resistance to rhizome development.
Well drained soil with at least 30cm depth is essential. As depth of soil increases, its
suitability for cultivation of the ginger increases. In heavy clay soils, deep plowing allows
better root penetration and free rhizome development. Stony and water logging soils need
to be avoided for ginger production. Compact clay soils, which are subject to water
logging or coarse, sands without water holding capacity, gravelly soils or those with hard
pan are not conducive for the production of high yielding healthy plants. The most
favorable soil pH is 6.0-6.5. Though ginger is grown on a wide variety of soils such as
sandy loams, black rich clay soils and lateritic soils, for optimum yield it best prefers
medium loam soils with a good supply of humus.
Most parts of ginger growing areas of the region are characterized by clay loam and
sandy loam soils, which are suitable for the production of quality ginger. However,
research needs to be conducted in the major ginger producing areas of the region in order
to have the general information on the soil properties, which in turn, will have
implications on the proper management of the soils.
1.5.5 Rainfall
Ginger is cultivated in the tropics with an annual rain fall of 1500 mm or more (up to
3000 mm) (Purseglove, 1972). A rainfall of, well distributed in 8-10 months is ideal for
ginger production. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub optimal conditions with rain
fall often less than 1500 mm per year (Jansen, 1981). Since ginger is cultivated under rain
fed and irrigated conditions in areas that receive less rainfall, the crop needs regular
irrigation.
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21
Data on physical environment for major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS is indicated in
Table 1-6. However, research is required to determine the climatic requirements for the
different ginger cultivars for an optimum yield and premium quality.
Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS Wereda Area ( km2 ) Mean annual
rain fall (mm)
Mean
annual
temperature
(C)
Elevation
(masl)
Hadaro-Tunto Zuria 367.9 1201-1400 15.1-22.5 1001-3000
Kacha-Bira
Boloso Sorie 543.5 1201-1600 17.6-25 501-2500
Boloso Bombe
West Badawacho 552.8 801-1400 17.6-27.5 1501-2500
East Badawacho
Source: SNNPRS Trade and Industry Bureau statistical abstracts (1995-1999), 2000 EC.
1.6 References
1. Abeykera, WKSM, Illeperuma, CK. Amunugoda, PNRL, Wijeralasm, SW. 2005.
Composition of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Clones Dried at Different Temperatures
for Oil and Oleoresin Content. Sri Lankan journal of Agricultural sciences. 42:34-42
2. Argaw, M., S. Alamerew, G.H/Michael, and A. Tesfaye. 2011. Variability of Vinger
(ZingiberofficinaleRosce) Accessions for Morphological and Some Quality Traits in
Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Research. 6(6): 444-457.
3. Baladin, D. A, O. Headley, L. Chang Yen, and, DR. McGaw. 1998. High Pressure Liquid
Chromatographic Analysis of the Main Pungent principles of solar dried West Indian ginger.
Rentable Energy. 13(14): 531-536
4. Bartley J, A. Jacobs 2000. Effects of drying on flavor compounds in Australian-grown ginger
(Zingiberofficinale). J. Sci. Food Agric., 80(2): 209-215.
5. BoARD (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS), 2008. Unpublished data
6. BoARD (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS), 2012. Unpublished data
7. BoARD (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS), 2013. Unpublished data
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8. FAO. 2013. FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
RomeItaly.http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/desktopdefault.aspx?pageID=567 (September,4,
2013).
9. Geta, E., and A. Kifle. 2011. Production, Processing and Marketing of ginger in Southern
Ethiopia. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry. 3(7): 207-213
10. HailemichaelG., and K. Tesfaye. 2008. The Effects of Seed Rhizome Size on the Growth,
Yield and Economic Return of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosce). Asian J. Plant Sci., 7: 213-
217.
11. Jansen P. C. M., 1981. Spices, Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, their Taxonomy
and Agricultural Significance. Wageningen PUDOC., pp. 1-132.
12. Kizhakkayi,,J. and B. Sasikumar. 2009. Variability for quality traits in a global germplaasm
collection of ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) current trends in biotechnology ginger and
pharmacy. 3(3) 254-259
13. Purseglove JW (1972). Tropical crops: Monocotyledons, 1st edition,Longman group Limited,
UK, London, pp. 52-54.
