Geothermal Areas in Turkey
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE
UTILIZATION OF
GEOTHERMAL AREAS ıN TURKEY
Prof.Dr. Alper BABA Izmir Institute of Technology
Geothermal Energy Research and Application Center
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WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
A clean, renewable and environmentally benign energy
source based on the heat in the earth
Used in 58 countries of the world. Known in over 80
Electricity generation in 24 countries
Direct heating use in 78 countries
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APPLICATION OF GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES
Geothermal resources have long been used for direct heat extraction for district urban heating, industrial processing, domestic water and space heating, leisure and balneotherapy applications. Geothermal fields of natural steam are rare, most being a mixture
of steam and hot water requiring single or double flash systems to separate out the hot water, which can then be used in binary plants or for direct heating.
Re-injection of the fluids maintains a constant pressure in the
reservoir, hence increasing the field’s life and reducing concerns about environmental impacts
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GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY
INSTALLED CAPACITY MWE (2013)
Kenya 167
Mexico 958
China 24
Russia 82
Philippines 1904
Indonesia 1197
Turkey 243.35
Ethiopia 7.3
Italy 843
Guadeloupe 4
Costa Rica 166
El Salvador 204
Guatemala 52
New Zealand 437
Australia 1.1
Iceland 575
Japan 536
USA 3093
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GEOTHERMAL DIRECT USE
ENERGY PRODUCTION GWH/YR (2010)
Kenya
Mexico 1117
China 20931
Russia 1707
Philippines
Indonesia
Turkey 10247
Thailand
Ethiopia
Poland
Tanzania Burundi
Uganda
Eritrea Djibouti
Vietnam
Latvia
Lithuania
Slovakia Romania Ukraine
Georgia
Iran
Pakistan
Nepal
Algeria
Tunisia
Macedonia
Serbia
Guadeloupe
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Bulgaria
Greece
Egypt Jordan
Mongolia
USA 15710
Iceland 6767
Japan 7139
Australia
New Zealand 2654
Canada 2465
Sweden 12584
Germany 3546
Switzerland 2143
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Surface disturbances
Physical effects - fluid withdrawal
Noise
Thermal pollution
Chemical pollution
Protection
Social and economic effects
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TURKEY Turkey is one of the most seismically active regions in the world.
Its geological and tectonic evolution has been dominated by the
repeated opening and closing of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic oceans
(Dewey and Sengör, 1979; Jackson and Mc Kenzie, 1984).
It is located within the Mediterranean Earthquake Belt, whose
complex deformation results from the continental collision between
the African and Eurasian plates (Bozkurt, 2001).
The border of these plates constitutes seismic belts marked by
young volcanics and active faults, the latter allowing the
circulation of water as well as heat.
The distribution of hot springs in Turkey roughly parallels the
distribution of the fault systems, young volcanism, and
hydrothermally altered areas
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GEOLOGICALLY, TURKEY IS COMPOSED OF AEGEAN AND ANATOLIAN
PLATES WHICH COVER THE WESTERN AND CENTRAL PARTS OF THE
COUNTRY.
North
Anatolian
Fault
East
Anatolian
Fault
Horst
Graben
System
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Western Anatolia Central
Anatolia
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF TURKEY
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MTA, 1995, Şimşek, 1982, 2010
More than 1000 hot spring can be seen in
Turkey
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Geothermal Resources in
Turkey
More than 1000 hot spring can be seen in Turkey. Temperatures ranging from 25°C to as high as 287 °C, fumaroles, and numerous other hydrothermal alteration zones.
