Geothermal Heat Pump - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
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Geothermal heat pump
Ground source heating and cooling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about using heat pumps to heat and cool buildings using the earth as a
heat reservoir. For generation of electricity from genuine geothermal energy from hot
rocks, see geothermal power. For using energy from hot rocks to heat directly,
seegeothermal heating.
A geothermal heat pumpor ground source
heat pump(GSHP) is a central heatingand/or
cooling system that transfers heat to or from the
ground.
It uses the earth as a heat source (in the winter) or
a heat sink(in the summer). This design takes
advantage of the moderate temperatures in the
ground to boost efficiency and reduce the
operational costs of heating and cooling systems,
and may be combined with solar heatingto formageosolarsystem with even greater efficiency.
Ground source heat pumps are also known as
"geothermal heat pumps" although, strictly, the
heat does not come primarily from the centre of the
Earth, but from the Sun. They are also known by
other names, including geoexchange, earth-
coupled, earth energysystems. The engineering
and scientific communities prefer the terms
"geoexchange" or "ground source heat pumps" to
avoid confusion with traditional geothermal power, which uses a high temperature heatsource to generate electricity.[1]Ground source heat pumps harvest heat absorbed at the
Earth's surface from solar energy. The temperature in the ground below 6 metres (20 ft) is
roughly equal to the mean annual air temperature[2]at that latitude at thesurface.
Depending onlatitude, the temperature beneath the upper 6 metres (20 ft) of Earth's
surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 10 and 16 C (50 and 60 F),[3]if
the temperature is undisturbed by the presence of a heat pump. Like a refrigerator or air
conditioner, these systems use a heat pumpto force the transfer of heat fromthe ground.
Heat pumps can transfer heat from a cool space to a warm space, against the natural
direction of flow, or they can enhance the natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool
one. The core of the heat pumpis a loop of refrigerant pumped through a vapor-
compression refrigerationcycle that moves heat.Air-source heat pumpsare typically more
efficient at heating than pure electric heaters, even when extracting heat from cold winter
air, although efficiencies begin dropping significantly as outside air temperatures drop
below 5 C (41 F). A ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground. This is
much more energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable than air
temperatures through the year. Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear
below 7 metres (23 ft)[4]to 12 metres (39 ft)[5]due to thermal inertia. Like a cave, the
shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above during the winter and cooler than
the air in the summer. A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat in the winter (forheating) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer (for cooling). Some
systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling, depending on
climate.
Geothermal pump systems reach fairly high Coefficient of performance(CoP), 3 to 6, on
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Sustainable energy
Energy conservation
CogenerationEnergy eff iciencyHeat pum pGreen buildingMicrogenerationPassive solar
Renew able energy
Anaerobic digestionGeothermalHydroelectricitySolarTidalWind
Sustainable transport
Carbon-neutral fuelElectric vehicleGreen vehiclePlug-in hybridRail transport
Sustainable dev elopment portal
Renewable energy portal
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VTE
the coldest of winter nights, compared to 1.75-2.5 for air-source heat pumps on cool
days.[6]Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) are among the most energy efficient
technologies for providing HVACand water heating.[7][8]
Setup costs are higher than for conventional systems, but the difference is usually
returned in energy savings in 3 to 10 years, and even shorter lengths of time with federal,
state and utility tax credits and incentives. Geothermal heat pump systems are reasonably
warranted by manufacturers, and their working life is estimated at 25 years for inside
components and 50+ years for the ground loop.[9]As of 2004, there are over a million unitsinstalled worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity, with an annual growth rate of
10%.[10]
Contents [hide]
1 Differing terms and definitions
2 History
3 Ground heat exchanger
3.1 Direct exchange
3.2 Closed loop
3.2.1 Vertical
3.2.2 Horizontal
3.2.3 Radial or directional drill ing
3.2.4 Pond
3.3 Open loop
3.3.1 Standing column wel l
4 Building distribution
5 Seasonal thermal s torage
6 Thermal efficiency
7 Environmental impact
8 Economics
9 Installation
10 See also
11 References12 External links
Differing terms and definitions [edit]
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Ground source heating and cooling
Loop field for a 12-ton system (unusually
large for most residential applications)
This section requires expansion .(February 2010)
Some confusion exists with regard to the
terminology of heat pumps and the use of the term
"geothermal". "Geothermal" derives from the Greek
and means "Earth heat" - which geologists and
many laymen understand as describing hot rocks,
volcanic activity or heat derived from deep within
the earth. Though some confusion arises when the
term "geothermal" is also used to apply to
temperatures within the first 100 metres of the
surface, this is "Earth heat" all the same, though it is largely influenced by stored energy
from the sun.
History [edit]
The heat pump was described by Lord Kelvinin 1853 and developed by Peter Ritter von
Rittingerin 1855. After experimenting with a freezer, Robert C. Webber built the first direct
exchange ground-source heat pump in the late 1940s.[11]The first successful commercial
project was installed in the Commonwealth Building (Portland, Oregon)in 1946, and has
been designated a National Historic Mechanical Engineering LandmarkbyASME.[12]The
technology became popular in Sweden in the 1970s, and has been growing slowly in
worldwide acceptance since then. Open loop systems dominated the market until the
development of polybutylenepipe in 1979 made closed loop systems economically
viable.[12]As of 2004, there are over a million units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of
thermal capacity.[10]Each year, about 80,000 units are installed in the US (geothermal
energy is used in all 50 US states today, with great potential for near-term market growth
and savings)[13]and 27,000 in Sweden.[10]In Finland, a geothermal heat pump was the
most common heating system choice for new detached houses between 2006 and 2011
with market share exceeding 40%.[14]
Ground heat exchanger [edit]
See also: Ground-coupled heat exchanger
Heat pumps provide winter heating by
extracting heat from a source and transferring it
into a building. Heat can be extracted from any
source, no matter how cold, but a warmersource allows higher efficiency. A ground
source heat pump uses the top layer of the
earth's crust as a source of heat, thus taking
advantage of its seasonally moderated
temperature.
In the summer, the process can be reversed so
the heat pump extracts heat from the building
and transfers it to the ground. Transferring heat
to a cooler space takes less energy, so the cooling efficiency of the heat pump gains
benefits from the lower ground temperature.
Ground source heat pumps employ a heat exchangerin contact with the ground or
groundwater to extract or dissipate heat. This component accounts for anywhere from a
fifth to half of the total system cost, and would be the most cumbersome part to repair or
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replace. Correctly sizing this component is necessary to assure long-term performance:
the energy efficiency of the system improves with roughly 4% for every degree Celsius that
is won through correct sizing, and the underground temperature balance must be
maintained through proper design of the whole system.
Shallow 38 feet (1 to 3 metres) horizontal heat exchangers experience seasonal
temperature cycles due to solar gains and transmission losses to ambient air at ground
level. These temperature cycles lag behind the seasons because of thermal inertia, so the
heat exchanger will harvest heat deposited by the sun several months earlier, while beingweighed down in late winter and spring, due to accumulated winter cold. Deep vertical
systems 100500 feet (33 to 160 metres) rely on migration of heat from surrounding
geology, unless they are recharged annually by solar recharge of the ground or exhaust
heat from air conditioning systems.
Several major design options are available for these, which are classified by fluid and
layout. Direct exchange systems circulate refrigerant underground, closed loop systems
use a mixture of anti-freeze and water, and open loop systems use natural groundwater.
Direct exchange [edit]
Main article: Direct exchange geothermal heat pump
The Direct exchange geothermal heat pumpis the oldest type of geothermal heat pump
technology. The ground-coupling is achieved through a single loop, circulating refrigerant,
in direct thermal contact with the ground (as opposed to a combination of a refrigerant loop
and a water loop). The refrigerantleaves the heat pump cabinet, circulates through a loop
of copper tube buried underground, and exchanges heat with the ground before returning to
the pump. The name "direct exchange" refers to heat transfer between the refrigerant loop
and the ground without the use of an intermediate fluid. There is no direct interaction
between the fluid and the earth; only heat transfer through the pipe wall. Direct exchange
heat pumps, which are now rarely used, are not to be confused with "water-source heat
pumps" or "water loop heat pumps" since there is no water in the ground
loop.ASHRAE defines the term ground-coupled heat pump to encompass closed loop
and direct exchange systems, while excluding open loops.
Direct exchange systems are more efficient and have potentially lower installation costs
than closed loop water systems. Copper's high thermal conductivity contributes to the
higher efficiency of the system, but heat flow is predominantly limited by the thermal
conductivity of the ground, not the pipe. The main reasons for the higher efficiency are the
elimination of the water pump (which uses electricity), the elimination of the water-to-
refrigerant heat exchanger (which is a source of heat losses), and most importantly, thelatent heat phase change of the refrigerant in the ground itself.
While they require more refrigerant and their tubing is more expensive per foot, a direct
exchange earth loop is shorter than a closed water loop for a given capacity. A direct
exchange system requires only 15 to 30% of the length of tubing and half the diameter of
drilled holes, and the drilling or excavation costs are therefore lower. Refrigerant loops are
less tolerant of leaks than water loops because gas can leak out through smaller
imperfections. This dictates the use of brazed copper tubing, even though the pressures
are similar to water loops. The copper loop must be protected from corrosion in acidic soil
through the use of a sacrificial anodeor other cathodic protection.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted field monitoring of a direct
geoexchange heat pump water heating system in a commercial application. The EPA
reported that the system saved 75% of the electrical energy that would have been required
by an electrical resistance water heating unit. According to the EPA, if the system is
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An installed liquid
pump pack
operated to capacity, it can avoid the emission of up to 7,100 pounds of CO2 and 15
pounds of NOx each year per ton of compressor capacity (or 42,600 lbs. of CO2 and
90 lbs. of NOx for a typical 6 ton system). [15]
In Northern climates, although the earth temperature is cooler, so is the incoming water
temperature, which enables the high efficiency systems to replace more energy that would
otherwise be required of electric or fossil fuel fired systems. Any temperature above -40F
is sufficient to evaporate the refrigerant, and the direct exchange system can harvest
energy through ice.
In extremely hot climates with dry soil, the addition of an auxiliary cooling module as a
second condenser in line between the compressor and the earth loops increases efficiency
and can further reduce the amount of earth loop to be installed.
Closed loop [edit]
Most installed systems have two loops on the ground side: the primary refrigerant loop is
contained in the appliance cabinet where it exchanges heat with a secondary water loop
that is buried underground. The secondary loop is typically made of High-density
polyethylenepipe and contains a mixture of water and anti-freeze (propyleneglycol,denatured alcoholor methanol). Monopropylene glycol has the least damaging
potential when it might leak into the ground, and is therefore the only allowed anti-freeze in
ground sources in an increasing number of European countries. After leaving the internal
heat exchanger, the water flows through the secondary loop outside the building to
exchange heat with the ground before returning. The secondary loop is placed below
the frost linewhere the temperature is more stable, or preferably submerged in a body of
water if available. Systems in wet ground or in water are generally more efficient than drier
ground loops since it is less work to move heat in and out of water than solids in sand or
soil. If the ground is naturally dry, soaker hoses may be buried with the ground loop to
keep it wet.
Closed loop systems need a heat exchanger between the
refrigerant loop and the water loop, and pumps in both loops.
Some manufacturers have a separate ground loop fluid pump
pack, while some integrate the pumping and valving within the
heat pump. Expansion tanks and pressure relief valves may be
installed on the heated fluid side. Closed loop systems have
lower efficiency than direct exchange systems, so they require
longer and larger pipe to be placed in the ground, increasing
excavation costs.
Closed loop tubing can be installed horizontally as a loop field in
trenches or vertically as a series of long U-shapes in wells (see
below). The size of the loop field depends on the soil type and
moisture content, the average ground temperature and the heat loss and or gain
characteristics of the building being conditioned. A rough approximation of the initial soil
temperature is the average daily temperature for the region.
Vertical [edit]
A vertical closed loop field is composed of pipes that run vertically in the ground. A hole is
bored in the ground, typically 50 to 400 feet (15122 m) deep. Pipe pairs in the hole are
joined with a U-shaped cross connector at the bottom of the hole. The boreholeis
commonly filled with a bentonitegroutsurrounding the pipe to provide a thermal connection
to the surrounding soil or rock to improve the heat transfer. Thermally enhanced grouts are
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A 3-ton slinky loop prior to being covered
w ith soil. The three slinky loops are running
out horizontally w ith three straight lines
returning the end of the slinky coil to the heat
pump
available to improve this heat transfer. Grout also protects the ground water from
contamination, and prevents artesian wellsfrom flooding the property. Vertical loop fields
are typically used when there is a limited area of land available. Bore holes are spaced at
least 56 m apart and the depth depends on ground and building characteristics. For
illustration, a detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of heating capacity might need three
boreholes 80 to 110 m (260 to 360 ft) deep.[16](A ton of heat is 12,000 British thermal
unitsper hour (BTU/h) or 3.5 kilowatts.) During the cooling season, the local temperature
rise in the bore field is influenced most by the moisture travel in the soil. Reliable heattransfer models have been developed through sample bore holes as well as other tests.
Horizontal [edit]
A horizontal closed loop field is composed of
pipes that run horizontally in the ground. A long
horizontal trench, deeper than the frost line, is
dug and U-shaped or slinky coils are placed
horizontally inside the same trench. Excavation
for shallow horizontal loop fields is about half
the cost of vertical drilling, so this is the mostcommon layout used wherever there is
adequate land available. For illustration, a
detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of
heating capacity might need 3 loops 120 to
180 m (390 to 590 ft) long of NPS3/4 (DN 20)
or NPS 1.25 (DN 32) polyethylene tubing at a
depth of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft).[17]
The depth at which the loops are placed significantly influences the energy consumption of
the heat pump in two opposite ways: shallow loops tend to indirectly absorb more heat
from the sun, which is helpful, especially when the ground is still cold after a long winter.