14. Rashid, K., A. B. M. Daran, A. Nezhadahmadi, K. H. B. Zainoldin, S. Azhar, S.
Efzueni.2013. The Effect of Using Gamma Rays on Morphological Characteristics of Ginger
(Zingiberofficinale) Plants.Life Science Journal. 10(1)
15. Sanwal, SK., N. Ral, J. Singh, J. Buragobala. 2010. Antioxidant Phytochemicals and
GingerolContent in Diploid and TetraploidClones of Ginger. ScienciaHorticulturae. 124:
280-285
16. Wresdiyati, T., Astawaa, M., Muchtadi, D. Nardiana, Y. 2007. Antioxidant Activity of
Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Oleoresin on the Profile of Superoxide Permutase in
theKidney of Rats under Stress Condition Journal Technologi Dan Industri Pangan 8(2) 118-
122
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23
2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER
Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima
2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger
As a pre-harvest management, ginger needs several precautions to be taken in to
consideration. These includes: land preparation, Methods of Propagation, weeding and so
on, which will be discussed in details in the sub-topics to follow.
2.1.1 Land Preparation
Plowing is necessary to prepare the land for a new crop. It improves the structure and
water holding capacity of the soil. In areas where water is limiting factor, plowing
enhances water conservation as well. Plowing the land after harvesting the previous crop
is said to improve the soil structure and water holding capacity. It also reduces soil-born
pests and diseases by exposing the soil to the sun. Deep plowing is necessary to break an
impermeable hard sub soil layer (plowing pan), remove the weeds and bring the land to
fine tilth. It also encourages root growth.
To produce high yield of ginger, the soil should be loose and friable. The mode of
preparing soil depends to a considerable extent up on climate, and the farmers must use
their judgment to choose the most suitable method. The soil should be thoroughly broken
up and pulverized with a hoe or plough and if possible harrowed afterwards; without such
improvement in tilth, the crop fails to produce good shaped rhizomes, which are desirable
for marketing and postharvest processing. Land preparation may vary with soil type,
slope and irrigation.
Most ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS start plowing the land allocated to ginger
production just at the end of the main rain season (between late September and early
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24
October) after harvesting the previous crop. Plowing the same unit of land will be
repeated for about 3-5 times. The land that has been pulverized to a fine tilth at the end
of the rainy season when the soil is at moist condition will conserve its moisture until 2-3
months. Depending on the soil type and the moisture content of the soils as well as the
capacity of the farmer to use oxen power, the total number of tillage frequency ranges
between 3 and 10, with the highest frequency being more productive (Geta and Kifle,
2011)
According to Geta and Kifle (2011), plowing the land just at the end of the main rainy
season allows dry season planting of ginger. It enables early planting of the crop to take
advantage of using the total annual precipitation distributed in the growing season and the
crop will complete its normal growth cycle, which in turn, makes it more productive.
Conversely, late planting, as the result of late onset of rain, results in significant yield
reduction. However, so far, there have been no research results on the yield difference
between early dry planting (moisture conserved land) and late wet planting, the latter is
not recommended as the crop does not complete its normal growth cycle, which results in
poor yield. This also calls for additional research to be conducted.
2.1.2 Method of propagation and management of planting materials
Ginger is propagated asexually by planting pieces/portion of rhizomes, (usually 2.5 to 5
cm long, weighing 20-30 gm) which have at least one good bud. As ginger rarely sets
seed, the general mode of propagation is asexual, with a low proliferation rate (about 10-
15 buds from one plant/year). Hence, ginger improvement is mainly through introduction
and selection.
In SNNPRS, farmers have developed their own traditional management method of ginger
planting material. It involves two methods: underground storage method and indoor
storage. The former method is not a common practice, but the latter is the popular seed
management method that most farmers are practicing in the region. With the first method,
ginger rhizomes of the previous crop are kept in the ground without being harvested until
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25
planting and after harvesting. Just before planting, rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets
(Figure 2-1) of the required sizes and are immediately planted. In this case, it may take 2-
3 months for the sets of the rhizome to emerge.
Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece
This may have a negative effect on the exploitation of the growth cycle of the crop within
the season and the total rhizome yield and quality. This will also be kept as a future
research topic. The second method of propagation of sprouted rhizome pieces (Figure
2.1) involves the following steps:
rhizomes of the previous crops are harvested in November
rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets of the required sizes (usually 2.5-5 cm
length) and are placed mostly in plastic bags
Bags containing the sets of ginger are stored in residential houses placing one
up on the other to form different layers of stratum.
