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Geothermal Energy
Stephen LawrenceLeeds School of BusinessUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO 80309-0419
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AGENDA – Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal Overview• Extracting Geothermal Energy• Environmental Implications• Economic Considerations• Geothermal Installations – Examples
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Geothermal Overview
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Geothermal in ContextEnergy Source 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004P
Total a 98.961 96.464 97.952 98.714 100.278
Fossil Fuels 84.965 83.176 84.070 84.889 86.186
Coal 22.580 21.952 21.980 22.713 22.918
Coal Coke Net Imports 0.065 0.029 0.061 0.051 0.138
Natural Gasb 23.916 22.861 23.628 23.069 23.000
Petroleumc 38.404 38.333 38.401 39.047 40.130
Electricity Net Imports 0.115 0.075 0.078 0.022 0.039
Nuclear Electric Power 7.862 8.033 8.143 7.959 8.232
Renewable Energy 6.158 5.328 5.835 6.082 6.117
Conventional Hydroelectric 2.811 2.242 2.689 2.825 2.725
Geothermal Energy 0.317 0.311 0.328 0.339 0.340
Biomassd 2.907 2.640 2.648 2.740 2.845
Solar Energy 0.066 0.065 0.064 0.064 0.063
Wind Energy 0.057 0.070 0.105 0.115 0.143
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html
U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2000-2004 (Quadrillion Btu)
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Advantages of Geothermal
http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm
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Heat from the Earth’s Center• Earth's core maintains temperatures in excess of 5000°C
– Heat radual radioactive decay of elements
• Heat energy continuously flows from hot core – Conductive heat flow– Convective flows of molten mantle beneath the crust.
• Mean heat flux at earth's surface – 16 kilowatts of heat energy per square kilometer – Dissipates to the atmosphere and space. – Tends to be strongest along tectonic plate boundaries
• Volcanic activity transports hot material to near the surface– Only a small fraction of molten rock actually reaches surface. – Most is left at depths of 5-20 km beneath the surface,
• Hydrological convection forms high temperature geothermal systems at shallow depths of 500-3000m.
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Earth Dynamics
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Earth Temperature Gradient
http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html
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Geothermal Site Schematic
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Geysers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyser
Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone
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Hot Springs
Hot springs in Steamboat Springs area.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html
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Fumaroles
Clay Diablo Fumarole (CA) White Island FumaroleNew Zealand
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_white_island_fumerole.htmlhttp://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/cdf_main.htm
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Global Geothermal Sites
http://www.deutsches-museum.de/ausstell/dauer/umwelt/img/geothe.jpg
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Tectonic Plate Movements
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Geothermal Sites in US
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Extracting Geothermal Energy
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Methods of Heat Extraction
http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html
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Units of Measure
• Pressure– 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / square meter– 100 kPa = ~ 1 atmosphere = ~14.5 psi– 1 MPa = ~10 atmospheres = ~145 psi
• Temperature– Celsius (ºC); Fahrenheit (ºF); Kelvin (K)– 0 ºC = 32 ºF = 273 K – 100 ºC = 212 ºF = 373 K
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Dry Steam Power Plants
• “Dry” steam extracted from natural reservoir– 180-225 ºC ( 356-437 ºF)– 4-8 MPa (580-1160 psi)– 200+ km/hr (100+ mph)
• Steam is used to drive a turbo-generator• Steam is condensed and pumped back into
the ground• Can achieve 1 kWh per 6.5 kg of steam
– A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Dry Steam Schematic
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Single Flash Steam Power Plants
• Steam with water extracted from ground• Pressure of mixture drops at surface and
more water “flashes” to steam• Steam separated from water • Steam drives a turbine • Turbine drives an electric generator• Generate between 5 and 100 MW• Use 6 to 9 tonnes of steam per hour
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Single Flash Steam Schematic
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Binary Cycle Power Plants
• Low temps – 100o and 150oC• Use heat to vaporize organic liquid
– E.g., iso-butane, iso-pentane• Use vapor to drive turbine
– Causes vapor to condense– Recycle continuously
• Typically 7 to 12 % efficient• 0.1 – 40 MW units common
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
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Binary Cycle Schematic
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Binary Plant Power Output
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Double Flash Power Plants
• Similar to single flash operation• Unflashed liquid flows to low-
pressure tank – flashes to steam• Steam drives a second-stage turbine
– Also uses exhaust from first turbine
• Increases output 20-25% for 5% increase in plant costs
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Double Flash Schematic
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Combined Cycle Plants
• Combination of conventional steam turbine technology and binary cycle technology– Steam drives primary turbine– Remaining heat used to create organic vapor– Organic vapor drives a second turbine
• Plant sizes ranging between 10 to 100+ MW• Significantly greater efficiencies
– Higher overall utilization– Extract more power (heat) from geothermal
resource
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Hot Dry Rock Technology
• Wells drilled 3-6 km into crust– Hot crystalline rock formations
• Water pumped into formations• Water flows through natural fissures
picking up heat• Hot water/steam returns to surface• Steam used to generate power
http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/
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Hot Dry Rock Technology
Fenton Hill plant http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/
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Soultz Hot Fractured Rock
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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2-Well HDR System Parameters
• 2×106 m2 = 2 km2
• 2×108 m3 = 0.2 km3
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Promise of HDR
• 1 km3 of hot rock has the energy content of 70,000 tonnes of coal– If cooled by 1 ºC
• Upper 10 km of crust in US has 600,000 times annual US energy (USGS)
• Between 19-138 GW power available at existing hydrothermal sites– Using enhanced technology
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Direct Use Technologies
• Geothermal heat is used directly rather than for power generation
• Extract heat from low temperature geothermal resources– < 150 oC or 300 oF.