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Bitlis-Nemrut-
Tendürek
Çanakkale-Tuzla (173 0C)
Aydın-Germencik 232 0C
İzmir-Seferihisar 153 0C)
İzmir-Dikili-Bergama 150 C)
Aydin-Salvatlı 171 0C)
Denizli-Kizildere 242 oC
Kütahya-Simav 162 0C
Nevşehir-Acıgöl
High enthalpy resource in Turkey Alaşehir-Manisa (287 0C
Göbekli-Manisa (182 0C
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Geothermal Field (°C) Geothermal Field (°C)
Manisa-Alaşehir-Köseali 287 Kütahya-Simav 162
Manisa Alaşehir X 265 Aydın-Umurlu 155
Manisa-Salihli-Caferbey 249 İzmir-Seferihisar 153
Denizli-Kızıldere 242 Denizli-Bölmekaya 147
Aydın-Germencik-Ömerbeyli 239 Aydın-Hıdırbeyli 146
Manisa-Alaşehir-Kurudere 214 İzmir-Dikili-
Hanımınçiftliği
145
Manisa-Alaşehir-X 194 Aydın-Sultanhisar 145
Aydın-Yılmazköy 192 Aydın-Bozyurt 140
Aydın-Pamukören 188 Denizli-Karataş 137
Manisa-Alaşehir-
Kavaklıdere
188 İzmir-Balçova 136
Manisa-Salihli-Göbekli 182 İzmir-Dikili-Kaynarca 130
Kütahya-Şaphane 181 Aydın-Nazilli-Güzelköy 127
Çanakkale-Tuzla 174 Aydın-Atça 124
Aydın-Salavatlı 171 Manisa-Salihli-Kurşunlu 117
Denizli-Tekkehamam 168 Denizli-Sarayköy-Gerali 114
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(Simsek et al., 2005)
Dora-1, Karadas,2012
Germencik, Wallace et al., 2009
(Inanli and Atilla, 2011)
Bereket, Karadas,2012 Dora-2, Tufekcioglu ,2010
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2013 Update Results
-Geothermal Power Generation in Turkey-243.35MWe
Location Power plant Startup date
Reservoir temperature
(°C)
Average Reservoir
temperature (°C)
Power capacity (MWe)
Denizli Kızıldere I Kızıldere II Sarayköy
Aydın/Sultanhisar
Salavatlı Salavatlı Salavatlı
Aydın/Germencik
Ömerbeyli Hıdırbeyli Bozkoy Bozkoy
Çanakkale
Tuzla Total
Zorlu - Kızıldere Zorlu - Kızıldere
Bereket
Dora-1 Dora-2 Dora-3
Gurmat Irem
Sinem Deniz
Tuzla
1984 2013 2007
2006 2010
2013
2009 2011 2012 2012
2010
242
- -
172 176
-
232 190
- -
174
217
- 145
168 175 -
220 170
- -
160
17.4 60 7.5
7.35 11.2 17
47.4 20 24 24
7.5
243.35
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Greenhouse Agriculture Thermal Tourism
• Currently, the country’s geothermal resources are primarily used for heating, which accounts for over % 90 of total direct use,
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DIFFERENT APPLICATION
Powder material
Reduce the industrial waste (Copper)
Salt production
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ENVıRONMENT PROBLEMS
Turkey is one of the fastest growing power markets in the world and is facing an ever-increasing demand for power in the coming decades
Geothermal development over the last forty years in Turkey has shown that it is not completely free of impacts on the environment
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GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF WESTERN
TURKEY
(Baba and Sözbilir , 2012; Chemical Geology)
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HYDROGEOCHEMIC
AL PROPERTIES OF
GEOTHERMAL
SYSTEM IN
WESTERN TURKEY
(Baba and Sözbilir, 2012; Chemical Geology)
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HEAVY METALS
Arsenik
Stronsiyum
(Baba and Armansson, 2008; Energy Source)
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(Baba and Armansson, 2008; Energy Source)
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HYDROGEOCHEMIC
AL PROPERTIES OF
GEOTHERMAL
SYSTEM IN
WESTERN TURKEY
(Baba and Sözbilir, 2012; Chemical Geology)
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SCALING AND CORROSıON
Turkish geothermal operators claim to have virtually overcome the consequences
of scaling and corrosion in both high and low temperature wells (Demir et al., 2013;
Geothermic)
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GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS ENCOUNTERED IN TURKEY CAN BE CLASSIFIED
CHEMICALLY AS %95 INCRUSTING AND TWO TO THREE GEOTHERMAL FIELDS HAVE HIGHLY CORROSIVE
GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS.
IN THREE OF THE 140 GEOTHERMAL FIELDS, GEOTHERMAL FLUID
CONTAINING TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS) EXCEEDS 5000 PPM.
Turkish geothermal
operators claim to have
virtually overcome the
consequences of scaling
and corrosion in both high
and low temperature wells,
and scientific research.
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GEOTHERMAL FLUID COMPOSITIONS
The vast majority of geothermal fluids is of meteoric origin.
However, isotopic studies suggest that a small fraction (5-10%) may emanate from other sources, magmatic, juvenile, fluids or host sediments (connate or formation water)
Most geothermal fluids exhibit higher TDS contents than the original, cooler, intake waters.
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GEOTHERMAL FLUID COMPOSITIONS
The amount and mature of dissolved chemical species depend on temperature, pressure, minimal-fluid equilibria and mixing with other waters.
One may logically infer that hotter fluids would display higher TDSs than cooler ones, an attribute however suffers many exceptions.
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THE MAJOR CONSTITUANTS OF GEOTHERMAL
WATERS ARE;
Cations: Na, K, Ca, Mg, Li, Sr, Mn, Fe
Anions: Cl-, HCO3-, SO4
2-, F-, Br-
Non ionic: SiO2, B, NH3, gases
Minor constituants: As, Hg, heavy, often
toxic, metals
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Damage occurs under the form of metal corrosion and deposition on exposed material surfaces of scale species.
Both phenomena may also coexist through deposition and/or entrainment of corrosion products.
Most commonly encountered damages address CO2/H2S corrosion, alkaline carbonate/sulfate, heavy metal sulphide and silica scale.
Source mechanisms are governed by pH, solution gases and related bubble point and (CO2) partial pressures, salinity, solubility products and of thermodynamic changes induced by the production and injection processes.
Corrosion and Scaling
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CORROSION AND SCALING
Whereas scaling affects mainly high enthalpy systems,
a result of fluid flashing,
steam carry over and injection of heat depleted brines,
corrosion and, at a lesser extent though,
corrosion is the major damage in exploitation of low grade geothermal heat, known as direct uses.
Micro-biological activity, particularily sulfate reducing bacteria, can also be a significant corrosion contributor in such low temperature environments.
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Scale Composition
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CALCIUM SCALE INHIBITION
Four inhibition groups i. Threshold effect: the inhibitor acts a as salt
precipitation retarder. ii. Crystal distortion effect: the inhibitor interferes
with crystal growth by producing an irregular structure (most often rounded surfaces) with weak scaling potential.
iii. Dispersion: the polarisation of crystal surfaces results in the repulsion between neighbouring crystal of reverse polarities
iv. Sequestration or chelation: complexation with selected cations (Fe, Mg, etc…) leads to the formation of soluble complexes.
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CORROSION PHAENOMENOLOGY
General (uniform) corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Crevice corrosion
Underdeposit corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Impingement
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
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CORROSION GOVERNING PARAMETERS
Temperature
pH
Oxygen concentration
Fluid velocity
Suspended solids
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CORROSION INHIBITION (EXAMPLE)
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CORROSION/SCALING
MONITORING PROTOCOLS
hydrodynamics: control of pressures and temperatures and
subsequent well, reservoir, geothermal network and heat exchanger
performances,
fluid chemistry: general and topical (selected indicators, HS-, S2-,
Fe3+, Fe3+, Ca2+, HCO3-, etc.) liquid and PVT (dissolved gas phase,
gas-to-liquid ratio, bubble point) analyses,
inhibitor injection concentrations: volume metering, flow
concentrations via tracing of the inhibitor active principle,
solid particle monitoring: concentrations (staged millipore
filtrations) and particle size diameters and distributions (optical
counting, doppler laser velocimetry),
microbiology: sulphate reducing bacteria numbering,
corrosion: measurement of corrosion rates (coupons, corrosion
meters),
down hole line integrity: electrical measurements, pressurisation
and/or tracer tests,
periodic well logging inspection
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DEPOSITION STUDY
Themodynamics. Theory
Kinetics. Practice
In line coupons
Solids
Ageing. Laboratory simulation (Bench scale study)
Suspended tank
Full scale simulation
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ANALYSIS OF SCALES
Microscopy
XRD
XRF
SEM
Microprobe
Wet chemical
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EFFECT
Problematic in surface equipment and in connection with
disposal
Thermodynamic study to determine minimum temperature of
possible deposition
Bench scale study prior to ponding or re-injection to study rate under
different conditions
SILICA SCALE
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SILICA REMOVAL/CONTROL
l Prevention:
– t > t AS
– Inhibitors, e.g hydroxy -ethyl-cellulose, ethylene
oxide, -C-O-C- group compounds
l Removal: Difficult
– Physical: drilling, scraping, hydroblasting ,
cavitation descaling
– Chemical: HF, hot NaOH ; undesirable
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IRON SILICATES (OXIDES, CARBONATES)
In high temperature brines, e.g Tuzla, Salton Sea,
Djibouti, Milos. Also where volcanic activity has
interfered, e.g Centreal and Eastern Anatolia
Temperatures at least 50°C higher than for formation
of simple silica deposits
Proposed mechanism:
OFeOH•H2O + Si(OH)4 Fe(OH)3•SiO2 + 2H2O
When formation starts extent is great
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IRON COMPOUNDS: Fe/Si RATIO,
CONTROL AND REMOVAL
Fe/Si RATIO (mole/mole):
0.15 at 105°C, 1.00 at 220°C (Tuzla)
Control and Removal
Pressure control
Acid
Reducing agents, e.g. Na formate, as
inhibitors
Drilling out
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SULPHIDES
PbS (galena), ZnS (sphalerite), CuS covellite), Cu2S
(chalcocite), SbS2 (stibnite, in Mt Amiata, Italy),
CuFeS2 (chalcopyrite), FeS2 (pyrite), FeS (pyrrhotite)
by reaction of metal(s) with H2S.
Saline solutions, effect of volcanic gas
Lower temperature lower solubility
Milos: Not directly on metal. Order of scales from
wellhead to outflow: Galena, sphalerite, Fe-Si, SiO2
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BLACK DEATH Galena on deposition coupon
Black death Picture from Haldor Arrmansson
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Deposition at different pressures
Branched line
Pressure controlled by orifices.
Coupons inserted after each orifice
Flow regulated by RJ-pipes,
critical lip pressure monitored
Pictures from Haldor Arrmansson
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Fe-Si deposit Pseudo scales
Pictures from Haldor Arrmansson
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CALCITE SCALING
Flashing CO2 stripping and pH increase,
causing calcite deposition
Ca+2 + 2HCO3- CaCO3 + CO2 +H2O
Increasing temperature decreasing solubility
Extent of supersaturation can be calculated
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Control Inhibition:Organic phosphonates (success claimed);Synthetic polymers
(e.g. polyacrylamide); Organic polymers (e.g. polycarboxylic acids);Sequestering
agents (e.g. EDTA, polyphosphates (successful in low temperature situations));
HCl: Success claimed but care needed
Removal Drilling out
HCl treatment
CALCITE
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MAGNESIUM SILICATES
Formed upon heating of silica containing ground water or
mixing of cold ground water and geothermal water
Form at relatively high pH
Well known where
geothermal water used to
heat groundwater
Avoid mixing and keep pH
low
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CORROSIVE SPECIES
O2: at low temperatures; H+ (pH): Low pH favours cathodic half-reaction; Cl: Fe+2 + Cl- FeCl+ favours anodic half-reaction; CO2: Controls pH and favours last cathodic half-reaction. H2S attacks Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb
H2S, CO3-2 and SiO2 may form protective films on
steel
Fe+2 + HS- FeS + H+
Fe+2 + H3SiO4- FeSiO3 + H+ + H2O
Fe+2 + HCO3- FeCO3 + H+
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MODES OF CORROSION
Uniform
Pitting
Crevice
Stress cracking
Erosion
Sulfide stress cracking
Hydrogen blistering
Intergranular
Galvanic
Fatigue
Exfoliation
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MONITORING AND CONTROL
COUPONS
Wellhead fluid
Two phase flow lines
Flashed liquid
Steam
Condensate
Cooling water
KEEP OXYGEN OUT
INSULATE Cl-RICH DRY STEAM
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SPECIMENS Type
Coupons
U-bend specimens
Notched specimens
Fatigue specimens
Number
Vendor of installation, plant owner,
contractor 1 set each
Test period. ½ year, 1 year, long-term: 1
set each
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Fuji, 13% Cr
stainless steel
DIN X 20 Cr 13
(uncondensed
steam)
Virkir-Orkint
CrNiMo steel
30 CrNiMo 8
(DIN 17200)
(uncondensed steam)
Fuji CrMoNiV
steel
DIN 30 CrMoNiV
5 11
(uncondensed steam) Fuji Stainless steel
405
(uncondensed steam)
Fuji CrMoNiV
steel
DIN 30 CrMoNiV 5 11
(condensed steam)
Fuji Stainless steel
405
(condensed steam)
Fuji Stainless steel
304L
(condensed steam)
Fuji, 13% Cr
stainless steel
DIN X 20 Cr 13
(condensed steam)
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Pressure Forces Acting on Casing
BURST COLLAPSE
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24 May 2012
ALASEHIR
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Geothermal development in the last forty years has shown that it is not completely free of adverse impacts on the environment.
These impacts are causing an increasing concern to an extent that may now be limiting development
The scarce data available shows that the thermal fluids contain trace elements (As, Cd, and Pb), which may affect soil and water.
Corrosion and Scaling still a big problem in the most geothermal fields.
All possible environmental effects should be clearly identified, and mitigation measures should be devised and adopted to avoid or minimize their impact.
Result and Conclusion
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