After 15 days to one month storage time of cutting the rhizomes in to pieces, the cut
sets/piece tends to sprout in the bags where they are stored. Once sprouting is initiated,
dry or wet planting will take place if the onset of the rain coincides with sprouting. The
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26
rate of germination of rhizomes using indoor seed storage method is found to be very fast
as it emerges in 15 days after planting.
2.1.3 Rhizome Seed size
Farmers in the SNNPRS use larger pieces/sets of ginger rhizomes (approximately larger
than the recommended range of 2.5 to 5 cm). This is in line with the recommendation
given by Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008, (Figure 2-2). It states that an increase in seed
rhizome size (using a rhizome seed size of 9.1 cm) will significantly increase the major
growth parameters and dry rhizome yield and using large seed rhizome was also found to
be economically profitable. The reason that some farmers use larger pieces in Wolaita
area is to re-harvest a mother rhizome, which they call Kenna, together with the
daughter rhizomes since it is economically valuable when they sell it after sun-drying
(Geta and Asfaw, 2011). However, no scientific evidence has been reported on the
quality of Kenna to be used as an input for preparing any sort of ginger products (ginger
powder, oleoresin, and volatile oil).
Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece
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27
2.1.4 Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting
Size of sets/cut pieces of ginger rhizome is one of the major factors that affects seed rate
in ginger. Research conducted at Tepi Agricultural Research Center (TARC) indicated
that using 25 quintals of fresh ginger rhizomes/ha at the spacing of 30 cm x 15 cm gave
higher rhizome yield. However, the recommended spacing is only possible with
mechanization. Farmers claim that the setup of the traditional plow does not allow
maintaining the suggested spacing, particularly for large scale or commercial production.
Thus, the spacing between any of the adjacent plow-made rows should be adjusted to
about 40 cm so as to tailor the size of the traditional plow to that of the recommended
spacing. By so doing, the number of population per unit area can be nearly made similar
to that of the recommended spacing.
Because of its biennial nature (7-9 months), ginger needs to be planted as early as
possible in the growing season in order that it would have sufficient time to exploit the
limited moisture which is commonly experienced in many parts of the region. In most
cases, it is customary to plant ginger in the dry months on plots of land which have been
prepared during the wet season with the objective of conserving water for dry planting.
However, to make use of the conserved water, deep planting is essential.
Long ago, Jansen (1981) reported a planting depth of 5-10 cm used for ginger production
in Ethiopia. Planting depth is one of the most limiting agronomic factors that affect
productivity of ginger. It may vary depending up on seed size, soil type and soil moisture
content. In general, bolder seeds are planted deeper and smaller seeds at a shallow depth.
As depth of planting influences the time of germination, it is necessary to plant at
optimum depth. Deep planting does not allow horizontal development of rhizomes.
Horizontal development of rhizome just beneath the soil surface has a positive correlation
with the yield and appearance of ginger rhizome.
Research conducted aiming at the effect of time of planting on the rhizome yield of
ginger indicated that planting ginger in March and April would show better growth and
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28
gave better rhizome yield. However, farmers of SNNPRS especially, farmers in Wolaita
and Kambata-Tambaro prefer dry planting in December and January on the unit of lands
that have been pulverized to a fine tilth during the wet season for the purpose of moisture
conservation. Farmers declare that this joint effect of planting time associated with the
described tillage practice considerably increases productivity of ginger. In general, seed
rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting need to be explored in order to exploit
the genetic potential of the ginger varieties.
2.1.5 Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers
To get high yields, ginger needs fertilizer. There are two groups of crop nutrients: organic
and chemical fertilizers. Farmyard manures, poultry manure and compost are three types
of organic manures that have been used in ginger production. Using organic fertilizers
results in better rhizome yield on sandy soils than on clayey soils, because it is quite
sticky. Sandy soils will not fall apart as easily as manures are added; therefore, they will
be able to hold more water.
Ginger is a soil-exhausting crop, requiring heavy fertilization. As a result, in the past,
newly cleared land was required for its production. Otherwise, dressing of manures was
necessary for good yields (Jansen, 1981). Similarly, most small-scale ginger-farmers still
have continued using farmyard manure. Some farmers have experiences of adding dry
manures in to the ground 2 to 3 months ahead of planting as fresh manure is too strong
and can damage the sprouting plants. In fact large dressing of manure is necessary for
good yields.
Since the availability of farmyard manure is restricted/scarce, it cannot support large
scale ginger production. On the other hand, the rate of its application for optimum yield
per unit area has also not been determined. In addition, farmers working with farmyard
manures complain that it is a laborious activity. To undertake large scale production
outside the homestead, the cost of transportation of farmyard manure is also very high. It
has also been mentioned that application of organic fertilizers at the level of large scale
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production is highly time consuming task. Farmers also argue that inputs for making
compost are highly scarce and do not allow large scale commercial production.
However, some small-scale farmers in the region use compost, which is a source of
nutrient made from all kinds of organic materials such as crop residues, kitchen wastes,
garden cuttings, and manure, are used for production of ginger. Compost is especially
useful for improving the soil structure and fertility. Therefore, it supplies nutrients at the
right time in required quantities.
Coffee- pulp and husk have been the other sources of nutrients used by the farmers that
produce ginger at commercial level in some parts of the region, especially at Hadaro-
Tunto and KachaBira districts of Kambata-Tambaro zone, SNNPRS. They buy the coffee
pulp/husk from the wet and/or dry coffee processing companies operating in their vicinity
and even from the neighboring weredas, and they transport it to their farms using rented
or self-owned cars when they anticipate high market demand for their ginger product. In
most cases, they supply the coffee pulp to the farmers to apply on their own land holdings
ahead of ginger planting in order that both parties would have mutual benefit on a given
traditional shareholding agreement. Both parties believe that application of coffee
husk/pulp alone or in mixture with industrial fertilizers, as a nutrient source for ginger
production incredibly increases productivity of ginger. However, the correct proportion
of combination of both nutrient sources for optimum yield/quality need to be defined.
Although the price of chemical fertilizers is high and chemical fertilizers do not improve
the soil structure (but enrich the soil by adding nutrients).Some farmers producing ginger
at commercial level use DAP when they expect good yield and prices. DAP is commonly
used chemical fertilizer. Formerly, almost all farmers did not use UREA for ginger
production as they claim that UREA dries the soils. Time of application is variable
with season of planting. For example, during dry planting, farmers do not apply chemical
fertilizers. They apply the fertilizer by broadcasting approximately 3-4.5 months of
planting during the third weeding/cultivation at the rate of approximately 100 kg/ha when
the rhizomes are emerged. However, farmers do not use chemical fertilizers in small
scale cultivation, when prices are fluctuating. Research is required to determine the
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correct type, rate and time of application of the chemical fertilizers for the optimum
yield/quality as well as to analyze the economic aspect of fertilizer application. In India
farmers apply manure 25-30 tons/ha or apply compost at planting, and N 36, P, 16, and K
66 kg/ha (Jansen, 1981). The recommended rate of chemical fertilizers at Tepi research
center for an optimum yield of ginger was 375 kg/ha urea and 175kg/ha DAP.
2.1.6 Weeding/Cultivation of ginger
Ginger is a very vulnerable crop, which is easily affected by weed damage. Weeds
compete for light, water and nutrients resulting in a significant yield reduction. In
Ethiopia, farmers follow non-chemical weed management practices that include deep
plowing of the seed bed at the end of the rainy season and frequent cultivation/hoe using
hand tools. In Wolaita, SNNPRS, before planting ginger, farmers begin to prepare
seedbed at the end of the main rainy season (between late September and early October)
plowing the same unit of land as frequently as 3-5 times. By doing so, seeds of weeds get
exposed to the sun periodically and most of them are destroyed until dry-planting will
take place 2-3 months after land preparation in (February/January).
Cultivation commences before germination takes place in order that the soil would get
loose which may facilitate the emergence of the rhizome seeds. Cultivation frequency is
at every 15 days intervals for about 5-12 times (for the crop to be harvested in one
season) and 4-6 times (for the extended crop) which loosens soil that has crusted or
become compacted. This will bring about the free development of rhizomes. Loosening
the soil helps the absorption of rain water and supplies oxygen to the soil micro-
organisms., These micro-organisms in turn decompose organic matter and provide
nutrients for the ginger crop (Jansen, 1981).
The surface soil may become hardened after rain or irrigation. Soil stirring and earthing
up are essential as they help in enlargement of daughter rhizomes and provide adequate
aeration for roots and protect the rhizome from scale insects apart from controlling
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weeds. The first earthling up is done at 45th
day and second at 120-135th
day. Earthing up
may be combined with hand hoeing or weeding.
2.1.7 Crop rotation and intercropping
Where ginger is grown in monoculture, crop rotation is important as ginger is a heavy
feeder. Crop rotation implies planting different crops on the field each season and only
returning the same crop after at least three growing seasons. This interrupts the life cycle
of pathogens and reduces the chance of damage by diseases or pests. In SNNPRS, crop
rotation with ginger is a common practice. However, it is not perfect rotation as it
involves crops of the same family. The crops used in the rotation include maize, taro, teff,
sweet potato, haricot bean, etc. The objective of a farmer to employ crop rotation is not
necessarily to make use of the purpose of crop rotation. Rather, it is to avoid yield
reduction that would result from repeated monocroping. Some farmers claim that it
makes no difference with employing monocroping or crop rotation if proper amount of
fertilizer (chemical and organic) is used.
In subsistent agricultural systems, farmers have established mixed cropping or
intercropping to minimize certain risks. Intercropping gives high output, maintains soil
fertility, and gives greater stability of production. Ginger in the region is usually inter- or
strip-cropped with maize, taro, haricot been or coffee. It is not unusual to observe ginger
plants growing under coffee plants withstanding the effect of light shade. Nevertheless,
the land equivalent ratio for the different crops involved and the yield difference as the
effect of direct and defused light calls for research.
2.1.8 Mulching
Mulching means covering the ground with a layer of loose material such as compost,
manure, straw, dry grass, leaves or crop residues. Green vegetation is not normally used
as it can take a long time to decompose and can attract pests and fungal diseases.
.Mulches have several effects on the soil which help to improve plant growth: enhances
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germination, prevents washing of soil due to heavy rain and surface run off , increases
infiltration conserves moisture, regulates temperature, decreasing water loss due to
evaporation decreases evaporation, suppresses weed growth by reducing the amount of
light reaching the soil, increasing the number of micro-organisms in the top soil enhances
microbial activity and improves soil fertility by adding organic matter. Mulching changes
the physical and chemical environment of the soil resulting in increased availability of
phosphorus and potassium. The quantity of mulch applied varies with availability of
material. In general, 10 to 30ton/ha is applied twice or thrice, one at planting, second at
45th
day and third at 90th
day after planting. Commonly used mulch materials are green
and dry forest leaves, residues like sugarcane trash, wheat, finger millet barely straws and
also weeds and vegetation of the locality. Farm yard manure and compost are also used.
Banana and green forest leaves were found best. If the quantity of above materials are in
short supply, live mulches like niger, common sesbania, cluster bean, soy bean and cow
pea can be grown as intercrop and used for insitu mulching between 45-60 days after
planting. Straw mulching increased yield by 12.2% over unmulched farm. Application of
forest leaves at 20 t/ha in to two equal splits, one at planting and second at 45th
day after
planting increased yield by 200%.
Small-scale ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS mainly use plant residues of enset,
banana, maize, weeds, etc. as mulch just after dry planting of ginger has been carried out.
Mulching with plant residues is mainly employed for soil moisture retention, in case the
dry spell tends to extend.
2.2 Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger
Ginger should be harvested after the leaves have died (seven to nine months after
planting) and the ginger root has fully matured. Internal flesh color should be pale
yellow. Delaying harvesting after maturity will reduce the rhizome quality, decrease the
storage life and increase the incidence of sprouting during storage. Rhizomes are
harvested carefully by hand using a fork to lift and break the soil. Time of harvesting of
ginger depends mainly on cultivar, local demand and rhizome end use; for general
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wholesale in local or oversea markets or to be processed for spice, oil and oleoresins.
Fresh ginger might be harvested about five months after planting. For preserved ginger,
they are usually dug up five to seven months after planting, before they are fully mature
but while they are still tender and mild.
In Ethiopia, it is not usual to harvest ginger based on the end use. In SNNRS, for dried
and fresh ginger, mature rhizome with a full aroma, flavor and pungency are harvested
after planting when the leaves begin to turn yellow or completely withered away, internal
flesh color should be pale yellow. In the SNNPRS, harvesting is usually manual usi