• Applications sited near source (<10 km)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Geothermal Heat Pump
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
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Heat vs. Depth Profile
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Geothermal District Heating
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
Southhampton geothermal district heating system technology schematic
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Direct Heating Example
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Technological Issues
• Geothermal fluids can be corrosive– Contain gases such as hydrogen
sulphide– Corrosion, scaling
• Requires careful selection of materials and diligent operating procedures
• Typical capacity factors of 85-95%
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Technology vs. Temperature
ReservoirTemperature
ReservoirFluid
CommonUse
Technologycommonly chosen
High Temperature >220oC
(>430oF).
Water orSteam
Power Generation
Direct Use• Flash Steam • Combined (Flash
and Binary) Cycle • Direct Fluid Use • Heat Exchangers • Heat Pumps
IntermediateTemperature
100-220oC(212 - 390oF).
Water Power Generation Direct Use • Binary Cycle
• Direct Fluid Use • Heat Exchangers • Heat Pumps
Low Temperature 50-150oC
(120-300oF).
Water Direct Use• Direct Fluid Use • Heat Exchangers
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Geothermal Performance
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Environmental Implications
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Environmental Impacts
• Land– Vegetation loss – Soil erosion – Landslides
• Air– Slight air heating– Local fogging
• Ground– Reservoir cooling– Seismicity (tremors)
• Water – Watershed impact– Damming streams– Hydrothermal
eruptions – Lower water table– Subsidence
• Noise
• Benign overall
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Renewable?
• Heat depleted as ground cools• Not steady-state
– Earth’s core does not replenish heat to crust quickly enough
• Example:– Iceland's geothermal energy could provide
1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal
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Economics of Geothermal
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Cost Factors
• Temperature and depth of resource• Type of resource (steam, liquid, mix)• Available volume of resource• Chemistry of resource• Permeability of rock formations• Size and technology of plant• Infrastructure (roads, transmission
lines)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/cost_factor.htm
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Costs of Geothermal Energy
• Costs highly variable by site– Dependent on many cost factors
• High exploration costs• High initial capital, low operating costs
– Fuel is “free”• Significant exploration & operating risk
– Adds to overall capital costs– “Risk premium”
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/
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Risk Assessment
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Geothermal Development
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Cost of Water & Steam
Cost (US $/ tonne
of steam)
Cost (US ¢/tonne of hot water)
High temperature (>150oC)
3.5-6.0
Medium Temperature (100-150oC)
3.0-4.5 20-40
Low Temperature (<100oC)
10-20
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
Table Geothermal Steam and Hot Water Supply Cost where drilling is required
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Cost of Geothermal Power
Unit Cost(US ¢/kWh) High Quality
Resource
Unit Cost (US ¢/kWh)
MediumQuality
Resource
Unit Cost (US ¢/kWh)
Low QualityResource
Small plants(<5 MW)
5.0-7.0 5.5-8.5 6.0-10.5
MediumPlants
(5-30 MW)
4.0-6.0 4.5-7 Normally not suitable
Large Plants (>30 MW)
2.5-5.0 4.0-6.0 Normally not suitable
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Direct Capital Costs
PlantSize
High QualityResource
Medium QualityResource
Low QualityResource
Small plants (<5 MW)
Exploration : US$400-800
Steam field:US$100-200Power Plant:US$1100-1300Total: US$1600-2300
Exploration : US$400-1000
Steam field:US$300-600Power Plant:US$1100-1400Total: US$1800-3000
Exploration : US$400-1000
Steam field:US$500-900Power Plant:US$1100-1800Total:US$2000-3700
Med Plants (5-30 MW)
Exploration : US$250-400
Steamfield:US$200-US$500Power Plant: US$850-1200Total: US$1300-2100
Exploration: : US$250-600
Steam field:US$400-700Power Plant:US$950-1200Total: US$1600-2500
Normally not suitable
Large Plants
(>30 MW)Exploration:: US$100-200
Steam field:US$300-450Power Plant:US$750-1100Total: US$1150-1750
Exploration : US$100-400
Steam field:US$400-700Power Plant:US$850-1100Total: US$1350-2200
Normally not suitable
Direct Capital Costs (US $/kW installed capacity)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Indirect Costs
• Availability of skilled labor• Infrastructure and access• Political stability• Indirect Costs
– Good: 5-10% of direct costs– Fair: 10-30% of direct costs– Poor: 30-60% of direct costs
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Operating/Maintenance Costs
O&M Cost (US c/KWh)
Small plants (<5 MW)
O&M Cost (US c/KWh)
Medium Plants (5-30 MW)
O&M Cost (US c/KWh)
Large Plants(>30 MW)
Steam field 0.35-0.7 0.25-0.35 0.15-0.25
Power Plant 0.45-0.7 0.35-0.45 0.25-0.45
Total 0.8-1.4 0.6-0.8 0.4-0.7
Operating and Maintenance Costs
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
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Geothermal Installations
Examples
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Geothermal Power Examples
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Geothermal Power Generation
• World production of 8 GW– 2.7 GW in US
• The Geyers (US) is world’s largest site– Produces 2 GW
• Other attractive sites– Rift region of Kenya, Iceland, Italy,
France, New Zealand, Mexico, Nicaragua, Russia, Phillippines, Indonesia, Japan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal
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Geothermal Energy Plant