On the other hand, shallow loops are also cooled down much more readily by weather
changes, especially during long cold winters, when heating demand peaks. Often, the
second effect is much greater than the first one, leading to higher costs of operation for the
more shallow ground loops. This problem can be reduced by increasing both the depth and
the length of piping, thereby s ignificantly increasing costs of installation. However, such
expenses might be deemed feasible, as they may result in lower operating costs. Recent
studies show that utilization of a non-homogeneous soil profile with a layer of low
conductive material above the ground pipes can help mitigate the adverse effects of
shallow pipe burial depth. The intermediate blanket with lower conductivity than thesurrounding soil profile demonstrated the potential to increase the energy extraction rates
from the ground to as high as 17% for a cold climate and about 5-6% for a relatively
moderate climate.[18]
A slinky (also called coiled) closed loop field is a type of horizontal closed loop where the
pipes overlay each other (not a recommended method). The easiest way of picturing a
slinky field is to imagine holding a slinkyon the top and bottom with your hands and then
moving your hands in opposite directions. A slinky loop field is used if there is not
adequate room for a true horizontal system, but it still allows for an easy installation.
Rather than using straight pipe, slinky coils use overlapped loops of piping laid out
horizontally along the bottom of a wide trench. Depending on soil, climate and the heat
pump's run fraction, slinky coil trenches can be up to two thirds shorter than traditional
horizontal loop trenches. Slinky coil ground loops are essentially a more economical and
space efficient version of a horizontal ground loop.[19]
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12-ton pond loop system being sunk to
the bottom of a pond
If one wants a single house ground source heat pump system with maximum energy
efficiency, then oversized vertical loops are usually more cost efficient than oversized and
extra deep horizontal loops.
Radial or directional drilling [edit]
As an alternative to trenching, loops may be laid by mini horizontal directional drilling(mini-
HDD). This technique can lay piping under yards, driveways, gardens or other structures
without disturbing them, with a cost between those of trenching and vertical drilling. Thissystem also differs from horizontal & vertical drilling as the loops are installed from one
central chamber, further reducing the ground space needed. Radial drilling is often installed
retroactively (after the property has been built) due to the small nature of the equipment
used and the ability to bore beneath existing constructions.
Pond [edit]
A closed pond loop is not common because it
depends on proximity to a body of water, where
an open loop system is usually preferable. A
pond loop may be advantageous where poorwater quality precludes an open loop, or where
the system heat load is small. A pond loop
consists of coils of pipe similar to a slinky loop
attached to a frame and located at the bottom
of an appropriately sized pond or water source.
Open loop [edit]
In an open loop system (also called a
groundwater heat pump), the secondary loop
pumps natural water from a well or body of water into a heat exchanger inside the heat
pump.ASHRAEcalls open loop systems groundwater heat pumpsor surface water heat
pumps, depending on the source. Heat is either extracted or added by the primary
refrigerant loop, and the water is returned to a separate injection well, irrigation trench, tile
field or body of water. The supply and return lines must be placed far enough apart to
ensure thermal recharge of the source. Since the water chemistry is not controlled, the
appliance may need to be protected from corrosion by using different metals in the heat
exchanger and pump. Limescalemay foulthe system over time and require periodic acid
cleaning. This is much more of a problem with cooling systems than heating
systems.[20]
Also, as fouling decreases the flow of natural water, it becomes difficult for theheat pump to exchange building heat with the groundwater. If the water contains high
levels of salt, minerals, iron bacteria or hydrogen sulfide, a closed loop system is usually
preferable.
Deep lake water coolinguses a similar process with an open loop for air conditioning and
cooling. Open loop systems using ground water are usually more efficient than closed
systems because they are better coupled with ground temperatures. Closed loop
systems, in comparison, have to transfer heat across extra layers of pipe wall and dirt.
A growing number of jurisdictions have outlawed open-loop systems that drain to the
surface because these may drain aquifers or contaminate wells. This forces the use ofmore environmentally sound injection wells or a closed loop system.
Standing column well [edit]
A standing column well system is a specialized type of open loop system. Water is drawn
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Liquid-to-air heat pump
from the bottom of a deep rock well, passed through a heat pump, and returned to the top
of the well, where traveling downwards it exchanges heat with the surrounding
bedrock.[21]The choice of a standing column well system is often dictated where there is
near-surface bedrock and limited surface area is available. A standing column is typically
not suitable in locations where the geology is mostly clay, silt, or sand. If bedrock is
deeper than 200 feet (61 m) from the surface, the cost of casing to seal off the overburden
may become prohibitive.
A multiple standing column well system can support a large structure in an urban or ruralapplication. The standing column well method is also popular in residential and small
commercial applications. There are many successful applications of varying sizes and well
quantities in the many boroughs of New York City, and is also the most common
application in the New England states. This type of ground source system has some heat
storage benefits, where heat is rejected from the building and the temperature of the well is
raised, within reason, during the Summer cooling months which can then be harvested for
heating in the Winter months, thereby increasing the efficiency of the heat pump system.
As with closed loop systems, sizing of the standing column system is critical in reference
to the heat loss and gain of the existing building. As the heat exchange is actually with the
bedrock, using water as the transfer medium, a large amount of production capacity (water
flow from the well) is not required for a standing column system to work. However, if there
is adequate water production, then the thermal capacity of the well system can be
enhanced by discharging a small percentage of system flow during the peak Summer and
Winter months.
Since this is essentially a water pumping system, standing column well design requires
critical considerations to obtain peak operating efficiency. Should a standing column well
design be misapplied, leaving out critical shut-off valves for example, the result could be an
extreme loss in efficiency and thereby cause operational cost to be higher than
anticipated.
Building distribution [edit]
The heat pump is the central unit that becomes
the heating and cooling plant for the building.
Some models may cover space heating, space
cooling, (space heating via conditioned
air,hydronicsystems and / or radiant
heatingsystems), domestic or pool water
preheat (via the desuperheaterfunction),
demand hot water, and driveway ice melting all
within one appliance with a variety of options
with respect to controls, staging and zone
control. The heat may be carried to its end use
by circulating water or forced air. Almost all
types of heat pumps are produced for
commercial and residential applications.
Liquid-to-airheat pumps (also called water-to-
air) output forced air, and are most commonly
used to replace legacy forced air furnaces and
central air conditioning systems. There are
variations that allow for split systems, high-
velocity systems, and ductless systems. Heat pumps cannot achieve as high a fluid
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Liquid-to-w ater heat pump
A heat pump in combination w ith heat
and cold storage
temperature as a conventional furnace, so they require a higher volume flow rate of air to
compensate. When retrofitting a residence, the existing duct work may have to be
enlarged to reduce the noise from the higher air flow.
Liquid-to-waterheat pumps (also called water-
to-water) are hydronicsystems that use water
to carry heating or cooling through the building.
Systems such as radiant underfloor
heating,baseboard radiators, conventional castiron radiatorswould use a liquid-to-water heat
pump. These heat pumps are preferred for pool
heating or domestic hot water pre-heat. Heat
pumps can only heat water to about 50 C
(122 F) efficiently, whereas a boiler normally
reaches 6595 C (149203 F). Legacy
radiators designed for these higher
temperatures may have to be doubled in
numbers when retrofitting a home. A hot water
tank will still be needed to raise water
temperatures above the heat pump's maximum, but pre-heating will save 25-50% of hot
water costs.
Ground source heat pumps are especially well matched to underfloor heating and
baseboard radiator systems which only require warm temperatures 40 C (104 F) to work
well. Thus they are ideal for open plan offices. Using large surfaces such as floors, as
opposed to radiators, distributes the heat more uniformly and allows for a lower water
temperature. Wood or carpet floor coverings dampen this effect because the thermal
transfer efficiency of these materials is lower than that of masonry floors (tile, concrete).
Underfloor piping, ceiling or wall radiators can also be used for cooling in dry climates,although the temperature of the circulating water must be above the dew pointto ensure
that atmospheric humidity does not condense on the radiator.
Combination heat pumps are available that can produce forced air and circulating water
simultaneously and individually. These systems are largely being used for houses that
have a combination of air and liquid conditioning needs, for example central air conditioning
and pool heating.
Seasonal thermal storage [edit]
Main article: Seasonal thermal energystorage
The efficiency of ground source heat pumps
can be greatly improved by using seasonal
thermal energy storageand interseasonal heat
transfer.[22]Heat captured and stored in
thermal banks in the summer can be retrieved
efficiently in the winter. Heat storage efficiency
increases with scale, so this advantage is most
significant in commercial or district
heatingsystems.
Geosolar combisystemshave been used to heat and cool a greenhouse using an aquiferfor
thermal storage.[23]In summer, the greenhouse is cooled with cold ground water. This
heats the water in the aquifer which can become a warm source for heating in
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winter.[23][24]The combination of cold and heat storage with heat pumps can be combined
with water/humidity regulation. These principles are used to provide renewable heatand
renewable cooling[25]to all kinds of buildings.
Also the efficiency of existing small heat pump installations can be improved by adding
large, cheap, water filled solar collectors. These may be integrated into a to-be-overhauled
parking lot, or in walls or roof constructions by installing one inch PEpipes into the outer
layer.
Thermal efficiency [edit]
Main article: thermal efficiency
The net thermal efficiencyof a heat pump should take into account the efficiency of
electricity generation and transmission, typically about 30%.[10]Since a heat pump moves
3 to 5 times more heat energy than the electric energy it consumes, the total energy
output is much greater than the input. This results in net thermal efficiencies greater than
300% as compared to radiant electric heat being 100% efficient. Traditional combustion
furnaces and electric heaterscan never exceed 100% efficiency.
Geothermal heat pumps can reduce energy consumption and corresponding air pollution
emissionsup to 44% compared to air source heat pumps and up to 72% compared to
electric resistance heating with standard air-conditioning equipment.[26]
The dependence of net thermal efficiency on the electricity infrastructure tends to be an
unnecessary complication for consumers and is not applicable to hydroelectric power, so
performance of heat pumps is usually expressed as the ratio of heating output or heat
removal to electricity input. Cooling performance is typically expressed in units of
BTU/hr/watt as the Energy Efficiency Ratio, (EER) while heating performance is typically
reduced to dimensionless units as the Coefficient of Performance. (COP) The conversion
factor is 3.41 BTU/hr/watt. Performance is influenced by all components of the installed
system, including the soil conditions, the ground-coupled heat exchanger, the heat pump
appliance, and the building distribution, but is largely determined by the "lift" between the
input temperature and the output temperature.
For the sake of comparing heat pump appliances to each other, independently from other
system components, a few standard test conditions have been established by
theAmerican Refrigerant Institute(ARI) and more recently by the International Organization
for Standardization. Standard ARI 330 ratings were intended for closed loop ground-source
heat pumps, and assumes secondary loop water temperatures of 77 F (25 C) for air
conditioning and 32 F (0 C) for heating. These temperatures are typical of installations inthe northern US. Standard ARI 325 ratings were intended for open loop ground-source heat
pumps, and include two sets of ratings for groundwater temperatures of 50 F (10 C) and
70 F (21 C). ARI 325 budgets more electricity for water pumping than ARI 330. Neither of
these standards attempt to account for seasonal variations. Standard ARI 870 ratings are
intended for direct exchange ground-source heat pumps.ASHRAEtransitioned to ISO
13256-1 in 2001, which replaces ARI 320, 325 and 330. The new ISO standard produces
slightly higher ratings because it no longer budgets any electricity for water pumps.[1]
Efficient compressors, variable speed compressors and larger heat exchangers all
contribute to heat pump efficiency. Residential ground source heat pumps on the market
today have standard COPs ranging from 2.4 to 5.0 and EERs ranging from 10.6 to
30.[1][27]To qualify for an Energy Starlabel, heat pumps must meet certain minimum COP
and EER ratings which depend on the ground heat exchanger type. For closed loop
systems, the ISO 13256-1 heating COP must be 3.3 or greater and the cooling EER must
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be 14.1 or greater.[28]
Actual installation conditions may produce better or worse efficiency than the standard
test conditions. COP improves with a lower temperature difference between the input and
output of the heat pump, so the stability of ground temperatures is important. If the loop
field or water pump is undersized, the addition or removal of heat may push the ground
temperature beyond standard test conditions, and performance will be degraded. Similarly,
an undersized blower may allow the plenum coil to overheat and degrade performance.
Soil without artificial heat addition or subtraction and at depths of several metres or more
remains at a relatively constant temperature year round. This temperature equates roughly
to the average annual air-temperature of the chosen location, usually 712 C (4554 F) at
a depth of 6 metres (20 ft) in the northern US. Because this temperature remains more
constant than the air temperature throughout the seasons, geothermal heat pumps perform
with far greater efficiency during extreme air temperatures than air conditioners and air-
source heat pumps.
Standards ARI 210 and 240 define Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio(SEER) and Heating
Seasonal Performance Factors(HSPF) to account for the impact of seasonal variations on
air source heat pumps. These numbers are normally not applicable and should not becompared to ground source heat pump ratings. However, Natural Resources Canadahas
adapted this approach to calculate typical seasonally adjusted HSPFs for ground-source
heat pumps in Canada.[16]The NRC HSPFs ranged from 8.7 to 12.8 BTU/hr/watt (2.6 to
3.8 in nondimensional factors, or 255% to 375% seasonal average electricity utilization
efficiency) for the most populated regions of Canada. When combined with the thermal
efficiency of electricity, this corresponds to net average thermal efficiencies of 100% to
150%.
Environmental impact [edit]
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has called ground source heat pumps the
most energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning
systems available.[29]Heat pumps offer significant emission reductions potential,
particularly where they are used for both heating and cooling and where the electricity is
produced from renewable resources.
Ground-source heat pumps have unsurpassed thermal efficiencies and produce zero
emissions locally, but their electricity supply includes components with high greenhouse
gas emissions, unless the owner has opted for a 100% renewable energysupply. Their
environmental impact therefore depends on the characteristics of the electricity supply and
the available alternatives.
Annual greenhouse gas savings from using a ground source heat
pump instead of a high-efficiency furnace in a detached residence
(assuming no specific supply of renewable energy)
CountryElectricity CO2
Emissions Intensity
GHG savings relative to
natural gas heating oil electric heating
Canada 223 ton/GWh[30][31][32] 2.7 ton/yr 5.3 ton/yr 3.4 ton/yr
Russia 351 ton/GWh[30][31] 1.8 ton/yr 4.4 ton/yr 5.4 ton/yr
US 676 ton/GWh[31] -0.5 ton/yr 2.2 ton/yr 10.3 ton/yr
China 839 ton/GWh[30][31] -1.6 ton/yr 1.0 ton/yr 12.8 ton/yr
The GHG emissions savings from a heat pump over a conventional furnace can be
calculated based on the following formula:[4]
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HL = seasonal heat load 80 GJ/yr for a modern detached house in the northern US
FI = emissions intensity of fuel = 50 kg(CO2)/GJ for natural gas, 73 for heating oil, 0 for
100% renewable energysuch as wind, hydro, photovoltaic or solar thermal
AFUE= furnace efficiency 95% for a modern condensing furnace
COP = heat pump coefficient of performance 3.2 seasonally adjusted for northern USheat pump
EI = emissions intensity of electricity 200-800 ton(CO2)/GWh, depending on region
Ground-source heat pumps always produce fewer greenhouse gases than air conditioners,
oil furnaces, and electric heating, but natural gas furnaces may be competitive depending
on the greenhouse gas intensity of the local electricity supply. In countries like Canada
and Russia with low emitting electricity infrastructure, a residential heat pump may save 5
tons of carbon dioxide per year relative to an oil furnace, or about as much as taking an
average passenger car off the road. But in cities like Beijing or Pittsburgh that are highly
reliant on coal for electricity production, a heat pump may result in 1 or 2 tons more
carbon dioxide emissions than a natural gas furnace. For areas not served by utility natural
gas infrastructure, however, no better alternative exists.
The fluids used in closed loops may be designed to be biodegradable and non-toxic, but
the refrigerant used in the heat pump cabinet and in direct exchange loops was, until
recently, chlorodifluoromethane, which is an ozone depleting substance. [1]Although
harmless while contained, leaks and improper end-of-life disposal contribute to enlarging
the ozone hole. For new construction, this refrigerant is being phased out in favor of the
ozone-friendly but potent greenhouse gas R410A. The EcoCutewater heater is an air-
source heat pump that uses Carbon Dioxideas its working fluid instead
ofChlorofluorocarbons.[citation needed]
Open loop systems (i.e. those that draw ground water as opposed to closed loop systems
using a borehole heat exchanger) need to be balanced by reinjecting the spent water. This
prevents aquiferdepletion and the contamination of soil or surface water with brine or other
compounds from underground.[citation needed]
Before drilling the underground geology needs to be understood, and drillers need to be
prepared to seal the borehole, including preventing penetration of water between strata.
The unfortunate example is a geothermal heating project in Staufen im Breisgau, Germany
which seems the cause of considerable damage to historical buildings there. In 2008, the
city centre was reported to have risen 12 cm,[33]after initially sinking a fewmillimeters.[34]The boring tapped a naturally pressurized aquifer, and via the borehole this
water entered a layer of anhydrite, which expands when wet as it forms gypsum. The
swelling will stop when the anhydrite is fully reacted, and reconstruction of the city center
"is not expedient until the uplift ceases." By 2010 sealing of the borehole had not been
accomplished.[35][36][37]By 2010, some sections of town had risen by 30 cm.[38]
Ground-source heat pump technology, like building orientation, is a natural
buildingtechnique (bioclimatic building).
Economics [edit]
Ground source heat pumps are characterized by high capital costs and low operational
costs compared to other HVACsystems. Their overall economic benefit depends primarily
on the relative costs of electricity and fuels, which are highly variable over time and across
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Payback period for installing a ground source
heat pump in a detached residence
Country Payback period for replacingnatural gas heating oil electric heating
Canada 13 years 3 years 6 years
US 12 years 5 years 4 years
Germany net loss 8 years 2 yearsNotes:
Highly variable w ith energy prices.
Government subsidies not included.
Climate differences not evaluated.
the world. Based on recent prices, ground-source heat pumps currently have lower
operational costs than any other conventional heating source almost everywhere in the
world. Natural gas is the only fuel with competitive operational costs, and only in a handful
of countries where it is exceptionally cheap, or where electricity is exceptionally
expensive.[4]In general, a homeowner may save anywhere from 20% to 60% annually on
utilities by switching from an ordinary system to a ground-source system. [39][40]
Capital costs and system lifespan have received much less study until recently, and
thereturn on investmentis highly variable. The most recent data from an analysis of 2011-2012 incentive payments in the state of Maryland showed an average cost of residential
systems of $1.90 per Watt, or about $26,700 for a typical (4 ton) home system.[41]An
older study found the total installed cost for a system with 10 kW (3 ton) thermal capacity
for a detached rural residence in the US averaged $8000$9000 in 1995 US
dollars.[42]More recent studies found an average cost of $14,000 in 2008 US dollars for the
same size system.[43][44]The US Department of Energy estimates a price of $7500 on its
website, last updated in 2008.[45]Prices over $20,000 are quoted in Canada,[46]with one
source placing them in the range of $30,000-$34,000 Canadian dollars.[47]The rapid
escalation in system price has been accompanied by rapid improvements in efficiency and
reliability. Capital costs are known to benefit from economies of scale, particularly for open
loop systems, so they are more cost-effective for larger commercial buildings and harsher
climates. The initial cost can be two to five times that of a conventional heating system in
most residential applications, new construction or existing. In retrofits, the cost of
installation is affected by the size of living area, the home's age, insulation characteristics,
the geology of the area, and location of the property. Proper duct system design and
mechanical air exchange should be considered in the initial system cost.
Capital costs may be offset by
government subsidies, for
example, Ontario offered $7000for residential systems installed
in the 2009 fiscal year. Some
electric companies offer special
rates to customers who install a
ground-source heat pump for
heating or cooling their
building.[48]Where electrical
plants have larger loads during
summer months and idle
capacity in the winter, this increases electrical sales during the winter months. Heatpumps also lower the load peak during the summer due to the increased efficiency of heat
pumps, thereby avoiding costly construction of new power plants. For the same reasons,
other utility companies have started to pay for the installation of ground-source heat pumps
at customer residences. They lease the systems to their customers for a monthly fee, at a
net overall saving to the customer.
The lifespan of the system is longer than conventional heating and cooling systems. Good
data on system lifespan is not yet available because the technology is too recent, but
many early systems are still operational today after 2530 years with routine maintenance.
Most loop fields have warranties for 25 to 50 years and are expected to last at least 50 to
200 years.[39][49]Ground-source heat pumps use electricity for heating the house. The
higher investment above conventional oil, propane or electric systems may be returned in
energy savings in 210 years for residential systems in the US. [9][40][49]If compared to
natural gas systems, the payback period can be much longer or non-existent. The
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Renewabl e energyportal
Energy porta l
Technology porta l
payback period for larger commercial systems in the US is 15 years, even when
comparedtonatural gas.[40]Additionally, because geothermal heat pumps usually have no
outdoor compressors or cooling towers, the risk of vandalism is reduced or eliminated,
potentiallyextending a system's lifespan.[50]
Ground source heat pumps are recognized as one of the most efficient heating and cooling
systems on the market. They are often the second-most cost effective solution in extreme
climates, (after co-generation), despite reductions in thermal efficiency due to ground
temperature. (The ground source is warmer in climates that need strong air conditioning,and cooler in climates that need strong heating.)
Commercialsystems maintenance costs in the US have historically been between $0.11
to $0.22 perm2per year in 1996 dollars, much less than the average $0.54 per m2per
year for conventional HVAC systems.[12]
Governments that promote renewable energy will likely offer incentives for the consumer
(residential),or industrial markets. For example, in the United States, incentives are
offered bothon the state and federal levels of government.[51]In the United Kingdom
theRenewable Heat Incentiveprovides a financial incentive for generation of renewable heat
based on metered readings on an annual basis for 20 years for commercial buildings. Thedomestic Renewable Heat Incentive is due to be introduced in Spring 2014[52]for seven
years andbe based on deemed heat.
Installation [edit]
Because ofthe technical knowledge and equipment needed to design and size the system
properly (and install the piping if heat fusion is required), a GSHP system installation
requires aprofessional's services. Several installers have published real-time views of
system performance in an online community of recent residential installations.
TheInternational Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA) , GeothermalExchangeOrganization (GEO) , the Canadian GeoExchange Coalition and the Ground
Source HeatPump Association maintain listings of qualified installers in the US,
Canada andthe UK.[53]
See also [edit]
Absorption heat pump
Ground-coupled heat exchanger
Solar thermal cooling
Thermosiphon
References [edit]
1. ^ abcdRafferty, Kevin (April 1997). "An Information Survival Kit for the Prospective
Residential Geothermal Heat Pump Owner" . Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly
Bulletin18(2) (Klmath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology). pp. 1
11. ISSN0276-1084 . Retrieved 2009-03-21. The author issued an updated
version of this article in February 2001.
2. ^Mean Annual Air Temperature
3. ^"Geothermal Technologies Program: Geothermal Basics" . US Department of
Energy. Retrieved 2011-03-30.
4. ^ abcHanova, J; Dowlatabadi, H (9 November 2007). "Strategic GHG reduction through
the use of ground source heat pump technology" . Environmental Research
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