Geothermal energy plant in Icelandhttp://www.wateryear2003.org/en/
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Geothermal Well Testing
http://www.geothermex.com/es_resen.html
Geothermal well testing, Zunil, Guatemala
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Heber Geothermal Power Station
http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm
52kW electrical generating capacity
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Geysers Geothermal Plant
The Geysers is the largest producer of geothermal power in the world.
http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm
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Geyers Cost Effectiveness
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Geothermal Summary
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Geothermal Prospects
• Environmentally very attractive • Attractive energy source in right
locations• Likely to remain an adjunct to other
larger energy sources– Part of a portfolio of energy technologies
• Exploration risks and up-front capital costs remain a barrier
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Next Week: BIOENERGY
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Supplementary Slides
Extras
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Geothermal Gradient
http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm
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Geo/Hydrothermal Systems
http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Geothermal/
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Location of Resources
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
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Ground Structures
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Volcanic Geothermal System
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Temperature Gradients
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm
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UK Geothermal Resources
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Porosity vs. Hydraulic Conductivity
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Performance vs. Rock Type
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Deep Well Characteristics
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Single Flash Plant Schematic
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
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Binary Cycle Power Plant
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
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Flash Steam Power Plant
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
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Efficiency of Heat Pumps
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004
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Recent Developments
• Comparing statistical data for end-1996 (SER 1998) and the present Survey, it can be seen that there has been an increase in world geothermal power plant capacity (+9%) and utilisation (+23%) while direct heat systems show a 56% additional capacity, coupled with a somewhat lower rate of increase in their use (+32%).
• Geothermal power generation growth is continuing, but at a lower pace than in the previous decade, while direct heat uses show a strong increase compared to the past.
• Going into some detail, the six countries with the largest electric power capacity are: USA with 2 228 MWe is first, followed by Philippines (1 863 MWe); four countries (Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Japan) had capacity (at end-1999) in the range of 550-750 MWe each. These six countries represent 86% of the world capacity and about the same percentage of the world output, amounting to around 45 000 GWhe.
• The strong decline in the USA in recent years, due to overexploitation of the giant Geysers steam field, has been partly compensated by important additions to capacity in several countries: Indonesia, Philippines, Italy, New Zealand, Iceland, Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador. Newcomers in the electric power sector are Ethiopia (1998), Guatemala (1998) and Austria (2001). In total, 22 nations are generating geothermal electricity, in amounts sufficient to supply 15 million houses.
• Concerning direct heat uses, Table 12.1 shows that the three countries with the largest amount of installed power: USA (5 366 MWt), China (2 814 MWt) and Iceland (1 469 MWt) cover 58% of the world capacity, which has reached 16 649 MWt, enough to provide heat for over 3 million houses. Out of about 60 countries with direct heat plants, beside the three above-mentioned nations, Turkey, several European countries, Canada, Japan and New Zealand have sizeable capacity.
• With regard to direct use applications, a large increase in the number of GHP installations for space heating (presently estimated to exceed 500 000) has put this category in first place in terms of global capacity and third in terms of output. Other geothermal space heating systems are second in capacity but first in output. Third in capacity (but second in output) are spa uses followed by greenhouse heating. Other applications include fish farm heating and industrial process heat. The outstanding rise in world direct use capacity since 1996 is due to the more than two-fold increase in North America and a 45% addition in Asia. Europe also has substantial direct uses but has remained fairly stable: reductions in some countries being compensated by progress in others.
• Concerning R&D, the HDR project at Soultz-sous-Forêts near the French-German border has progressed significantly. Besides the ongoing Hijiori site in Japan, another HDR test has just started in Switzerland (Otterbach near Basel).
• The total world use of geothermal power is giving a contribution both to energy saving (around 26 million tons of oil per year) and to CO2 emission reduction (80 million tons/year if compared with equivalent oil-fuelled production).
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp