G E O T E C H N I C A L A N D G E O E N V I R O N M E N T A L E N G I N E E R I N G H A N D B O O K

G E O T E C H N I C A L A N D G E O E N V I R O N M E N T A L

E N G I N E E R I N G H A N D B O O K

Edited by

R. Kerry Rowe QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY,

KINGSTON, ONTARIO, CANADA

Springer Science+Business Media, L L C

Electronic Services <http://www.wkap.nl>

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering handbook/edited by

R. Kerry Rowe p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4613-5699-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-1729-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-1729-0 1. Engineering geology handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Rowe, R. K.

TA705.G427 2000 624. 1'51—dc21 99-37319

CIP

Copyright © 2001 by Springer Science+Business Media N e w York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001

A l l rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording,

or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media , L L C .

Printed on acid-free paper.

Dedicated in memory of

J. R. Booker E. H. Davis

M. Novak R. M. Quigley

CONTENTS

List of Figures xxxiii List of Tables liii

Contributing Authors lix Preface lxv

I. BASIC BEHAVIOR AND SITE CHARACTERIZATION 1

1. Introduction 3 R. K Rowe

1.1 Geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering 3 1.2 Objectives and organization of the book 3 1.3 Limitations 5

2. Basic Soil Mechanics 7 P. V. Lade

2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Soil types: geolOgiC formation and classification 7

2.2.1 Basic elements, soil forming minerals and types of rock 7 2.2.2 The geolOgiC cycle, soil forming processes and types of soil 8 2.2.3 Soil fabric and structure 9

2.2.3.1 Clay fabric 10 2.2.3.2 Fabric of granular soils 10

2.3 Definitions and relationships between basic soil properties 11 2.4 Seepage through saturated soil 11

2.4.1 Basic head equations 11 2.4.2 Darcy's law and hydraulic conductivity 13

2.5 Basic mechanics 13 2.5.1 Analyses of stress: Mohr's circle 13 2.5.2 Analyses of strain: Mohr's circle 15 2.5.3 Other stress representations and stress paths 16

2.5.3.1 s-t diagram 16 2.5.3.2 p-q diagram 17

2.6 State of stress in the ground 17 2.6.1 Effective stress principle 17 2.6.2 Total vertical (overburden) stress 17 2.6.3 Groundwater table and porewater pressure 18 2.6.4 Effective vertical stress 18 2.6.5 Horizontal stress and Ko 19

2.7 Compressibility and consolidation 19 2.7.1 Elasticity 19 2.7.2 Modulus variation 20 2.7.3 Compression and expansion 21 2.7.4 One-dimensional consolidation 23 2.7.5 Creep 26

vii

viii CONTENTS

2.8 Stress-Strain and strength behavior 28 2.8.1 Drained behavior of sand 28 2.8.2 Undrained behavior of sand 31 2.8.3 Undrained behavior of nonnally consolidated clay 31 2.8.4 Undrained behavior of overconsolidated clay 31 2.8.5 Drained behavior of clay 33

2.9 Shear strength 34 2.9.1 Effective strength characterization 34 2.9.2 Total strength characterization 35

2.10 Elasto-plasticity, critical state soil mechanics and models for soil stress-strain behavior 36 2.10.1 Critical state soil mechanics 36 2.10.2 Modified Cam Clay model 37 2.10.3 Other models 39

2.11 Dynamic soil behavior 40 2.11.1 Determination of modulus and damping 40 2.11.2 Seismic stability of soil structures 41

3. Engineering Properties of Soils and Typical Correlations 43 P. V. Lade

3.1 Engineering properties and parameters required for characterization 43 3.2 Index tests 43

3.2.1 Grain-size distribution 43 3.2.1.1 Coefficients of uniformity and curvature 43

3.2.2 Particle shape 45 3.2.3 Maximum and minimum void ratios 45 3.2.4 Density index 45 3.2.5 Relative compaction 46 3.2.6 Relative density 46 3.2.7 Atterberg limits 46

3.2.7.1 Liquid limit 46 3.2.7.2 Plastic limit 47 3.2.7.3 Plasticity index 47 3.2.7.4 Liquidity index 48 3.2.7.5 Activity 48 3.2.7.6 Shrinkage limit 48

3.2.8 Expansion index 48 3.2.9 Sensitivity 49

3.2.10 Content of organic material 49 3.2.11 Soil classification 51

3.3 Hydraulic conductivity 51 3.3.1 Laboratory hydraulic conductivity (permeability) tests 51 3.3.2 Typical hydraulic conductivity values and correlations 54

3.4 At rest stress state, Ko 54 3.4.1 Nonnally consolidated soils 54 3.4.2 Overconsolidated soils 54

3.5 Compressibility and consolidation 55 3.5.1 Elastic properties 55

3.5.1.1 Young's modulus 55 3.5.1.2 Poisson's ratio 55

3.5.2 Compressibility 56 3.5.2.1 Preconsolidation pressure 56 3.5.2.2 Virgin compression 56 3.5.2.3 Swelling and recompression 57

3.5.3 Coefficient of consolidation 57

CONTENTS ~

3.5.4 Creep 58 3.5.5 Remolded or disturbed soils 58

3.6 Swelling and shrinkage 58 3.7 Shear strength 59

3.7.1 Laboratory determination of soil behavior 59 3.7.2 Effective strength parameters 60

3.7.2.1 Granular materials: cohesionless soils 60 3.7.2.2 Clays: cohesive soils 61

3.7.3 Undrained shear strength 62 3.7.3.1 Normally consolidated clays 62 3.7.3.2 Overconsolidated clays 63

3.8 Dynamic properties 64 3.8.1 Shear modulus and damping: low strain level excitation 64 3.8.2 Shear modulus and damping: high strain level excitation 67

4. Site Characterization 69 D. E. Becker

4.1 Introduction 69 4.1.1 The need for site characterization 69 4.1.2 Objectives of site characterization 70

4.2 Site characterization process: an integrated approach 70 4.2.1 Site characterization flowchart 72 4.2.2 Reporting 73

4.3 Planning and design of characterization study 74 4.3.1 Role of codes of practice and guidelines 75 4.3.2 Quality management of site investigation 75 4.3.3 Scope of investigation 75 4.3.4 Selection of field equipment and test methods 78 4.3.5 Cost considerations 79 4.3.6 Offshore investigations 79 4.3.7 Contractual aspects 80

4.4 Investigation components and methods 80 4.4.1 Review of background and existing information 80 4.4.2 Aerial photographs and remote sensing 80 4.4.3 Field reconnaissance and mapping 81 4.4.4 Geophysical surveys 81 4.4.5 Borehole drilling and sampling methods 84

4.4.5.1 Backfilling and sealing of boreholes 86 4.4.6 Field and in situ testing 87

4.4.6.1 Standard penetration test (SPT) 89 4.4.6.2 Dynamic cone-penetration test (DCPT) 91 4.4.6.3 Dynamic probing (DP) 91 4.4.6.4 Becker penetration test (BPT) 91 4.4.6.5 Field vane test (FVT) 92 4.4.6.6 Piezo-cone penetration test (CPTU) 92 4.4.6.7 Pressuremeter test (PMT) 93 4.4.6.8 Dilatometer test (DMT) 94 4.4.6.9 Plate-load and screw-plate tests 94

4.4.6.10 Other tests to measure in situ horizontal stress 94 4.5 Interpretation of engineering characteristics and properties based on in situ

tests 96 4.5.1 Use of statistical methods 97

4.6 Observational approach and monitoring 97 4.6.1 Field instrumentation and monitoring 100

x CONTENTS

4.7 Characterization of groundwater 101 4.7.1 Water levels, piezometric pressures and sampling 102 4.7.2 In situ hydraulic conductivity tests 103

4.8 Environmental site characterization 104 4.8.1 Investigation of landfills and contaminated land 104

5. Unsaturated Soil Mechanics and Property Assessment 107 D. G. Fredlund, G. W. Wilson and S. L. Barbour

5.1 Introduction 107 5.1.1 Basic concepts in unsaturated soil mechanics 109

5.2 Soil-water characteristic curve 110 5.2.1 Stages of the soil-water characteristic curve 111 5.2.2 Residual conditions for a soil 113 5.2.3 Mathematical form for the soil-water characteristic curve 114 5.2.4 Laboratory measurement of the soil-water characteristic curve 116 5.2.5 Estimation of the soil-water characteristic curve 117

5.3 Stress state variables of unsaturated soils 120 5.3.1 Measurement of soil suction: matric, osmotic and total suction 121

5.4 Boundary conditions 122 5.4.1 Evaporation, evapotranspiration, and the prediction of the flux boundary condi-

tion 124 5.5 Seepage through unsaturated soils 125

5.5.1 Hydraulic conductivity function 126 5.5.2 The water storage function 128 5.5.3 Measurement of the hydraulic conductivity function 128 5.5.4 Estimation of the hydraulic conductivity function and the water storage function from

the soil-water characteristic curve 130 5.5.5 Estimation of the water storage function from the soil-water characteristic

curve 133 5.5.6 Formulation of the steady state and unsteady state seepage analysis 133

5.6 Shear strength of unsaturated soils 134 5.6.1 Shear strength function with respect to soil suction 134 5.6.2 Measurement of the shear strength function with respect to soil

suction 135 5.6.3 Estimation of the shear strength function from the soil-water characteristic

curve 136 5.6.4 Formulation for bearing capacity problems 140 5.6.5 Formulation for lateral earth pressure problems 140 5.6.6 Formulations for slope stability problems 140

5.7 Volume change in unsaturated soils 142 5.7.1 Measurement of the volume change function 143 5.7.2 Estimation of the volume change moduli 144 5.7.3 Formulation for the prediction of heave of an expansive soil 144

6. Basic Rock Mechanics and Testing 147 K Y. La and A. M. Hefny

6.1 Introduction 147 6.2 Types of rocks and their classification 147

6.2.1 Rock-forming minerals 147 6.2.2 Rock classification 147

6.2.2.1 GeolOgical classification 148 6.2.2.2 Engineering classification 150

6.3 Laboratory measurements of strength and deformation properties of intact rock 154 6.3.1 Uniaxial compression test 155

CONTENTS xi

6.3.2 Deformation parameters for cross-anisotropic rocks 155 6.3.2.1 Stress-strain relationships in cross-anisotropic

rocks 155 6.3.2.2 Evaluation of parameters 157 6.3.2.3 Results of uniaxial compression test 157

6.3.3 Tensile strength tests 157 6.3.3.1 Brazilian test (indirect tension test) 157 6.3.3.2 Direct tension test 159

6.3.4 Triaxial compression test 159 6.3.5 Triaxial extension test 159

6.4 Time-dependent deformation 159 6.4.1 Free swell test 161 6.4.2 Semi-confined swell test 162

6.5 Failure criteria of a brittle material 163 6.5.1 Griffith criterion 164 6.5.2 Hoek-Brown failure criterion 164

6.6 Shear strength of discontinuities 166 6.6.1 Description and measurement of discontinuities 166 6.6.2 Determination of basic friction angle 166 6.6.3 Typical results of tests on rock joints 168

6.7 Measurements of in situ horizontal stresses in rock 168 6.7.1 The United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) method 168

6.7.1.1 Example of calculations 170 6.7.2 Hydraulic fracturing method 171

7. Geosynthetics: Characteristics and Testing 173 R. M. Koerner and Y. G. Hsuan

7.1 Introduction 173 7.2 Geotextile properties and test methods 174

7.2.1 Physical properties 174 7.2.2 Mechanical properties 174 7.2.3 Hydraulic properties 176 7.2.4 Endurance properties 177

7.3 Geogrid properties and test methods 179 7.3.1 Physical properties 180 7.3.2 Mechanical properties 180 7.3.3 Endurance properties 180

7.4 Geonet properties and test methods 180 7.4.1 Physical and mechanical properties 181 7.4.2 Hydraulic properties 181 7.4.3 Endurance properties 181

7.5 Geomembrane properties and test methods 181 7.5.1 Physical properties 182 7.5.2 Mechanical properties 183 7.5.3 Endurance properties 185

7.6 Geosynthetic clay liner properties and test methods 185 7.6.1 Physical properties 186 7.6.2 Hydraulic properties 186 7.6.3 Mechanical properties 186 7.6.4 Endurance properties 187

7.7 Geocomposite properties and test methods 187 7.7.1 Separation geocomposites 187 7.7.2 Reinforcement geocomposites 187 7.7.3 Filtration geocomposites 188

xii CONTENTS

7.7.4 Drainage geocomposites 188 7.7.5 Containment (barrier) geocomposites 188

7.8 Degradation mechanisms for polymers 188 7.8.1 Oxidation degradation 188

7.8.1.1 Oxidation degradation mechanisms of polyolefins 189 7.8.1.2 Accelerated tests and lifetime predictions 190

7.8.2 Ultraviolet degradation 190 7.8.3 Biological degradation 191 7.8.4 Hydrolytic degradation 191

7.9 Allowable versus ultimate geotextile and geognd properties 192 7.9.1 Strength related applications 193

7.9.1.1 Allowable strength approach 193 7.9.1.2 Limit state approach 193

7.9.2 Liquid flow related applications 194 7.10 Summary 194

8. Seepage, Drainage and Dewatering 197 R. W. Loughney

8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 Geology, hydrogeology and hydrology 197

8.2.1 Geology 197 8.2.2 Hydrogeology 197 8.2.3 Hydrology 198

8.2.3.1 Basic flow equations 198 8.2.3.2 Graphical approach 200

8.3 Seepage and drainage 205 8.3.1 Seepage 205 8.3.2 Drainage 205

8.4 Area to be dewatered 206 8.5 Assessment of groundwater conditions 207 8.6 Selection of dewatering systems 208

8.6.1 Dewatering systems 208 8.6.2 Soil stabilization systems 208

8.6.2.1 Vacuum applied to the soil 208 8.6.2.2 Electro-osmosis 213

8.6.3 Cut-off walls: grouting and freezing 214 8.6.4 Open pumping 214 8.6.5 Recharge 214

8.7 Design of the dewatering system 214 8.7.1 Well-screens 215 8.7.2 Filter packs 216 8.7.3 Pump units 217 8.7.4 Piping and fittings 217

8.8 Installation, operation and removal of dewatering systems 218 8.8.1 Installation 218 8.8.2 Operation 218 8.8.3 Removal 218

8.9 Permanent dewatering system 218 8.10 Dewatering specifications 218

8.10.1 Specified end result 219 8.10.2 Specified minimum groundwater control system 219 8.10.3 Specified complete groundwater control system 219 8.10.4 Specialty contractors responsibility 220

8.11 Summary 220

CONTENTS xiii

II. FOUNDATIONS AND PAVEMENTS 221

9. Shallow Foundations 223 J. C. Small

9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Types of Shallow Foundations 223

9.2.1 Strip footings 223 9.2.2 Pad footings 223 9.2.3 Combined footings 224 9.2.4 Raft or mat foundations 224 9.2.5 Inspection 224

9.3 Bearing capacity 224 9.3.1 Uniform soils 225

9.3.1.1 Undrained case 227 9.3.1.2 Drained case 227 9.3.1.3 Accuracy of Terzaghi's factors 228 9.3.1.4 Effect of footing shape 228 9.3.1.5 Net bearing capacity 228 9.3.1.6 General formulae 229 9.3.1.7 Soil layers of finite depth 232

9.3.2 Non-uniform soils 232 9.3.2.1 Strength increasing with depth 234 9.3.2.2 Fissured clays 235 9.3.2.3 Footings on slopes 237 9.3.2.4 Layered soils 238

9.4 Settlement 240 9.4.1 Limits of settlement 240 9.4.2 Settlement computation 240 9.4.3 Theory of elasticity 242

9.4.3.1 One-dimensional conditions 242 9.4.3.2 Three-dimensional problems 242

9.4.4 Rate of settlement 244 9.4.5 Numerical approaches 246

9.4.5.1 Layered soil: finite layer approaches 246 9.4.5.2 Non-linear materials 246

9.4.6 Settlement of footings on sand 247 9.4.6.1 Methods based on the standard penetration test (SPT) 247 9.4.6.2 Method based on static cone penetrometer 249

9.4.7 Methods based on settlement and bearing criteria 250 9.4.8 Estimating the soil parameters 252

9.5 Raft foundations 252 9.5.1 Strip rafts 253 9.5.2 Circular rafts 253 9.5.3 Rectangular rafts 255 9.5.4 Raft foundations of general shape 256

9.6 Reactive soils 257 9.6.1 Rafts on reactive soils 257

9.7 Cold climates 257 9.8 Limit state design 258

10. Pile Foundations 261 H. G. Poulos

10.1 Introduction 261

xiv CONTENTS

10.1.1 Design objectives 261 10.1.2 Criteria for design 261 10.1.3 Types of piles and their uses 262

10.2 Pile load capacity 263 10.2.1 Dynamic calculation methods 263 10.2.2 Static calculation methods 264

10.2.2.1 General principles 264 10.2.2.2 Saturated clay soils: a method 264 10.2.2.3 Saturated clay soils: ~ method 265 10.2.2.4 Non-cohesive soils 266 10.2.2.5 Layered soils 267

10.2.3 Methods using in situ test data 268 10.2.3.1 Static cone penetration (CPT) tests 268 10.2.3.2 Standard penetration test (SPT) 268

10.2.4 Uplift capacity 271 10.2.5 Group effects 271 10.2.6 Effects of cyclic loading 271

10.3 Settlement prediction 273 10.3.1 Analysis methods 273 10.3.2 Design charts and equations for single piles 274

10.3.2.1 Non-linear analysis 275 10.3.3 Pile group settlement 275

10.3.3.1 Methods of analysis 275 10.3.3.2 Rapid practical estimation of group settlements 278

10.3.4 Assessment of parameters 280 10.4 Lateral loading 283

10.4.1 Ultimate lateral capacity 283 10.4.1.1 Single piles 283 10.4.1.2 Pile groups 284

10.4.2 Lateral deflection of Single piles 285 10.4.2.1 p-y analysis 285 10.4.2.2 Linear elastic solutions 285 10.4.2.3 Non-linear solutions 287

10.4.3 Group effects 287 10.4.4 Assessment of parameters 288 10.4.5 Effects of cyclic loading 290

10.5 General analysis of pile groups 292 10.5.1 Methods of analysis 292 10.5.2 Some elastic-based computer methods 293

10.6 Pile response to externally imposed ground movements 293 10.6.1 Introduction: sources of ground movement 293 10.6.2 Negative friction 294 10.6.3 Expansive soils 296 10.6.4 Piles subjected to lateral ground movements 296 10.6.5 Specific applications 298

10.6.5.1 Piles in unstable slopes 299 10.6.5.2 Piles near an excavation 299 10.6.5.3 Piles in and near embankments 299

10.7 Pile load testing 299 10.7.1 Introduction 299 10.7.2 Static load testing 300 10.7.3 Dynamic pile testing 300 10.7.4 Statnamic testing 301

CONTENTS XV

10.7.5 Interpretation of load test results 302 10.7.5.1 Ultimate load 302 10.7.5.2 Load distribution 302 10.7.5.3 Soil stiffness 303

10.7.6 Integrity testing 303

11. Foundations on Rock 305 K Y. La and A. M. Hefny

11.1 Introduction 305 11.2 Foundations for tall bUildings 305

11.2.1 Design considerations 305 11.2.1.1 Bearing capacity 305 11.2.1.2 Allowable bearing pressure 305 11.2.1.3 Differential settlement 309 11.2.1.4 Effect of excavations in rock on adjacent structures 309 11.2.1.5 Base heave 310

11.2.2 Field tests for the measurement of rock mass modulus 310 11.2.3 Socketed piles into rock 313

11.2.3.1 End bearing resistance 314 11.2.3.2 Shaft resistance 314 11.2.3.3 Estimation of average side shear resistance using empirical correla-

tions 314 11.2.3.4 Design of piles socketed into rock 316

11.3 Concrete dams on rock foundations 318 11.3.1 Introduction 318 11.3.2 Methodology 319 11.3.3 Methods of field investigation 319 11.3.4 Strength envelopes of bonded and unbonded contacts 323 11.3.5 Extraction of data from records 326 11.3.6 Methods currently used in stability analysis 327 11.3.7 An example of application of methodology: safety assessment of Barrett Chute

Dam 329 11.3.7.1 Design provisions and geological conditions 329 11.3.7.2 Field investigation and condition of contact 330 11.3.7.3 Results oflaboratory tests and strength parameters for design anal-

ysis 330 11.3.7.4 High uplift pressures measured and remedial measures 331 11.3.7.5 Stability study 332

11.3.8 Experience gained and benefits derived from application of the methodology 332

12. Dynamics of Foundations 337 M. H. El Naggar

12.1 Introduction 337 12.1.1 Design objectives 337 12.l.2 Types of dynamic loads 337 12.l.3 Types of foundations 338

12.2 Shallow foundations 338 12.2.1 Impedance functions of shallow foundations 338 12.2.2 Embedment effects 341 12.2.3 Impedance functions of a layer on half space 342

12.3 Deep foundations 344 12.3.1 Impedance functions of piles 344 12.3.2 Pile-soil-pile interaction 346

xvi CONTENTS

12.3.3 Impedance functions of pile groups 347 12.3.4 Pile batter 348 12.3.5 Non-linear response of piles 348 12.3.6 Seismic response of pile foundations 348 12.3.7 Experimental studies on response of piles 349

12.3.7.1 Full-scale field tests 349 12.3.7.2 Small prototype field tests 349 12.3.7.3 Small-scale laboratory tests 350 12.3.7.4 Centrifugal modeling 350

12.4 Response of machine foundations 350 12.4.1 Response of rigid foundations in one degree-of-freedom 350 12.4.2 Coupled response of rigid foundations 351

12.4.2.1 Direct solution 351 12.4.2.2 Modal analysis 352

12.4.3 Response of rigid foundations in six degrees-of-freedom 353 12.5 Response of hammer foundations 355

12.5.1 Types of hammers and hammer foundations 355 12.5.2 Design criteria 355 12.5.3 Response of one mass foundation 356 12.5.4 Response of two mass foundation 357

13. Pavement Design 361 R. Haas and B. L. Rodway

13.1 Introduction 361 13.2 Geotechnical and environmental considerations 361

13.2.1 Soils investigation and engineering properties 362 13.2.2 Drainage 363 13.2.3 Compaction 364

13.2.3.1 Basic principles 364 13.2.3.2 Compaction of soils 364 13.2.3.3 Construction equipment for soil compaction 365 13.2.3.4 Compaction of asphalt layers 365 13.2.3.5 Specifications for compaction of asphalt layers 366 13.2.3.6 Asphalt compaction equipment 366

13.2.4 Geosynthetics in pavements 366 13.2.5 Environmental considerations 368

13.3 Framework for pavement design 369 13.3.1 Introduction 369 13.3.2 Design objectives and constraints 369 13.3.3 Components of the design framework 369 13.3.4 CategOrization of structural design methods

13.4 Design inputs and their characterization 371 13.4.1 Material properties and characterization

13.4.1.1 Asphalt concrete 371 13.4.1.2 Portland cement concrete 13.4.1.3 Granular bases and subbases 13.4.1.4 Reinforcement steel 372 13.4.1.5 Traffic loads 374

13.5 Pavement response models 375 13.5.1 Elastic layer theory 376 13.5.2 The finite element method 376

371

372 372

370

13.5.3 Simplified (Odemark) elastic layer theory 377 13.6 Structural design of flexible road pavements 377

13.6.1 Review of common design methods 377

CONTENTS xvii

13.6.2 Experience-based design 377 13.6.3 Empirically based design: the AASHTO design method 379 13.6.4 Mechanistic-empirical based design: the Asphalt Institute method 380

13.7 Structural design of airfield pavements 382 13.7.1 An overview 382 13.7.2 Airfield pavement types and comparative thicknesses 383

13.7.2.1 Airfield pavement thickness design 384 13.7.3 Airfield pavement failure and safety considerations 386

13.8 Structural design of rigid pavements for roads 386 13.8.1 Types of rigid pavements 386 13.8.2 Basic factors in thickness design 387

13.8.2.1 Flexural strength of concrete 387 13.8.2.2 Subgrade and subbase support 387 13.8.2.3 Design or life-cycle period 387

13.8.3 Thickness design methods 388 13.8.4 AASHTO thickness design procedure (AASHTO 1993) 388 13.8.5 Portland Cement Association thickness design procedure 388 13.8.6 Consideration of joints in design 389 13.8.7 Typical joint configurations 389 13.8.8 Approximate, catalog design approach 389

13.9 Design of overlays 391 13.9.1 Introduction 391 13.9.2 Flexible pavement overlay design methods 391

13.10 Application of reliability to pavement design 392 13.11 Economic evaluation of pavement design alternatives 393

13.11.1 Basic principles and approaches 393 13.11.2 Common methods of economic evaluation 393

III. SLOPE, EMBANKMENT AND WALL STABILITY, AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT 395

14. Slopes and Mass Movements 397 s. Leroueil, J. Locat, G. Seve, L. Picarelli and R. M. Faure

14.1 Introduction 397 14.2 Types of movements 399 14.3 Importance of groundwater conditions in slopes 399

14.3.1 Water flow conditions in soil slopes 399 14.3.2 Particular case of excavations in clays 401 14.3.3 Triggering or aggravating factors related to water 402 14.3.4 Flow nets 402 14.3.5 Particular case of rock slopes 403

14.4 Analysis of slope movements: generalities 404 14.4.1 Pre-failure 405 14.4.2 Failure 406 14.4.3 Post-failure 407 14.4.4 Reactivation 408

14.5 Methods of slope stability analysis 409 14.5.1 General remarks 409 14.5.2 Infinite slope 411 14.5.3 Methods of slices 412 14.5.4 Global method: perturbation method 414 14.5.5 Planar failure 415 14.5.6 Wedge failure 416 14.5.7 Toppling failure 418

xviii CONTENTS

14.6 Risk assessment associated to slope movements 420 14.6.1 Total risk 420 14.6.2 Elements at risk and their vulnerability 421 14.6.3 Hazard 421 14.6.4 Tolerable risk 422

14.7 Methods of mitigation 423 14.7.1 Generalities 423 14.7.2 Elimination of the problem or reduction of its consequences 423

14.7.2.1 Relocation 423 14.7.2.2 Complete or partial removal of unstable materials 423 14.7.2.3 Bridging 423 14.7.2.4 Protection of the structures against soil or rock movements 423

14.7.3 Earthworks 424 14.7.4 Earth retaining systems 424 14.7.5 Drainage systems 424 14.7.6 In situ reinforcement 426 14.7.7 Anchor systems 427 14.7.8 Vegetation 427 14.7.9 Special techniques 427

14.8 Warning systems 427

15. Soil Improvement 429 R. D. Holtz, J. Q. Shang and D. T. Bergado

15.1 Introduction 429 15.2 Foundation soil improvement techniques 432

15.2.1 Lightweight fill 432 15.2.2 Removal and replacement 433 15.2.3 Consolidation 434

15.2.3.1 Dewatering and groundwater control 434 15.2.3.2 Preloading by surcharge 434 15.2.3.3 Preloading by vacuum 436 15.2.3.4 Consolidation with vertical drains 437 15.2.3.5 Prefabricated vertical drains 441

15.2.4 Chemical, thermal and electrical stabilization 443 15.2.4.1 Stabilization by chemical admixtures 444 15.2.4.2 Lime and lime-cement columns 444 15.2.4.3 Deep soil mixing 445 15.2.4.4 Intrusion and permeation grouting 445 15.2.4.5 Jet grouting 447 15.2.4.6 Thermal treatment 447 15.2.4.7 Artificial ground freezing 448 15.2.4.8 Electro-osmotic and electro-kinetic stabilization 449

15.2.5 Physical stabilization and densification 452 15.2.5.1 Preloading 452 15.2.5.2 Compaction grouting 452 15.2.5.3 Dynamic compaction 453 15.2.5.4 Blast densification 454 15.2.5.5 Vibro-compaction and vibro-replacement 454 15.2.5.6 Inundation (hydromechanical compaction) 456 15.2.5.7 Compaction piles 456 15.2.5.8 Reinforcement of embankments and foundations 457

15.3 Stabilization of slopes 457 15.3.1 Dewatering and groundwater control 458 15.3.2 Ground anchors and tiebacks 458

CONTENTS xix

15.3.3 Soil nailing 458 15.3.4 Micropiles, root piles and pin piles 458 15.3.5 Biotechnical stabilization 459

15.4 Verification and evaluation of soil improvement 460 15.4.1 Inspection during construction 460 15.4.2 Verification of foundation improvement 460 15.4.3 Instrumentation 461

15.4.3.1 Instrumentation and monitoring during construction 461 15.4.3.2 Post-construction monitoring 461

16. Embankments Over Soft Soil and Peat 463 S. Leroueil and R. K Rowe

16.1 General behavior of clay foundations under embankments 463 16.1.1 Behavior during construction 463 16.1.2 Clay behavior after the end of construction 466 16.1.3 Stage construction 467 16.1.4 Pore pressures 467

16.2 General behavior of reinforced embankments on clay foundations 468 16.3 General behavior of peat deposits under embankments 470

16.3.1 Peat characteristics 470 16.3.2 Pore pressures 471 16.3.3 Behavior during and after construction 472

16.4 Settlements 473 16.4.1 Stress distribution under embankments 473 16.4.2 Construction settlement 474 16.4.3 Long-term settlement 475

16.4.3.1 Primary consolidation settlement 475 16.4.3.2 Contribution of the viscosity of clay to total settlement 475

16.4.4 Effect of embankment reinforcement on settlement 477 16.4.5 Settlement of embankments on peat 478

16.5 Lateral displacements 480 16.6 Consolidation 481

16.6.1 Primary consolidation 481 16.6.2 Consideration of viscous and structuring effects 483

16.7 Stability 484 16.7.1 General remarks 484 16.7.2 Embankments constructed in one stage 484

16.7.2.1 Evaluation of mobilized shear strength, Su 484 16.7.2.2 Strength of the weathered crust 486 16.7.2.3 Estimation of stability 486

16.7.3 Choice of strength for embankments constructed in several stages 487 16.8 Solutions to problems of stability and settlement 487

16.8.1 General 487 16.8.2 Berms 488 16.8.3 Reinforced embankments on soft clay 488

16.8.3.1 General considerations 488 16.8.3.2 Bearing capacity limits on reinforced embankment height 489 16.8.3.3 Selecting reinforcement properties 492

16.8.4 Reinforced embankments on peat 495 16.8.4.1 Problem definition 495 16.8.4.2 Peat underlain by a firm base 495 16.8.4.3 Peat underlain by a soft clay/marllayer 496

16.9 Practical considerations: construction, instrumentation and observation analysis 497 16.9.1 Design and construction 497

xx

16.9.2 Instrumentation 16.9.3 Observation analysis

498

CONTENTS

498

17. Earth Retaining Structures and Reinforced Slopes 501 R. J. Bathurst and C. J. F. P. Jones

17.1 Introduction 501 17.1.1 Types of earth retaining structures 501 17.1.2 Selection of type of retaining wall 504 17.1.3 Reinforced slopes 506 17.1.4 Soil reinforcement concepts 506

17.1.4.1 Reinforcement 506 17.1.4.2 Soil 506

17.1.5 Global factor design approach 507 17.1.6 Limit states design approach 508

17.2 Earth pressure theory 508 17.2.1 Earth pressure at rest 508 17.2.2 Rankine earth pressure theory 508 17.2.3 Compaction stresses 511 17.2.4 Coulomb wedge methods 513 17.2.5 Other 515

17.3 Conventional retaining walls 516 17.3.1 Gravity and cantilever walls 516 17.3.2 Sheet pile walls (cantilever and anchored) 517 17.3.3 Braced excavations 518 17.3.4 Other types of retaining structures (diaphragm walls and cut-offs) 520

17.4 Reinforced soil walls 522 17.4.1 Current design methods 522 17.4.2 Tie-back method 524

17.4.2.1 Limit mode 1: sliding 524 17.4.2.2 Limit mode 2: bearing and tilting 524 17.4.2.3 Limit mode 3: reinforcement layer rupture 525 17.4.2.4 Limit mode 4: pull-out capacity 526 17.4.2.5 Limit mode 5: wedge/slip circle stability 526 17.4.2.6 Limit mode 6: deflections 527

17.4.3 Coherent gravity method 528 17.4.3.1 Limit mode 1: sliding 529 17.4.3.2 Limit mode 2: bearing/tilt 529 17.4.3.3 Limit mode 3: element rupture 529 17.4.3.4 Limit mode 4: element pull-out 529 17.4.3.5 Limit mode 5: wedge/slip circle stability 530 17.4.3.5 Limit mode 6: deflections 530

17.4.4 Soil nailing 530 17.5 Reinforced slopes 531

17.5.1 General 531 17.5.2 Two-part wedge analysis with reinforcement 532 17.5.3 Modified circular slip method 533 17.5.4 Design charts 534

17.6 Reinforcement over voids 535 17.6.1 Analytical methods 535

17.6.1.1 Tension membrane theory 536 17.6.1.2 Arching 536 17.6.1.3 Combined arching and tension membrane theory 536 17.6.1.4 BS 8006 method 537

17.6.2 Reinforcement on embankment piles 537

CONTENTS

IV. SPECIAL TOPICS 539

18. Buried Pipes and Culverts 541 1. D. Moore

18.1 Introduction 541 18.1.1 The buried pipe system 18.1.2 Pipe types and limit states 18.1.3 Analysis of buried pipes 18.1.4 Design standards 545

18.2 Loads 545

541 541

542

18.2.1 Static loads: embankments 545 18.2.2 Static loads: trench installation 546 18.2.3 Construction loading 548 18.2.4 Surface live loads 548 18.2.5 Fluid loading 548 18.2.6 Other loading sources 548

18.3 Response 550 18.3.1 Pipe and soil properties 550

18.3.1.1 Pipe modules and wall properties 550 18.3.1.2 Pipe stiffness 550 18.3.1.3 Soil properties 551

18.3.2 Soil-pipe interaction solutions 551 18.3.3 Positive and negative arching 553 18.3.4 Classification for flexible and rigid pipes 553 18.3.5 Thrust and moment 555

18.3.5.1 General expressions 555 18.3.5.2 Limiting values 555 18.3.5.3 Non-circular pipes and culverts 556 18.3.5.4 Empirical limits 556

18.3.6 Deflection 556 18.3.6.1 Deflection limits 556 18.3.6.2 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures: elastic theory 557 18.3.6.3 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures: limiting values 558

xxi

18.3.6.4 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures: Spangler's equation 558 18.3.6.5 Pipe stiffness and flexibility 558

18.3.7 Stress and strain 559 18.3.8 Buckling 559

18.4 Backfill selection and pipe installation 560 18.5 Design examples 561

18.5.1 Concrete storm sewer 562 18.5.1.1 Structural design to limit crack width 562 18.5.1.2 Indirect design 563 18.5.1.3 Direct design 563 18.5.1.4 Trench versus embankment loading 564

18.5.2 Large diameter corrugated steel culvert 564 18.5.3 High denSity polyethylene drainage pipe 566

19. Trenchless Technology 569 G. W. E. MiUigan and C. D. F. Rogers

19.1 Introduction 569 19.2 Techniques involving excavation 570

19.2.1 Principles of operation 570 19.2.2 Pipe jacking and microtunneling 570 19.2.3 Auger boring 573

xxii CONTENTS

19.2.4 Directional drilling 573 19.2.5 Geotechnical engineering considerations 574

19.2.5.1 Introduction 574 19.2.5.2 Face stability, excavation method and shield thrust force 574 19.2.5.3 Tunnel stability and pipeline friction 576 19.2.5.4 Calculation of ground movements 579 19.2.5.5 Use of lubrication 580 19.2.5.6 Jacking shafts 581 19.2.5.7 Geotechnical considerations for other techniques 581

19.3 Techniques involving ground displacement 582 19.3.1 Principles of operation 582 19.3.2 Moling and gUided drilling 582 19.3.3 Pipe bursting 583 19.3.4 Pipe ramming 584 19.3.5 Geotechnical engineering considerations 584

19.3.5.1 Factors influencing void creation 584 19.3.5.2 Void stability and pipeline friction 585 19.3.5.3 Calculation of ground movements 586 19.3.5.4 Influence on the buried infrastructure and adjacent structures and

services 588 19.4 Pipeline rehabilitation techniques 588 19.5 Practical application 591

20. Cold Region Engineering 593 J.-M. Konrad

20.1 Introduction 593 20.2 Thermal considerations 593

20.2.1 Heat flow through soils 20.2.1.1 Steady state 20.2.1.2 Transient state

593 593

594 20.2.2 Thermal properties of soils and other materials 595

20.2.2.1 Thermal conductivity 595 20.2.2.2 Heat capacity 595 20.2.2.3 Latent heat 596 20.2.2.4 Thermal resistance 596

20.2.3 Thermal boundary conditions 596 20.2.3.1 Generality 596 20.2.3.2 Freezing and thawing indices at ground surface 598

20.3 Ice formation in freezing soils 600 20.3.1 Unfrozen water content 600 20.3.2 Water migration and ice lens formation 601 20.3.3 Segregation potential of freezing soils for laboratory conditions 602 20.3.4 Segregation potential for field conditions 603

20.3.4.1 SPfield from laboratory freezing tests 604 20.3.4.2 SPfield from field observations 605 20.3.4.3 SPfield from empirical correlations 606

20.3.5 Prediction of frost depth in frost-susceptible soils 606 20.3.6 Frost heave prediction 608 20.3.7 Thaw weakening 609

20.4 Frost susceptibility of soils 609 20.4.1 Limitations of existing frost-susceptibility criteria 609 20.4.2 Rational evaluation of frost susceptibility 610

20.5 Frost action in civil-engineering works 610 20.5.1 Design considerations 610

CONTENTS xxiii

20.5.2 Foundations 611 20.5.3 Earth retaining structures and excavations 611 20.5.4 Buried structures 611 20.5.5 Highways 612

20.5.5.1 Frost heave 612 20.5.5.2 Thaw-weakening 613 20.5.5.3 Trends in pavement design 613

21. Earthquake Engineering 615 W. D. L. Finn

21.1 Introduction 615 21.2 Seismological aspects 615

21.2.1 Earthquake occurrence 615 21.2.2 Wave type 616 21.2.3 Earthquake magnitude 617 21.2.4 Earthquake statistics 618 21.2.5 Discrete frequency occurrence 618 21.2.6 Earthquake source zones 619 21.2.7 Maximum magnitude, M, 619 21.2.8 Estimation of maximum magnitude 619 21.2.9 Magnitude from fault break and fault area 620

21.2.10 Probability of occurrence 620 21.3 Wave propagation 620

21.3.1 Elements of wave propagation 620 21.3.2 Strains in the ground 620 21.3.3 Strains in buried pipes 621

21.4 Design ground motions 622 21.4.1 Basic elements 622 21.4.2 Response spectra 622 21.4.3 Simple design spectra 623 21.4.4 Site-specific response spectra 624 21.4.5 Confirmatory dynamiC analyses 625 21.4.6 Uniform hazard spectra 625

21.5 Earthquake ground motions 625 21.5.1 Ground motion attenuation relations for crustal earthquakes 625 21.5.2 Ground motion attenuation relations for subduction zone earthquakes 627

21.6 Effects of soil conditions on ground motion 627 21.6.1 Non-linear soil behavior 628 21.6.2 Site classification-based amplification factors 629 21.6.3 NEHRP provisions 630 21.6.4 Effects of topography 631 21.6.5 Motions in sedimentary basins 631 21.6.6 Near-fault effects 632

21. 7 Seismic soil-structure interaction 632 21.7.1 Kinematic and inertial soil-structure interaction 632 21.7.2 Tau method for assessing interaction effects 633

21.8 Seismic design of retaining structures 633 21.8.1 Dynamic active and passive earth pressure force 634 21.8.2 Saturated backfill 635 21.8.3 Anchored bulkheads 635 21.8.4 Reinforced soil walls 636 21.8.5 Seismic wall displacements 636 21.8.6 Seismic design for tolerable wall displacement 637 21.8.7 Unyielding walls (rigid) 637

xxiv CONTENTS

21.8.8 Earth pressures for design of rigid walls 637 21.8.9 Practical considerations 640

21.9 Seismic design of foundations 640 21.9.1 Elements of seismic design of foundations 640 21.9.2 Seismic design requirements for foundations 641 21.9.3 Design pressure based on bearing capacity 641 21.9.4 Design loads 642

21.10 Liquefaction 642 21.10.1 Key factors 642 21.10.2 SPT(N) liquefaction assessment chart 642 21.10.3 Magnitude scaling factor, K", 644 21.10.4 Overburden pressure scaling factor, 1(" 645 21.10.5 Correction factors for static shear, Ka 645 21.10.6 Core-penetration test (CPT) 645 21.10.7 Shear-wave velocity 646 21.10.8 Becker penetration test (BPT) 647 21.10.9 Seismic settlement 647

21.10.10 Effects of ground improvement 648 21.11 Residual strength and post-liquefaction deformations 649

21.11.1 Factors controlling residual strength 649 21.11.1.1 Effect of sample preparation 649 21.11.1.2 Stress path 650 21.11.1.3 Residual strength as a function of effective confining pressure 651

21.11.2 Post-liquefaction deformations 651 21.12 Embankment dams 652

21.12.1 Equivalent linear analysis 652 21.12.2 Deformations from acceleration data 652 21.12.3 Deformations from stress data 653 21.12.4 Non-linear methods of analysis 653

21.12.4.1 Elastic-plastic methods 653 21.12.4.2 Direct non-linear analysis 653

21.12.5 Recommendations for analysis 654 21.13 Seismic risk in geotechnical earthquake engineering 654

21.13.1 Seismic risk assessment for dams 654 21.13.2 Approaches to risk assessment 654 21.13.3 Some contentious issues 656 21.13.4 Framework for risk assessment 657

21.12.4.1 Example: risk assessment for Keenleyside Dam 657

V. GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 661

22. Geoenvironmental Problem Identification and Risk Management 663 M. Whittaker, J. G. Sprenger and D. D. DuBois

22.1 Introduction 663 22.1.1 Framework for risk-based site management 664 22.1.2 Defining goals 664 22.1.3 Regulatory and societal issues 665

22.2 Site assessment for risk-based site management 667 22.2.1 Scope and objectives 667 22.2.2 Site assessment procedural components 667

22.2.2.1 Stage 1: non-intrusive phase I investigations 667 22.2.2.2 Stage 2: intrusive site assessment 668

22.2.3 Sampling strategies and methods 669 22.2.4 Common difficulties encountered during the site assessment process 670

CONTENTS xxv

22.3 Contaminant identification 670 22.3.1 Requirements and objectives 670 22.3.2 Typical contaminants and associated hazards 670

22.3.2.1 Inorganic contamination 670 22.3.2.2 Organic contamination 671

22.3.3 The link between contaminant behavior and risk 671 22.3.3.1 Contaminant partitioning 672 22.3.3.2 Contaminant weathering 672

22.3.4 Selection of analytical parameters 673 22.4 Problem formulation 674

22.4.1 Contaminants 675 22.4.2 Receptors 675 22.4.3 Pathways 675 22.4.4 Conceptual pathway model 679

22.5 Exposure assessment 679 22.5.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process 679 22.5.2 Basic elements of exposure assessment 680

22.6 Toxicity assessment 681 22.6.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process 681 22.6.2 Basic elements of toxicity assessment 681 22.6.3 Derivation of exposure limits 682

22.7 Risk characterization 684 22.7.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process 684 22.7.2 Basic elements of risk characterization 684 22.7.3 Risk description 685 22.7.4 Reporting of uncertainty 685

22.8 Risk communication 686 22.8.1 The need for effective communication 686 22.8.2 External communication 686 22.8.3 Internal communication 686

22.9 Risk management 687 22.9.1 Selection of risk management options 687 22.9.2 Monitoring risk management success 689 22.9.3 Summary 690

23. Physicochemistry of Soils for Geoenvironmental Engineering 691 J. K Mitchell

23.1 Introduction 691 23.2 Soil mineralogy and composition 691

23.2.1 Mineral compositions and structures 691 23.2.2 Silicate minerals 691 23.2.3 Non-clay minerals in soils 692 23.2.4 Clay mineral structures 692 23.2.5 Clay mineral characteristics 694 23.2.6 Organic matter in soils 694

23.3 Soil water 695 23.3.1 Ice and water structure 695 23.3.2 The influence of dissolved ions 696 23.3.3 Water adsorption by soils 696 23.3.4 Properties of adsorbed water 696

23.4 Clay-water-electrolyte system 697 23.4.1 Ion distributions: the double layer 698 23.4.2 Double layer interactions 699 23.4.3 Factors influencing double layer repulSion 700

xxvi CONTENTS

23.5 Ion exchange 701 23.6 Soil fabric and its relation to properties 702

23.6.1 Particle associations and fabric scale 703 23.6.2 Single-grain fabrics 703 23.6.3 Multigrain fabrics 703 23.6.4 Fabric-property interrelationships 704

23.7 Physicochemical effects on soil properties and their importance in environmental geotechnics 705

23.7.1 Volume change properties 705 23.7.2 Deformation and strength properties 706

23.7.2.1 Strength 706 23.7.2.2 Stress-strain behavior 707 23.7.2.3 Stress-strain-time behavior 707

23.7.3 Conductivity properties 708 23.7.3.1 Direct flows 708 23.7.3.2 Coupled flows 709 23.7.3.3 Effects of flows on properties 710

24. Contaminant Hydrogeology 711 R. A. Schincariol and R. K Rowe

24.1 Hydrogeological environments 711 24.1.1 Saturated and unsaturated zones 711 24.1.2 Aquifers and aquitards 711 24.1.3 Hydrogeologic parameters: porosity, hydraulic conductivity and permeability, transmis-

sivity, storativity and specific yield 712 24.1.4 Hydrogeologic variables: hydraulic head, flux and velocity, aquifer recharge and

discharge 714 24.1.5 HydrogeolOgiC controls: lithology, stratigraphy and structure 716 24.1.6 Fractured and karst systems: fracture flow 717

24.2 Contaminants and sources 719 24.2.1 Physical and chemical properties of contaminants 719 24.2.2 Hydraulic characteristics of sources 720 24.2.3 Point and non-point sources 720 24.2.4 Loading history 720

24.3 Principles of contaminant transport 721 24.3.1 Mass transport processes: advection, diffusion and disperSion of solutes 721

24.3.1.1 Advection 721 24.3.1.2 Diffusion 721 24.3.1.3 Dispersion 723

24.3.2 Multiphase flow 724 24.3.3 Attenuation of dissolved solutes: biogeochemical processes 729

24.3.3.1 Acid-base reactions 730 24.3.3.2 Solution, volatilization and precipitation reactions 731 24.3.3.3 Sorption 733 24.3.3.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions 736 24.3.3.5 Hydrolysis 737 24.3.3.6 Complexation reactions 737

24.3.4 Facilitated transport of contaminants: cosolvation and colloidal transport 737

25. Barrier Systems 739 R. K Rowe

25.1 Applications, mechanisms and scope 739 25.2 Transmissive layers 739

25.2.1 Hydraulic capacity of drainage layers 741

CONTENTS xxvii

25.2.2 Particulate clogging of drainage layers 742 25.2.3 Biologically induced clogging of leachate collection systems 743 25.2.4 Geotextile "filters" in leachate collection systems 745 25.2.5 Granular drainage material in leachate collection systems 747 25.2.6 Service life of leachate collection drainage material 748 25.2.7 Leachate collection pipes 750

25.3 Low permeability liners 751 25.3.1 Geological barriers 751 25.3.2 Compacted clay liners (CCLs) 752

25.3.2.1 Material selection 752 25.3.2.2 Compaction water content and denSity 753 25.3.2.3 Estimating the hydraulic conductivity of CCLs 25.3.2.4 Construction of CCLs 756 25.3.2.5 Required thickness of CCLs 758 25.3.2.6 Construction quality control and assurance

25.3.3 Soil-bentonite liners 761 25.3.4 Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) 762

25.3.4.1 Hydration of GCLs and hydraulic conductivity 25.3.4.2 Effect of holes in GCLs 765 25.3.4.3 Desiccation and frost action 765

25.3.5 Hydraulic containment 765 25.3.6 Geomembrane liners 768 25.3.7 Single composite liners 768 25.3.8 Double composite liners 769 25.3.9 Vertical cut-off walls 769

25.3.9.1 Slurry trench walls 769 25.3.9.2 Geomembranes 770 25.3.9.3 Sheet pile walls 770

25.4 Liner compatibility with leachate 771 25.4.1 Clay-permeant interaction 771 25.4.2 GCL-permeant interaction 773 25.4.3 Geomembrane-permeant interaction 774

25.5 Diffusion through barriers 776 25.5.1 Dissolved-phase diffusion through porous media 776

759

755

762

25.5.1.1 Diffusion through intact and compacted clays 777 25.5.1.2 Diffusion through GCLs 778 25.5.1.3 Diffusion through unsaturated soil

25.5.2 Gaseous-phase diffusion through porous media 25.5.3 Diffusion through geomembranes 782

780 781

25.5.3.1 Factors affecting diffusion through a geomembrane 25.5.3.2 Diffusion of water through HDPE geomembrane

25.6 Liner temperature 785 25.7 Contaminant impact assessment and equivalence of liner systems 787

25.7.1 Impact assessment 787 25.7.2 Equivalence of GCL and CCL systems 787

25.8 Liner stability 788

26. Geosynthetics in Liquid-containing Structures 789 J. P. Giraud and R. Bonaparte

26.1 Introduction 789 26.1.1 Types of liquid-containing structures 789 26.1.2 Uses of geosynthetics in liquid-containing structures 789 26.1.3 Geosynthetic liner systems 789 26.1.4 Design considerations 790

783 785

xxviii CONTENTS

26.2 Design of liquid collection layers 790 26.2.1 Introduction to liquid collection 790

26.2.1.1 Liquid collection 790 26.2.1.2 Characteristics of liquid collection layers 791 26.2.1.3 Materials used in liquid collection layers 791 26.2.1.4 Hydraulic head, depth and thickness of liquid 791 26.2.1.5 Design of liquid collection layers 792

26.2.2 Design of primary liquid collection layers 792 26.2.2.1 Analysis of liquid flow in a primary liquid collection layer 792 26.2.2.2 Design of a primary liquid collection layer 794 26.2.2.3 Average head of liquid on top of the primary liner for liquid migration

evaluation 794 26.2.3 Design of secondary liquid collection layers 794

26.2.3.1 Analysis ofliquid flow in a secondary liquid collection layer 794 26.2.3.2 Design of a secondary liquid collection layer 795 26.2.3.3 Average head of liquid on top of the secondary liner for liquid migration

evaluation 796 26.3 Design of filters 796

26.3.1 Introduction of filtration 796 26.3.1.1 Use of filters in liquid-containment structures 796 26.3.1.2 Types of filters 796 26.3.1.3 Functions of filters 796 26.3.1.4 Importance of intimate contact between filter and soil 797 26.3.1.5 ClOgging of filters 797

26.3.2 Relevant characteristics of soils and filters 797 26.3.2.1 Characteristics of soils relevant to filter design 797 26.3.2.2 Characteristics of granular filters 798 26.3.2.3 Characteristics of geotextile filters 798

26.3.3 Design of filters 798 26.3.3.1 Filter criteria 798 26.3.3.2 Permeability criterion 799 26.3.3.3 Retention criterion 800 26.3.3.4 Non-clOgging criterion 801

26.4 Liquid migration through liners 801 26.4.1 Introduction to liquid migration through liners 801

26.4.1.1 Types of liners 801 26.4.1.2 The low permeability soil component of a composite liner 801 26.4.1.3 Geomembranes 802 26.4.1.4 Liquid migration evaluation 802

26.4.2 Liquid migration through composite liners 803 26.4.2.1 Ideal case: perfect contact 803 26.4.2.2 Description of liquid migration through a composite liner 803 26.4.2.3 Quality of contact between the two components of a composite

liner 803 26.4.2.4 Parameters and units used in equations for liquid migration rate

evaluation 804 26.4.2.5 General equations for liquid migration rate 805 26.4.2.6 Equations for liquid migration rate for the case of small hydraulic

heads 805 26.4.2.7 Limitations of the equations for liquid migration through composite

liners 806 26.4.2.8 Leakage through a wrinkle 806

26.4.3 Geomembrane liner 808 26.4.3.1 Geomembrane overlain and underlain by highly permeable media 808

CONTENTS xxix

26.4.3.2 Geomembrane overlain by a permeable medium and underlain by a highly permeable medium 808

26.4.3.3 Geomembrane overlain by a permeable medium and underlain by a semi-permeable medium 809

26.5 Stability and deformations of liner systems 810 26.5.1 Introduction 810

26.5.1.1 Types of mechanical actions applied on liner systems 810 26.5.1.2 Instability of soil or waste in contact with linear system 810 26.5.1.3 Deformation of soil in contact with the liner system 811 26.5.1.4 Differential settlement between the soil supporting the liner system and a

structure to which the liner system is connected 811 26.5.1.5 Uplift of liner system by fluids 811 26.5.1.6 Concentrated stresses applied on the geosynthetic component of liner sys-

tem by the materials in contact 811 26.5.2 Geosynthetic strain due to settlement of the supporting medium 812

26.5.2.1 Relationships between geosynthetic deflection and strain 812 26.5.2.2 Relationships between geosynthetic deflection and tension 813 26.5.2.3 Evaluation of the pressure applied on the geosynthetic 814 26.5.2.4 Use of the equations 814

26.5.3 Differential settlement at connection of liner system to rigid structures 815 26.5.3.1 Tension and strain in the geomembrane 815 26.5.3.2 Assumptions 816 26.5.3.3 Presentation of the method 816 26.5.3.4 Practical recommendations 816

26.5.4 Action of wind on geomembranes 817 26.5.4.1 Introduction 817 26.5.4.2 Suction due to wind 817 26.5.4.3 Resistance to wind uplift due to geomembranes self weight 818 26.5.4.4 Prevention of geomembrane uplift 819 26.5.4.5 Analysis of geomembrane uplift 821 26.5.4.6 Anchorage of a geomembrane subjected to wind uplift 824

27. Covers for Waste 825 R. Bonaparte and E. K Yanful

27.1 Introduction 825 27.2 Types of cover systems 825

27.2.1 Classification of cover systems 825 27.2.2 Examples of cover systems 828 27.2.3 Gas generation and management 828

27.3 Components of hydraulic-barrier cover systems 831 27.3.1 Typical components 831 27.3.2 Surface layer 831 27.3.3 Protection layer 831 27.3.4 Internal drainage layer 832 27.3.5 Hydraulic-barrier layer 833 27.3.6 Gas transmission layer 834 27.3.7 Foundation layer 834

27.4 Capillary-barrier cover systems 834 27.5 Water balance 837

27.5.1 Overview 837 27.5.2 Water balance concept 837 27.5.3 Water balance methods 838 27.5.4 Simplified manual method 838

27.5.4.1 DeSCription of method 838

xxx CONTENTS

27.5.4.2 Design of internal drainage layers 841 27.5.4.3 Refinement to simplified manual method 841 27.5.4.4 Design of slope transitions 842

27.5.5 HELP model 843 27.5.6 LEACHM model 845 27.5.7 UNSAT-H 846 27.5.8 Evaluation of models 27.5.9 Recommendations

27.6 Static slope stability 850 27.6.1 Overview 850

847 848

27.6.2 Limit equilibrium analyses 850 27.6.2.1 Overview 850 27.6.2.2 Infinite slope 851 27.6.2.3 Slope of finite length 853

27.6.3 Stress-deformation analyses 856 27.6.4 Shear strength parameters 856 27.6.5 Construction considerations 859 27.6.6 Factors of safety 861

27.7 Seismic slope stability 862 27.7.1 Overview 862 27.7.2 Seismic hazard evaluation 862 27.7.3 Seismic response analysis 864

27.7.3.1 Introduction 864 27.7.3.2 Material property selection 864 27.7.3.3 Simplified response analysis 865 27.7.3.4 Analytical and numerical seismic response analyses 868

27.7.4 Dynamic shear strength 869 27.7.5 Seismic stability and deformation analysis 869

27.7.5.1 Overview 869 27.7.5.2 Pseudo-static factor of safety method 869 27.7.5.3 Modified pseudo-static factor of safety method 870 27.7.5.4 Permanent seismic deformation method 871

27.8 Settlement 872 27.8.1 Mechanisms of settlement 872 27.8.2 Settlement of foundation soils 873 27.8.3 Overall waste compression 873 27.8.4 Settlement due to localized mechanisms 876 27.8.5 Impacts of settlement on cover system 876

28. Monitoring of Contaminants and Consideration of Risk 879 E. McBean, K Schmidtke, W. Dyck and F. Rovers

28.1 Components of a groundwater monitoring program 879 28.1.1 Determining monitoring well locations and analytical parameters 880

28.1.1.1 Initial site characterization 880 28.1.1.2 Well location 880 28.1.1.3 Analytical parameters 884 28.1.1.4 Refinement of conceptual site model/selection of supplemental weliloca-

tions 885 885 28.1.1.5 Corrective action design

28.1.1.6 Corrective action monitoring 28.1.2 Monitoring well design and construction

28.1.2.1 General 887

886 887

CONTENTS xxxi

28.1.2.2 Design considerations 887 28.1.2.3 Well installation documentation 890

28.1.3 Groundwater sampling 890 28.1.3.1 General 890 28.1.3.2 Purging/sampling equipment 890 28.1.3.3 Field quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) 890 28.1.3.4 Documentation 892

28.1.4 Sampling frequency 892 28.1.5 Monitoring well nests 893

28.2 Statistical analyses of monitoring data 893 28.2.1 Sources of variability of monitoring data 894 28.2.2 Statistical significance testing procedures 895

28.2.2.1 Types of hypotheses 895 28.2.2.2 General steps of hypotheSiS testing 896 28.2.2.3 Selection of appropriate significance test 897 28.2.2.4 Interpretation of Significance tests: acceptance and rejection regions 899

28.2.3 Procedures for Single comparisons 900 28.2.3.1 Student's t-test 900 28.2.3.2 Cochran's approximation to the Behren's Fisher t-test 902 28.2.3.3 Linear regression 903

28.2.4 Procedures for multiple comparisons 904 28.2.4.1 AnalysiS of variance (AN OVA) 904 28.2.4.2 Multiple regression 906

28.2.5 Non-parametric procedures 906 28.2.5.1 Mann-Whitney (U) test 907 28.2.5.2 Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 908 28.2.5.3 Sign test for paired observations 908 28.2.5.4 Kruskal-Wallis test (or non-parametric ANOVA) 909

28.2.6 Methods for censored data 910 28.2.6.1 Simple substitution methods 910 28.2.6.2 Test of proportions 910 28.2.6.3 Plotting position procedure 911 28.2.6.4 Cohen's test 911 28.2.6.5 Aitchison's method 912 28.2.6.6 Maximum likelihood estimator and alternates 912 28.2.6.7 Poisson model 912

28.2.7 Statistical power 913 28.3 Assessment or risk associated with exceedance of boundary criteria 914

28.3.1 Migration pathways of environmental contaminants 914 28.3.2 Exposure assessment procedures 915 28.3.3 Decisions on risk-based corrective action 916

28.4 The case for innovation: a unique visualization method for demonstrating intrinsic remediation 916

29. In situ Containment and Treatment of Contaminated Soil and Ground-water 921 D. J. A. Smyth, R. W. Gillham, D. W. Blowes and J. A. Cherry

29.1 Introduction to contaminated sites 921 29.1.1 Characteristics of contaminated sites 921 29.1.2 Objectives of remediation 922

29.2 Intrinsic remediation 923 29.3 Source-zone restoration 925

29.3.1 Goals and objectives 925

xxxii CONTENTS

29.3.2 Vadose-zone contamination in the source zone 926 29.3.2.1 Excavation 926 29.3.2.2 Soil vapor extraction and bioventing 927 29.3.2.3 Soil flushing 929

29.3.3 Source-zone restoration in the groundwater zone 929 29.3.3.1 Pumping of immiscible fluids 929 29.3.3.2 In situ mass removal from source zones: chemical flushing 930 29.3.3.3 Thermal flushing techniques 932 29.3.3.4 In situ mass destruction technologies 932

29.4 Source-zone isolation and containment 933 29.4.1 Source-zone enclosures 933 29.4.2 Covers and bottom barriers 937

29.5 In situ plume control and remediation 937 29.5.1 Pump-and-treat remediation 937 29.5.2 Permeable reactive barriers 939

29.5.2.1 General description of barriers 939 29.5.2.2 Hydraulic performance of permeable barrier systems 940 29.5.2.3 In situ treatment technologies for contaminated groundwater 942

29.6 Summary 944

30. Management of Contaminated Soil in Engineering Construction 947 P. C. Lucia, G. Ford and H. A. Tuchfeld

30.1 Introduction 947 30.2 Soil management goals 948 30.3 Soil management options 950 30.4 Soil treatment technologies 951 30.5 On-site treatment technologies and containment options 951

30.5.1 Regulatory considerations 953 30.5.1.1 Soil contaminated by petroleum fuel products 955 30.5.1.2 Soil contaminated by hazardous wastes 955 30.5.1.3 Soil contaminated by non-hazardous solid wastes 956

30.5.2 Treatment technologies 956 30.5.2.1 Bioremediation 956 30.5.2.2 Soil vapor extraction 958 30.5.2.3 Stabilization 959

30.5.3 Containment options 959 30.5.3.1 Capping and covers 959 30.5.3.2 Cut-off walls 960

30.5.4 Case study 960 30.6 Off-site treatment technologies and disposal options 962

30.6.1 Regulatory considerations 963 30.6.2 Disposal options 963

30.6.2.1 Non-hazardous waste landfill 963 30.6.2.2 Hazardous waste landfill 964 30.6.2.3 Incineration 964 30.6.2.4 Other off-site management options 964

30.6.3 Treatment technologies 965 30.6.3.1 Aeration 965 30.6.3.2 Bioremediation/landfarming 965

30.6.4 Case study 966

References 967 Index 1063

Conversion Factors US to SI Units 1088

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2.1 Relationships among soil phases: (a) element of natural soil; and (b) element sepa­rated into phases.

FIGURE 2.2 (a) General state of stress in soil ele­ment; and (b) Mohr's circle for state of stress.

FIGURE 2.3 (a) Location of pole and stresses on plane at angle <X; and (b) principal planes and di­rections.

FIGURE 2.4 (a) Strained soil element; and (b) Mohr's circle for state of strain, principal strains and their directions (NB: small strain anal­ysis).

FIGURE 2.5 Total and effective stress paths from an undrained triaxial compression test on a re­molded, isotropically consolidated kaolinite speci­men shown in: (a) s' -t diagram; and (b) p' -q dia­gram.

FIGURE 2.6 (a) Illustration of plastic yield surface and stress path in p' -q diagram resulting in (b) elastic-plastic (AB and DE) and elastic (BC and CD) stress-strain behavior (modified from Jardine 1992).

FIGURE 2.7 Typical shape of relation between void ratio and effective overburden pressure dur­ing compression and expansion of soil.

FIGURE 2.8 One-dimensional consolidation: (a) isochrones of excess pore pressure for an initial uniform pore pressure distribution (modified from Taylor 1948); and (b) degree of consolida­tion with dimensionless time, Tv, for four initial excess pore pressure distributions (modified from Leroueil & Marques 1996).

FIGURE 2.9 Methods of estimating Cv based on data from a one-dimensional consolidation (odom­eter) test: (a) Casagrande's log time method; and (b) Taylor's root time method (modified from Cer­nica 1995).

FIGURE 2.10 Increase in apparent preconsolida­tion pressure and movement of yield surface (or

limit state curve) with secondary compression, where (J~ is the current effective overburden pressure TS (modified from Tavenas & Leroueil 1977).

FIGURE 2.11 One-dimensional compression of Berthierville clay: (a) preconsolidation pressure as a function of strain rate and temperature; and (b) normalized effective stress-strain curve (mod­ified from Boudali et al. 1994 & Kabbaj 1995, re­produced with permission from Leroueill997, in Almeida, M. (Ed.), Recent Developments in Soil and Pavement Mechanics, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, A.A. Balkema, Brookfield, Vermont, U.S.A.).

FIGURE 2.12 (a) Stresses applied in triaxial com­pression test; and (b) stress-strain and volume change behavior of sand in drained tests at three different confining pressures.

FIGURE 2.13 (a) Normalized stress-strain behav­ior; (b) void ratio variations reaching critical states; and (c) critical state diagram for sand.

FIGURE 2.14 Variation of drained shear strength envelope for sand with: (a) confining pressure; and (b) density.

FIGURE 2.15 Effective stress paths from six un­drained triaxial compression tests on water­saturated loose Sacramento River sand (modified from Seed & Lee 1967).

FIGURE 2.16 (a) Normalized stress-strain rela­tions; (b) normalized pore pressure behavior; and (c) normalized effective stress paths for consoli­dated, undrained tests on normally consolidated clay (p~ = preconsolidation pressure).

FIGURE 2.17 Normalized data from simple shear tests on ~ consolidated, undrained tests on Bos­ton Blue clay (modified from Ladd and Foot 1974): (a) normalized stress-strain relations; and (b) normalized ultimate consolidation settlement stress versus OCR.

FIGURE 2.18 Relation of Hvorslev surface for

xxxiii

xxxiv LIST OF FIGURES

overconsolidated clay to the void ratio determined from the rebound curve.

FIGURE 2.19 Normalized stress paths for un­drained tests on overconsolidated specimens of kaolin clay (modified from Loudon 1967, Atkin­son & Bransby 1978).

FIGURE 2.20 Drained triaxial compression test data for Weald clay (a) normalized stress-strain curves; and (b) volume change curves (modified from Henkel 1956, Lambe & Whitman 1979).

FIGURE 2.21 (a) Effective stress failure surface described by Coulomb's failure criterion and by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion; and (b) curved failure envelope with straight-line fail­ure criterion fitted for range of stresses in the geotechnical project.

FIGURE 2.22 Determination of shear strength parameters from: (a) s' -t diagram; and (b) p'-q diagram.

FIGURE 2.23 (a) Cambridge p' -q diagram with stress path for drained triaxial compression test reaching failure at the critical state line; (b) e-p' diagram with state path for the drained test; and (c) e-Iog(p') diagram with parallel virgin com­pression and critical state lines.

FIGURE 2.24 Modified Cam Clay model with: (a) elliptical yield surface and associated flow; and (b) e~p' relation for determination of volumetric strain used as hardening parameter in the model.

FIGURE 2.25 Illustration of five material parame­ters required in the modified Cam Clay model.

FIGURE 2.26 Initial yield surfaces (or limit state curves) are biased toward and around the failure line for normally consolidated clayey soils, but less biased for sands, residual soils and soft rocks (modified from Diaz-Rodriquez et al. 1992, and reproduced with permission from Leroueil 1997, in Almeida, M. (Ed.), Recent Developments in Soil and Pavement Mechanics, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, A.A. Balkema, Brookfield, Vermont, U.S.A.).

FIGURE 2.27 Determination of equivalent linear parameters, modulus and viscous damping, for soil with non-linear hysteretic characteristics.

FIGURE 3.1 Grain-size distributions for poorly or uniformly graded, gap graded and well-graded soils (MIT grain-size scale): where Cu and Cc are the coefficients of uniformity and curvature, re­spectively.

FIGURE 3.2 Typical shapes of bulky grains.

FIGURE 3.3 Generalized curves for estimating e max and emin from gradational and particle shape characteristics. Curves are only valid for clean sands with normal to moderately skewed grain­size distributions. Note: The minimum void ratios were obtained from simple shear tests, and they are slightly lower than those determined from ASTM Standard Test Method D 4253 (after Youd 1973, © ASTM, reproduced with permis­sion).

FIGURE 3.4 Plasticity chart with trends of varia­tion in engineering properties.

FIGURE 3.5 Diagram for estimating undrained modulus of clay (modified from Duncan & Buchi­gnani 1976).

FIGURE 3.6 Approximate relation between void ratio and effective overburden pressure for clay sediments, as a function of Atterberg limits (after Lambe & Whitman 1979, Soil Mechanics SI Ver­sion, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, repro­duced with permission).

FIGURE 3.7 Relationship between compression index, Cc, and initial void ratio (after Leroueil et al. 1983, © NRC Press, reproduced with per­mission).

FIGURE 3.8 Approximate correlations for swell­ing index of silts and clays (modified from DM-7 1971).

FIGURE 3.9 Correlations between coefficient of consolidation and liquid limit (modified from NAVFAC 1982).

FIGURE 3.10 Predicted relationship between swelling potential and plasticity index for natural soils (modified from Seed et ai. 1962).

FIGURE 3.11 Correlations between the effective friction angle in triaxial compression and the dry denSity, denSity index and gradation for granular soils (modified from NAVFAC 1982).

FIGURE 3.12 Correlations between effective fric­tion angle and plasticity index for fine-grained soils (modified from Kulhawy & Mayne 1990).

FIGURE 3.13 Relation between ultimate friction angle and clay content (after Skempton 1964).

FIGURE 3.14 Relationship between sJa; and plasticity index (modified from Tavenas & Le­roueil 1987).

LIST OF FIGURES xxxv

FIGURE 3.15 Correction factor versus plasticity index for undrained shear strength determined from vane shear test (VST) (modified from Ladd et al. 1977).

FIGURE 3.16 Normalized variation of sjcr; ratio for overconsolidated clay (modified from Ladd et al. 1977).

FIGURE 3.17 General relationship between sen­sitivity, liquidity index and effective overburden pressure (modified from Houston & Mitchell 1969).

FIGURE 3.18 Variation of normalized shear mod­ulus (a) and damping ratio (b) with single ampli­tude shear strain and soil plasticity for normally and overconsolidated soils (after Vucetic & Dobry 1991, © ASCE, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 3.19 Variation of normalized shear mod­ulus with single amplitude shear strain and confining pressure for granular materials (after Ishibashi 1992, © ASCE, reproduced with per­mission).

FIGURE 3.20 Variation of damping ratio with sin­gle amplitude shear strain for granular materials (after Mitchell 1993, Fundamentals of Soil Behav­ior, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, repro­duced with permission).

FIGURE 4.1 Geotechnical circle concept for site characterization.

FIGURE 4.2 Site characterization process flow­chart (modified from Taylor & Erikson 1996).

FIGURE 4.3 Influence of the various components of site characterization on quality and satisfYing client/project requirements (modified from Site Investigation Steering Group 1993).

FIGURE 4.4 Communications and quality man­agement between groups for site characterization studies (modified from Site Investigation Steering Group 1993).

FIGURE 4.5 Considerations of the interaction be­tween the ground and proposed project when de­fining site characterization programs (modified from Site Investigation Steering Group 1993).

FIGURE 5.1 Classification of the regions within a saturated-unsaturated soil profile.

FIGURE 5.2 Approaches that can be used in the laboratory to determine the unsaturated soil prop­erty functions.

FIGURE 5.3 Example problem illustrating the role of unsaturated soil property functions in per­forming a combined seepage and slope stability analysis.

FIGURE 5.4 Separation of saturated and unsatu­rated soil mechanics based on the stress state de­scription.

FIGURE 5.5 A soil-water characteristic curve shOwing the different stages of de saturation (modified from White et al. 1970).

FIGURE 5.6 Definition of variables associated with the soil-water characteristic curve.

FIGURE 5.7 The variation of wetted area of contact area for different stages of desaturation along the soil-water characteristic curve (after Vanapalli 1994, reproduced with permission): (a) boundary effect stage; (b) primary transition stage; (c) secondary transition stage; and (d) resid­ual stage of unsaturation.

FIGURE 5.8 Typical soil-water characteristic curves for four soils from Saskatchewan, Canada.

FIGURE 5.9 Tempe cell, pressure plate apparatus for measuring water content versus matric suction in the low suction range.

FIGURE 5.10 Single specimen, pressure plate cell.

FIGURE 5.11 Approaches that can be used to esti­mate soil-water characteristic curves for the de­termination of unsaturated soil property functions when using classification tests and a database.

FIGURE 5.12 (a) Grain-size distribution curve fit for sand; and (b) comparison between experimen­tal and predicted soil-water characteristic curves for sand (after Fredlund et al. 1997a, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 5.13 Suction measurements using ther­mal conductivity sensors, installed in a test track, Regina, Saskatchewan (modified from Loi et al. 1992).

FIGURE 5.14 Illustration of the effect of climate conditions on the porewater pressure profile near the ground surface.

FIGURE 5.15 Measured relationship between soil suction and the ratio of the actual evaporation (AE) to the potential evaporation (PE) for the ground surface.

FIGURE 5.16 Relationship between soil-water

xxxvi LIST OF FIGURES

characteristic curve and the hydraulic conductiv­ity for sand and clayey silt.

FIGURE 5.17 Typical hydraulic conductivity func­tions for sand and clayey silt with the suction plot­ted on a logarithmic scale.

FIGURE 5.18 Coefficient of water storage, m~, function computed from the soil-water character­istic curve: (a) soil-water characteristic curve; and (b) coefficient of water storage function.

FIGURE 5.19 Flexible walled permeameter de­veloped to control the applied normal stresses and the matric suction (after Huang 1994, reproduced with permission). Not drawn to scale.

FIGURE 5.20 Comparison of measured hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic conductivity functions predicted from the soil-water characteristic curves for silt preconsolidated at 10 (-, +), 50 (---, .) and 200 ( .. - ", e) kPa, respectively (after Huang 1994, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 5.21 A typical soil-water characteristic curve for predicting the hydraulic conductivity.

FIGURE 5.22 Extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for unsaturated soils.

FIGURE 5.23 Extended Mohr-Coulomb shear strength envelope shOwing the strength parame­ters for a saturated-unsaturated soil: (a) linear strength envelope; and (b) non-linear strength en­velope.

FIGURE 5.24 Variation of shear strength with re­spect to suction for glacial till (modified from Gan et al. 1988).

FIGURE 5.25 (a) Soil-water characteristic curves for the compacted till; and (b) comparison of predicted and experimental variation of shear strength with respect to suction (after Vanapalli 1994, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 5.26 Active, K,., and passive, "Kp, earth pressures for a soil with matric suction.

FIGURE 5.27 Factor of safety versus matric suc­tion for a simple slope.

FIGURE 5.28 Constitutive surfaces for an unsat­urated soil expressed using soil mechanics ter­minology: (a) three-dimensional void ratio and water content constitutive surfaces; and (b) two­dimensional comparison shOwing volumetric de­formation moduli.

FIGURE 5.29 Relationship between curves that

define the mass and volume change behavior of an unsaturated soil.

FIGURE 5.30 "Actual" and "analysis" stress paths followed during the wetting of a soil.

FIGURE 5.31 One-dimensional odometer test re­sults shOwing the effects of sample disturbance.

FIGURE 6.1 Engineering classification for intact igneous rocks (E t = tangent modulus at 50% ulti­mate strength); classifies rocks as AM, BH, BL, etc., depending on where Et and Gc plot (modified from Deere & Miller 1966).

FIGURE 6.2 Engineering classification for intact sedimentary rocks (Et = tangent modulus at 50% ultimate strength); classifies rocks as AM, BH, BL, etc. (modified from Deere & Miller 1966).

FIGURE 6.3 Engineering classification for intact metamorphic rocks (Et = tangent modulus at 50% ultimate strength); classifies rocks as AM, BH, BL, etc. (modified from Deere & Miller 1966).

FIGURE 6.4 Variation of ratio of mass to intact deformation modulus, Em/Einl> with RQD from plate jacking tests, Dworshak Dam (modified from Deere et al. 1967).

FIGURE 6.5 Relationship between fracture fre­quency and ratio of mass to intact deformation modulus.

FIGURE 6.6 Common laboratory tests for ob­taining strength and deformation parameters for rocks: (a) uniaxial compression; (b) triaxial com­pression; (c) triaxial extension; (d) direct tension; and (e) indirect tension (Brazilian).

FIGURE 6.7 Stress-strain relationships and Pois­son's ratio for limestone, Gasport Member of Lockport Formation: (a) vertical; (b) 45°; and (c) horizontal samples in test to failure of uniaxial compression tests: D, vertical strain; 0, horizontal strain - Face A; D.., horizontal strain - Face B; X, volumetric strain.

FIGURE 6.8 Scheme of uniaxial compression tests for determining anisotropic elastic parameters. (a) vertical sample; (b) horizontal sample; and (c) inclined sample.

FIGURE 6.9 Comparison of rates of deformation of various tunnels in swelling rocks (modified from PFRA 1951; Einstein et al. 1972; Lo et al. 1978). (Note: The relative slopes of the lines rep­resent the percentage reduction of tunnel dimen­sions per log cycle of time.)

LIST OF FIGURES xxxvii

FIGURE 6.10 Relationship between swelling po­tential and calcite content.

FIGURE 6.11 Typical results of a series of semi­confined swell tests on Georgian Bay Shale, where £p = swelling potential.

FIGURE 6.12 Effect of applied pressure on hor­izontal swelling potential of Queenston Shale (1990 investigation, Borehole NF4A; ambient fluid, distilled water).

FIGURE 6.13 Griffith failure criterion in (a) (0"1,

0"3) space; and (b) (O"n, t) space.

FIGURE 6.14 Hoek-Brown failure criterion.

FIGURE 6.15 Illustration of i- and ~-effects in shear tests.

FIGURE 6.16 Schematic procedure of USBM overcoring measurements.

FIGURE 6.17 Initial stresses in the horizontal plane measured at the Darlington generating sta­tion site.

FIGURE 6.18 Typical field data for an overcoring test in dolomite (Goat Island Member, Thorold, Ontario) using the USBM deformation gage, for button sets 1(-), 2 (---) and 3 (- - -).

FIGURE 6.19 Schematic representation of: (a) hy­draulic fracturing testing; and (b) impression packer.

FIGURE 6.20 Idealized hydraulic fracturing pressure-time record (reprinted from ISRM 1987a, Kim, K. & Franklin, J.A. Eds. © 1987 with permission of Elsevier Science).

FIGURE 7.1 Typical tensile behavior of different geotextile types using wide-width test specimens (200 mm).

FIGURE 7.2 Direct shear test used to evaluate geosynthetic-geosynthetic or geosynthetic-soil interface strength: (a) direct shear test device; (b) direct shear test data; and (c) Mohr-Coulomb stress space.

FIGURE 7.3 Cross-sections of permittivity and transmissivity test devices, where Mf = differen­tial height, and AL = differential length.

FIGURE 7.4 Typical tensile behavior of different geomembrane types using wide-width test speci­mens (200 mm) per ASTM 04885.

FIGURE 7.5 Typical axi-symmetrical behavior of

different geomembrane types using out-of-plane pressurization per ASTM 05617.

FIGURE 7.6 Water content versus time for GCL samples placed in contact with sand at various wa­ter contents (modified from Daniel et al. 1993).

FIGURE 7.7 Three stages (A-C) of lifetime of polyolefin geosynthetic materials: Stage A, deple­tion time of antioxidants; stage B, induction time to onset of polymer degradation; stage C, time to reach 50% degradation of a particular property.

FIGURE 8.1 Minimum depth of bOrings to avoid boils and/or basal heave.

FIGURE 8.2 Mathematical procedure: (a) uncon­fined aquifer; and (b) confined aqUifer (modified from US Army 1983 and Leonards 1962).

FIGURE 8.3 Mathematical procedure: confined and unconfined aqUifer and capacity of a Single well (modified from US Army 1983, Leonards 1962, and Jumikis 1971).

FIGURE 8.4 Mathematical procedure: uncon­fined aquifer (modified from Avery 1951).

FIGURE 8.5 Mathematical procedure: drainage slot-line source ofrecharge (modified from U.S. Army 1983 and Leonards 1962).

FIGURE 8.6 Graphical and mathematical proce­dures (modified from Casagrande 1937, and US Army 1983).

FIGURE 8.7 Mathematical procedure for an ex­ample situation.

FIGURE 8.8 Graphical procedure for an example situation.

FIGURE 8.9 Use of vertical drains for stratified soils.

FIGURE 8.10 010 grain size and horizontal hy­draulic conductivity from pumping tests from the Mississippi and Arkansas river valleys (modified from US Army 1983).

FIGURE 8.11 Detail of eductor well, vacuum well, deep well, suction well and wellpoint.

FIGURE 8.12 Dewatering systems applicable to various soils based on grain size (modified from Moretrench American Corp. 1967).

FIGURE 8.13 Comparison of vacuum applied to deep wells and wellpoints. (PI = 101kPa, P2 = 101 - 9.8 [0.0136" vacuum (mmHg) - d(m)]

xxxviii LIST OF FIGURES

kPa; P3 = 101 - 9.8 [0.0136" vacuum (mmHg)] kPa)

FIGURE 8.14 Comparison of (a) electro-osmotic flow with (b) hydraulic flow (modified from Casa­grande 1983).

FIGURE 8.15 Typical electro-osmosis system.

FIGURE 8.16 Selection of filter pack for wells, vacuum wells wellpoints and horizontal drains (modified from US Army 1983).

FIGURE 8.17 Selection of filter pack for wells, vacuum wells, wellpoints and horizontal drains (modified from Driscoll 1986).

FIGURE 9.1 Types of shallow foundation:: (a) strip footing; (b) pad footing; (c) combined footing; and (d) warne slab.

FIGURE 9.2 Smooth strip footing on weightless, cohesionless soil.

FIGURE 9.3 Failure mode for footing at depth D: (a) assumptions made b.y Terzaghi 1943; and (b) actual failure mode.

FIGURE 9.4 Bearing capacity factors for strip footing (modified from Terzaghi 1943).

FIGURE 9,5. Location of water table, where Zm = the depth to the water-table when beneath the footing.

FIGURE 9..6 Bearing capacity factor, Ny (modified from Davis & Booker 1971).

FIGURE 9.7 Footing subjected to vertical and horizontal loads plus moments.

FIGURE 9.8 Undrained bearing capacity factor, Fn, for a strip on an infinite layer (a) with un­drained shear strength increasing with depth; and (b) with a crust (modified from Davis & Booker 1973).

FIGURE 9.9 Curves of Ilc and N~ strip on finite layer; undrained shear strength increasing linearly with depth (modified from Matar & Salen~on 1977).

FIGURE 9.10 Strip footing on fissured clay.

FIGURE 9.11 Undrained bearing capacity of a strip footing on a fissured clay deposit: (a) con­taining one or two orthogonal fissure sets; and containing two fissure sets with an included angle of (b) 60°; (c) 45°; and (d) 30° (modified from Lav et al. 1995).

FIGURE 9.12 Definition of terms for a footing on

a slope: ~ = angle of slope with respect to hori­zontal; D = depth of footing with respect to the level of the horizontal ground; B = footing width; b = horizontal distance leading edge of footing, a, is away from rest of slope, O. A = biB; II = DIB.

FIGURE 9.13 Suggested design factors for (a) a 2: 1 (26.6°) slope; and (b) a 1.5: 1 (33.7°) slope (modified from Shields et al. 1990). Contours give percent capacity, P.

FIGURE 9.14 Dimensionless limit pressure for strip footing on sand layer overlying clay, case of no surcharge: (a) <I> = 30°; (b) <I> = 35°; (c) <I> = 40°; and (d) <I> = 45° (modified from Michalow­ski & Shi 1995).

FIGURE 9.15 Bearing capacity for strip footing on sand layer overlying clay layer. <I>:.nd = 40° (modi­fied from Burd & Frydman 1997).

FIGURE 9.16 Modified undrained bearing capac­ity factor, Nm, for square or circular footings on two layer purely cohesive soil (modified from Vesic 1975).

FIGURE 9.17 Chart for evaluating settlement of embedded rectangular footings (modified from Christian & Carrier 1978).

FIGURE 9.18 Chart for evaluating settlement of rigid circular footing on a soil layer of finite thick­ness.

FIGURE 9.19 Soil profiles considered by Rowe & Booker (1981a,b) in developing elastic solu­tions.

FIGURE 9.20 Degree of settlement versus time factor for a circular footing on a soil layer drained at the top and bottom (modified from Davis & Poulos 1972).

FIGURE 9.21 Vertical surface displacement be­neath circular loading.

FIGURE 9.22 Correlation between blow count and modulus of sand (modified from D' Appolonia et al. 1970).

FIGURE 9.23 Observed settlement of footing on sand of various relative densities (modified from Burland et al. 1978).

FIGURE 9.24 Strain influence factors for use in Schmertman's method (modified from Schmert­man et al. 1978): (a) modified strain influence fac­tor distributions; and (b) explanation of pressure terms used in Eq. 9.27.

LIST OF FIGURES xxxix

FIGURE 9.25 Chart for correction of N-values in sand for influence of overburden pressure. Refer­ence value of effective overburden pressure, 107 kPa, i.e. 1 tonlft (modified from Peck et al. 1974).

FIGURE 9.26 Design chart for proportioning shallow footings on sand: (a) DriB = 1; (b) DriB = 0.5; and (c) DriB = 0.25 (modified from Peck et al. 1974).

FIGURE 9.27 Strip raft subjected to a point load, P: Er and E, = the elastic modulus of the raft and soil, respectively; v r and v, = the elastic modulus of the raft and soil, respectively.

FIGURE 9.28 (a) Displacement distributions; and (b) moment distributions for strip raft (modified from Brown 1975).

FIGURE 9.29 Circular raft: (a) maximum mo­ments for various stiffnesses; and (b) differential displacements for various stiffnesses (vr = 0.3) (modified from Brown 1969).

FIGURE 9.30 Settlement influence factors for rectangular raft on an infinite layer for LIB = 2 (modified from Fraser & Wardle 1976).

FIGURE 9.31 Settlement correction factor, S, for LlB= 2 (modified from Fraser and Wardle 1976): (a) v, = 0; (b) v, = 0.3; (c) v, = 0.5.

FIGURE 10.1 Adhesion factor u = uplift tests; c = compression tests (modified from Kulhawy & Phoon 1993).

FIGURE 10.2 Variation of bearing capacity factor with friction angle (modified from Berezantzev et al. 1961).

FIGURE 10.3 Layered soil profiles: variation of ul­timate base capacity with depth: (a) Case A, dense sand below weak layer; (b) Case B, weak soil un­derlying dense sand; and (c) Case C, dense sand sandwiched between two weak layers. fbI> fb2 = limiting base capacity of weak soil; fbd = limiting base capacity of pile in dense sand.

FIGURE 10.4 A typical cyclic stability diagram for a driven pile in clay: N = 100 cycles.

FIGURE 10.5 The definition of single pile geome­try: (a) bearing stratum Young's modulus = Eb;

and (b) distribution of soil Young's modulus, E, = soil Young's modulus

11 = EsoiEsL.

FIGURE 10.6 Settlement of Single pile in soil in homogeneous clay.

FIGURE 10.7 Settlement of single pile with lin­early increasing modulus.

FIGURE 10.8 Construction of load-settlement curve (modified from Poulos & Davis 1980).

FIGURE 10.9 Settlement of equivalent pier in soil layer

FIGURE 10.10 Proportion of base load for equiva­lent pier.

FIGURE 10.11 Non-linear correction factors for a flexible fixed-headed pile in stiff clay: (a) deflec­tion correction factor, Fu; and (b) fixing moment correction factor, FM•

FIGURE 10.12 Non-linear correction factors for a flexible fixed-headed pile in soft clay: (a) deflec­tion correction factor, Fu; and (b) fixing moment correction factor, FM•

FIGURE 10.13 Group factor exponent, Olr., for lat­erally loaded groups: homogeneous soils.

FIGURE 10.14 Some sources of soil movement.

FIGURE 10.15 Simplified approaches to estimat­ing pile head movement: (a) pile movement stabi­lizes with increasing soil movement (zn ;:::: L1); and (b) pile movement continues to increase with in­creasing soil movement (zn < LI)'

FIGURE 10.16 Elastic solutions for pile move­ment in expansive soil: uniform pile diameter (modified from Poulos 1989).

FIGURE 10.17 Elastic solutions for unrestrained free-head pile in uniform soil (linear soil move­ment profile) (reproduced from Chen & Poulos © 1997 with permission of ASCE).

FIGURE 10.18 Elastic solutions for unrestrained free-head pile in "Gibson" soil (linear soil move­ment profile) (reproduced from Chen & Poulos © 1997 with permission of ASCE).

FIGURE 10.19 Statnamic test: (a) prinCiple of test; and (b) test set-up.

FIGURE 10.20 Elements of a cross-hole sonic lOgging system (modified from Stain & Williams 1991).

FIGURE 10.21 Typical results of sonic integrity tests on bored piles (modified from Tchepak 1997). Refractogram of (a) a sound pile; and (b) an unsound pile.

FIGURE 11.1 Allowable contact pressure, qba, for

xl LIST OF FIGURES

unweathered jOinted rock (modified from Peck et ai. 1974).

FIGURE 11.2 Bearing pressure coefficient, K,p (modified from CGS 1992).

FIGURE 11.3 Effect of size on rock modulus for plate loading tests (e) 180 kN; (x) 360 kN; (+) 540 kN; (0) 720 kN.

FIGURE 11.4 Notations for pier socketed into rock: Ls = depth of socket, r = radius of socket, Bs = diameter of socket; and Qt = the total load, Qb = the load that reaches the base of the socket, Qs = load carried in side shear.

FIGURE 11.5 Correlations of Horvath et ai. (1983) and Rowe & Armitage (1984) for estima­tion of average side shear resistance for conven­tional rock sockets: (-) Rowe & Armitage (1984) expected values based on log-normal dis­tribution, (--) Horvath et ai. (1983) lower bound values, (e) Rowe & Armitage (1984) field test results, (_) Carrubba (1997) in situ pile test re­sults.

FIGURE 11.6 Load distribution in a rock socket (modified from Pells & Turner 1979).

FIGURE 11.7 Elastic settlement of a complete rock socket (modified from Pells & Turner 1979).

FIGURE 11.8 Embedment reduction factor for shear sockets (modified from Pells & Turner 1979).

FIGURE 11.9 Elastic settlement of shear socket (modified from Pells & Turner 1979).

FIGURE lLlO Methodology of stability evalua­tion of concrete dams on rock foundation.

FIGURE lLll Strength envelopes of bonded and unbonded contacts.

FIGURE 11.12 Typical "as-built" roughness pro­file for Barrett Chute Dam. (CH = chainage)

FIGURE 11.13 Diagrams of base pressures (USBR): (a) vertical cross-section; (b) pressure di­agram without uplift; (c) uplift pressure diagram; and (d) combined pressure diagram.

FIGURE 11.14 Cross-section of Barrett Chute Dam for stability analysis: A, original design as­sumption; B, uplift pressure in April 1987 (pre­treatment); C, uplift pressure in September (post­treatment); D, bedrock surface; E, grout curtains.

FIGURE lLl5 Measured uplift pressures in the observation wells of Barrett Chute Dam: A, head-

pond water-level; B, tailrace water-level; C, Phase II investigation; D, installation of relief wells.

FIGURE 12.1 The basic mathematical model used in foundation dynamiCS: (a) actual system; and (b) basic model of one degree-of-freedom system.

FIGURE 12.2 The co-ordinate system and possi­ble displacements. CG = center of gravity.

FIGURE 12.3 The stiffness and damping parame­ters for a circular disk on the surface of a half­space: (a) vertical excitation; (b) horizontal excita­tion; (c) rocking excitation; and (d) torsional excitation. Exact solution by Luco & Westmann 1971, modified from Veletsos & Verbic 1974; vel­etsos & Nair 1974. (-) Exact solution, (---) ap­proximate solution, ( ... ) modified cone solution.

FIGURE 12.4 Notations for an embedded founda­tion: CG = center of gravity.

FIGURE 12.5 Vertical stiffness, !vb and damp­ing,fv2, parameters for (a) end bearing piles; and (b) floating piles (reproduced from Novak & El Shamouby © 1983 with permission of ASCE).

FIGURE 12.6 Model for non-linear analysis of piles.

FIGURE 12.7 Notation for coupled motion of em­bedded foundations.

FIGURE 12.8 Example for the response analYSis of machine foundations: Line 1, soil material damping ignored; Line 2, soil material damping considered.

FIGURE 12.9 Types of hammer foundation ar­rangement.

FIGURE 12.10 Mathematical models for hammer foundations for (a) one degree-of-freedom; and (b) two degrees-of-freedom.

FIGURE 12.11 Example for the response analysis of hammer foundations.

FIGURE 13.1 Schematic of desirable drain instal­lations to control groundwater.

FIGURE 13.2 Schematic illustration of density­moisture curves for standard and modified (AASHTO) compactive efforts.

FIGURE 13.3 Possible locations for geogrid rein­forcement in a flexible pavement structure.

FIGURE 13.4 Pavement design framework and major components (modified from TAC 1997).

FIGURE 13.5 Schematic of load transfer mecha-

LIST OF FIGURES xli

nism and critical points of stress-strain: (a) stress spreading effect of a flexible pavement structure; and (b) critical stresses and/or strains (f-. ~ ten­sion; ~. f- compression).

FIGURE 13.6 Example of thickness design chart from The Asphalt Institute for a conventional flexible pavement with a 150 mm untreated aggre­gate base (modified from TAl 1991a). MAAT = 7°C.

FIGURE 13.7 US Army Corps of Engineers CBR curve for thickness design of flexible airfield pave­ment.

FIGURE 13.8 Flexible pavement design curves, B-767 (modified from Federal Aviation Adminis­tration 1987).

FIGURE 13.9 Joint designs with load-transfer de­vices (modified from TAC 1997): (a) dowelled contraction joint; (b) longitudinal sawcut joint; and (c) dowelled expansion joint.

FIGURE 13.10 Asphalt concrete overlay required to reduce measured pavement rebound deflection (RRD) to a design value (modified from TAl 1983).

FIGURE 14.1 Different stages of slope move­ments.

FIGURE 14.2 Geotechnical characterization of slope movements, and risk assessment, warning devices and mitigation (modified from Leroueil & Locat 1998).

FIGURE 14.3 Main types of slope failures in soil and rock.

FIGURE 14.4 The changes in pore pressure and factor of safety during an excavation of a cut in clay (modified from Bishop & Bjerrum 1960). PWP = porewater pressure, G.W.L. = ground­water level.

FIGURE 14.5 Relationship between the number of landslides and rainfall characteristics in South Korea (modified from Kim et al. 1992).

FIGURE 14.6 Flow nets: influence of position of lower aquifer (modified from Lafleur & Le­febvre 1980).

FIGURE 14.7 Groundwater flow model for moun­tain environment shOwing the impact of hydraulic conductivity, k, and stratification on flow pattern (modified from Hodge & Freeze 1977). Scales are given as multiples of an arbitrary constant R.

FIGURE 14.8 Variation of yearly rainfall and its

relation to the design and failure of slopes in the south of France (modified from Colas et al. 1976).

FIGURE 14.9 Boundary conditions for planar fail­ure with pore pressure conditions assumed as a triangular distribution along the sliding plane and the tension crack. 'l'f and 'l'p are the inclination from the horizontal of the slope and failure plane respectively. U and V are hydraulic forces on the failure plane and the face of the crack respec­tively.

FIGURE 14.10 The three levels of resistance of soils.

FIGURE 14.11 Inclinometer profiles at different times at Selborne (modified from Bromhead et al. 1998).

FIGURE 14.12 Relation between slope inclina­tion, slope height and time to failure for London clay cuts (modified from Leonards 1979).

FIGURE 14.13 Factors of safety obtained by total stress analysis of short-term failures versus the plasticity index, II?, (modified from Leroueil et al. 1990). h = liqUidity index.

FIGURE 14.14 Comparison of field and laboratory measurements of residual strength in (a) Upper Lias; and (b) London clay (modified from Chan­dler 1984).

FIGURE 14.15 Representation of planar features: (a) definition of terms; (b) representation of refer­ence sphere; and (c) equal-area projection (modi­fied from Heok & Bray 1981, and Norrish & Wyl­lie 1996).

FIGURE 14.16 Various modes of failure of rock masses along discontinuities. The structural data provided in the insert are used in the example.

FIGURE 14.17 Planar failure in infinite slope.

FIGURE 14.18 Bishop'S Simplified method.

FIGURE 14.19 Stability charts for total stress anal­yses (modified from Janbu 1954a).

FIGURE 14.20 Stability charts for effective stress analyses (modified from Janbu 1954a).

FIGURE 14.21 Perturbation method: (a) notation; and (b) definition of cr~ (modified from Faure 1985).

FIGURE 14.22 Nomogram for estimating a mini­mum value of the cohesion component of shear strength from the analysis of natural slopes. <1>' = 30°.

xlii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 14.23 Stereoplot of angular data for wedge stability analysis. X, Y, A and B are coeffi­cients used to solve Eq. 14.21. The numbers in brackets refer to the bedding (1) and joint set (3) identified in Fig. 4.16.

FIGURE 14.24 Analysis of toppling failure poten­tial: (a) geometric considerations; and (b) stability conditions (modified from Hoek & Bray 1981).

FIGURE 14.25 Proposed guidelines for assessing risks to life from naturally occurring slope haz­ards: (a) Cheekeye Fan; (b) British Columbia; and (c) Canada (modified from: (a) Hungr et al. 1993; (b) Evans 1997; and (c) Morgan 1997).

FIGURE 14.26 Some design aspects of a buttress.

FIGURE 14.27 Piezometric levels for parallel trench and counterfort drains at drain invert level. (a) Key diagram; (b) hmlho and hlho versus Rs = (k/kh)1I2Slho for fully penetrating drains (n = 1.0) and partially penetrating drains (n = 4.5) (modi­fied from Hutchinson 1977).

FIGURE 14.28 Schematic design of an anchor.

FIGURE 15.1 Principle of preloading by sur­charge to compensate for primary consolidation settlement (modified from Jamiolkowski et al. 1983).

FIGURE 15.2 Excess pore pressure, ~u, after surcharge removal (modified from Jamiolkowski et al. 1983).

FIGURE 15.3 Schematic of vacuum preloading system (modified from Shang et al. 1998).

FIGURE 15.4 Soil properties before (-ts:) and after (-0-) vacuum preloading consolidation, East Pier Project, Tianjin, China (modified from Shang et al. 1998).

FIGURE 15.5 Basic instrumentation of embank­ment modified with prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) (modified from Rixner et al. 1986a).

FIGURE 15.6 Consolidation using prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs): (a) section of the equiva­lent cylinder (modified from Holtz et al. 1991); (b) PVDs, showing various shapes of cores with nonwoven geotextile filter sleeves (modified from Hausmann 1990); and (c) PVD patterns, showing drain spacing s (modified from Holtz et al. 1991).

FIGURE 15.7 Schematic of a vertical drain, in­cluding disturbed (smear) zone and undisturbed zone (modified from Holtz et al. 1991).

FIGURE 15.8 Types of grouting (modified from Hausmann 1990): (a) intrusion grouting; (b) per­meation grouting; (c) compaction grouting; and (d) jet grouting.

FIGURE 15.9 Two examples of ground freez­ing applications (modified from Hausmann 1990): (a) for open excavations; and (b) for tunneling.

FIGURE 15.10 Schematic of electro-osmotic con­solidation (modified from Shang 1998).

FIGURE 15.11 Different soil nailing systems and applications (modified from Hausmann 1990): (a) grouted bars; (b) root piles; and (c) anchor plates.

FIGURE 16.1 Trial embankment (section B) at Saint-Alban: (a) location of piezometers; (b) pore pressures measured under the center of the sec­tion, as a function of the embankment load (after Leroueil et al. 1978; reproduced with permission, Canadian Geotechnical Journal).

FIGURE 16.2 Compilation of observed excess pore pressures in clay foundation in the first place of embankment construction. Isochrone shown is given by Eq. 16.1 for Bm == 0.6. Data from: (e) Tavenas and Leroueil (1980), 0 Ortigao (1980), (L,,) Kabbaj, M. (1985).

FIGURE 16.3 (a) Effective and total stress paths; and (b) pore pressure under the centerline of an embankment.

FIGURE 16.4 Variation of ratio cr;conJcr;' with overconsolidation ratio of clay (only sites with OCRs 2 :5 OCR :5 6 are presented) (after Le­roueil 1996; © reproduced with permission ASCE, Reston, VA, Journal of Geotechnical Engi­neering).

FIGURE 16.5 Behavior of trial embankment at Kalix, Sweden, during construction (modified from Holtz & Holm 1979).

FIGURE 16.6 (a) Effective stress path; and (b) pore pressure under the centerline during stage-con­struction of an embankment.

FIGURE 16.7 Summary of mechanics in a rein­forced embankment on soft soil (modified from Jewell 1996): (a) unreinforced; (b) footing subject to outward shear stress; (c) reduction in bearing capacity, Nc, from outward shear stress; (d) rein­forced; (e) rough footing; and (f) increase in bear­ing capacity, Nc, from inward shear stress.

FIGURE 16.8 Comparison of predicted (-) (Rowe & Soderman 1984) and observed (e) rein-

LIST OF FIGURES xliii

forcement strains at strain gage location A (modi­fied from Rowe & Soderman 1984).

FIGURE 16.9 Observed excess pore pressure dis­tribution at end of construction for two embank­ments constructed over peat (modified from Rowe & Soderman 1985b). Data from: e Ray­mond (1969), • Rowe et al. (1984a). A = drain­age path, z = depth below peat-fill interface.

FIGURE 16.10 Chart for calculation of vertical stresses caused by embankment (modified from Osterberg 1957).

FIGURE 16.11 Estimation of the end-of-primary in situ strain, dE", in excess of that determined from conventional 24-h laboratory odometer test, when strain rate and temperature effects are con­sidered (after Leroueil1996; © reproduced with permission ASCE, Journal of Geotechnical Engi­neering).

FIGURE 16.12 Net fill height versus fill thickness for various reinforcement tensile stiffness, J, val­ues (modified from Rowe & Soderman 1987): (e) continuous plasticity, (i) maximum net fill height.

FIGURE 16.13 Effective stresses and lateral dis­placements at end of construction: (a) Cubzac-Ies­Ponts; and (b) Saint-Alban B (after Tavenas et al. 1979; reproduced with permission Canadian Geotechnical Journal).

FIGURE 16.14 Degree of settlement/consolida­tion curves for two-dimensional flow conditions: (a) permeable top, permeable base; (b) perme­able top, impermeable base (modified from Davis & Poulos 1972).

FIGURE 16.15 Strain-time relations in the labo­ratory and in the field (modified from Ladd et al. 1977).

FIGURE 16.16 Strength ratios deduced by dif­ferent approaches: (e) after Larsson (1980), Jar­dine and Hight (1987), • after Trak et al. (1980).

FIGURE 16.17 Correction to obtain operational strength of a crust beneath an embankment.

FIGURE 16.18 Chart for calculation of factor of safety (modified from Pilot & Moreau 1973).

FIGURE 16.19 Direct sliding failure of the fill or reinforcement.

FIGURE 16.20 Definition of variables used to esti­mate collapse height for a perfectly reinforced embankment (modified from Rowe & Soderman 1987).

FIGURE 16.21 Bearing capacity factor for non­homogeneous soil (modified from Rowe & Soder­man 1987).

FIGURE 16.22 Effect of non-homogeneity on depth of the failure zone beneath a rough rigid footing (modified from Matar & Salencron 1977).

FIGURE 16.23 Rotational failure of embankments on soft soil.

FIGURE 16.24 Design chart for peat underlain by a firm base; see text for assumptions and limita­tions (modified from Rowe & Soderman 1985b).

FIGURE 16.25 Potential failure mechanism due to lateral thrust and sliding on a deeper low strength layer, e.g. very soft clay beneath a peat layer (modified from Rowe 1997).

FIGURE 16.26 Stages in analysis of settlements using Asaoka's (1978) method: (a) settlement curve for soil layer; and (b) Asaoka's construction.

FIGURE 17.1 Examples of earth retention sys­tems (modified from O'Rourke & Jones 1990 and Bathurst et al. 1993): (a) cantilever; (b) crib; (c) braced; (d) tie-back; (e) wrapped face geotextile reinforced soil wall; (f) reinforced soil wall with incremental concrete facing panels; (g) reinforced segmental retaining wall (modular blocks), and (h) soil nailing.

FIGURE 17.2 Example anchored wall systems (after O'Rourke & Jones 1990, © ASCE, repro­duced with permission): (a) earth retention with waste tires and geotextiles; (b) wall system with facing plates and rectangular anchors; (c) an­chored earth with triangular rebar reinforcement; and (d) wall system with concrete blocks, polymer strips and anchors.

FIGURE 17.3 Geosynthetic reinforced slope.

FIGURE 17.4 Active (a) and passive (b) earth pressure distributions (no groundwater).

FIGURE 17.5 Lateral pressures for the case of a hydrostatic water table behind a wall and cohe­sionless soils under active earth pressure condi­tions.

FIGURE 17.6 Active (a) and passive (b) earth pressure distributions due to uniform surcharge (no groundwater).

FIGURE 17.7 Horizontal pressures on a wall due to (a) line, QL; and (b) point, Qp, load surcharges (modified from CGS 1992).

xliv LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 17.8 Calculation of compaction stresses (after Ingold 1979).

FIGURE 17.9 Coulomb wedge theory: (a) active earth force; and (b) passive earth force.

FIGURE 17.10 Log spiral analysis.

FIGURE 17.11 Distribution of pressures and forces for design of gravity (a) and cantilever (b) wall structures (modified from CGS 1992).

FIGURE 17.12 Distribution of pressures and forces for design of cantilever (a) and anchored (b) sheet pile walls.

FIGURE 17.13 Apparent earth pressure distribu­tions for determining forces on supports in braced excavations (modified from CGS 1992): (a) sand; (b) soft-firm clays; and (c) stiff fissured clays.

FIGURE 17.14 Factor of safety with respect to base heave in cohesive soils (modified from Janbu 1954b).

FIGURE 17.15 Settlement adjacent to an open cut (modified from Peck 1969b).

FIGURE 17.16 Concrete diaphragm and cut-off construction (after O'Rourke and Jones 1990, copyright ASCE, reproduced with permission): (a) slurry trench construction; (b) Hydrofraise; (c) soil-cement mixing; (d) Beroto rig; and (e) jet grouting.

FIGURE 17.17 Limit modes of failure for rein­forced soil walls: (a) limit mode 1, sliding; (b) limit mode 2; bearing capacity; (c) limit mode 3, rein­forcement rupture; (d) limit mode 4, reinforce­ment pull-out; (e) limit mode 5, wedge/slip circle; and (f) limit mode 6, deformation.

FIGURE 17.18 Limit mode 2: bearing capacity and tilting.

FIGURE 17.19 Limit mode 3: reinforcement layer rupture: (a) contribution of soil self-weight and uniform surcharge; and (b) vertical and horizontal dispersion of load due to surface strip footing.

FIGURE 17.20 Limit mode 4: reinforcement pull­out capacity.

FIGURE 17.21 Limit mode 5: internal wedge sta­bility.

FIGURE 17.22 Empirical curve for estimating maximum lateral wall displacements at end of construction (modified from Mitchell & Christo­pher 1990). (Based on a 7-m high wall, increase

relative displacement 25% for every 20 kPa of uni­form surcharge load.)

FIGURE 17.23 Coherent gravity method: (a) posi­tion of maximum line of tension in reinforcement layers; and (b) distribution of coefficient of earth pressure for design.

FIGURE 17.24 Pressure distribution along base of reinforced soil mass for coherent gravity method.

FIGURE 17.25 Modified two-part wedge analysis: (a) free-body diagram for unreinforced two-part wedge analysis; and (b) with reinforcement forces.

FIGURE 17.26 Modified circular slip analysis: (a) circular slip geometry; and (b) method of slices.

FIGURE 17.27 Equivalent coefficient of earth pressure, K = 1(4), ~) (interslice force oriented at A = 4> to the horizontal).

FIGURE 17.28 Minimum ratio of reinforcement length to slope height, LIB, to contain critical two-part wedge and satisfy sliding and eccentric­ity criteria (interslice force oriented at A = 4> to the horizontal).

FIGURE 18.1 Definition of terms for the pipe and the surrounding soil: (a) buried pipe and sur­rounding soil zones; and (b) location of crown, in­vert, springline, shoulder and haunch.

FIGURE 18.2 Load conditions for circular pipes: (a) vertical and horizontal earth pressures on pipe-soil system; (b) external loads acting directly on the pipe; (c) vertical earth loads at the pipe crown and invert; and (d) approximate vertical and horizontal earth pressure distributions on the pipe (modified from Spangler 1956).

FIGURE 18.3 Pipe burial conditions: (a) conven­tional trench burial; and (b) pipe under embank­ment in positive projection condition (pipe crown projects above native ground level).

FIGURE 18.4 Action of the pipe as a ground an­chor; limiting forces applied by the ground to the pipe perpendicular to the pipe axis: (a) horizontal force applied by the soil to resist the lateral move­ment of the pipe; and (b) vertical force applied by soil to the pipe to resist uplift.

FIGURE 18.5 Explanation of arching mechanism: (a) the reference case: a block of elastic soil sub­jected to earth pressures; (b) positive and negative arching: stiffness less than or greater than the disk.

FIGURE 18.6 Idealized deformation components

LIST OF FIGURES xlv

around a buried circular pipe: (a) radial pipe deformations under geostatic earth pressures; (b) deformation Wo for uniform earth pressure component, O"m; and (c) deformation W2 for non­uniform earth pressure component, O"d.

FIGURE 18.7 Example problems: (a) reinforced concrete storm sewer, 0.5-m diameter; (b) corru­gated steel culvert, 3-m diameter; and (c) plain HDPE leachate collection pipe, 0.3-m diameter.

FIGURE 19.1 Stability ratios for tunnel in cohe­sive soil (modified from Atkinson & Mair 1981).

FIGURE 19.2 Dimensionless coefficients Fo-F3 (from Tunnelling and Underground Space Tech­nology, 11(2), 165-173, Anagnostou & Kovari, "Face stability conditions with earth-pres sure­balance shields," 1996, with permission from Elsevier Science Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington OX5 1GB, UK).

FIGURE 19.3 Stability ratios for tunnel in cohe­sionless soil (modified from Atkinson & Mair 1981): (a) stability number for soil weight; and (b) stability number for surface surcharge.

FIGURE 19.4 Pipes sliding in a stable bore: (a) pipe in soil bore; and (b) pipe in rock bore.

FIGURE 19.5 Ground loading in a cohesionless soil.

FIGURE 19.6 Surface and subsurface settlement curves.

FIGURE 19.7 Application of the modified fluid flow analysis to trenchless techniques involving excavation (similar for expansion, but with "source" and "sink" interchanged): (a) schematic section through pipe jack, with definitions; and (b) analytical framework.

FIGURE 20.1 Temperature-time charts for un­steady heat flow by conduction.

FIGURE 20.2 Thermal conductivity of (a) coarse­grained; and (b) fine-grained soils (modified from Kersten 1949). (-) frozen, (---) unfrozen.

FIGURE 20.3 Thermal energy of water.

FIGURE 20.4 Simplified temperature profile in Stefan's equation.

FIGURE 20.5 Radiation index (modified from Dysli 1990).

FIGURE 20.6 Typical unfrozen water content­temperature relationships for various soils (modi­fied from Nordal & Refsdal1989).

FIGURE 20.7 Schematic of hydrodynamic and thermal processes in freezing soils (modified from Konrad & Seto 1994).

FIGURE 20.8 Flow chart for obtaining represen­tative values of SP field (W/WL = ratio of water content, w, to liquid limit, WL).

FIGURE 20.9 Segregation potential versus over­burden pressure for various soils.

FIGURE 20.10 Segregation potential inferred from field data.

FIGURE 20.11 Empirical relationship between segregation potential and soil index properties (modified from Konrad 1998): ... , W/WL > 0.7; ., W/WL = 0.7; 0, 0.65 < W/WL < 0.8 (Rieke et al. 1983).

FIGURE 20.12 Methodology for frost heave pre­diction.

FIGURE 20.13 Rational approach for frost-sus­ceptibility evaluation.

FIGURE 20.14 Influence of suction in a saturated sandy silt.

FIGURE 21.1 Various types of faulting: (a) right­lateral strike-slip; (b) dip-slip (normal); (c) dip­slip (reverse); and (d) oblique-slip (left-lateral reverse).

FIGURE 21.2 Offsets in strata caused by past earthquakes (modified from Demirtas et al. 1996).

FIGURE 21.3 Deformation patterns of the major wave types (modified from Bolt 1976): (a) P-wave; (b) S-wave; (c) Love wave; and (d) Rayleigh wave.

FIGURE 21.4 Earthquake recurrence rates show­ing G-R line and characteristic earthquakes (modified from Schwartz & Coppersmith 1988).

FIGURE 21.5 Magnitude recurrence relation with a maximum earthquake magnitude.

FIGURE 21.6 Compressional wave propagating at an angle e to the pipeline.

FIGURE 21.7 Shear wave propagating at an angle 9 to the pipe.

FIGURE 21.8 Simple one-degree-of-freedom system: (a) mass-spring damper system; and (b) free-body diagram.

FIGURE 21.9 Logarithmic plot of response spec­trum of El Centro corrected accelerogram, 2700 ,

Caltech IIAOOl.

xlvi LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 21.10 Normalized spectral curves suit­able for use in building codes (modified from Seed & Idriss 1982).

FIGURE 21.11 Pseudo-acceleration spectrum, Al­ameda Park, May 11, 1962.

FIGURE 21.12 Amplification of ground motions in soft soils (modified from Idriss 1990).

FIGURE 21.13 Development of design spectra us­ing period-dependent site amplification factors (modified from Martin & Dobry 1994).

FIGURE 21.14 (a) Approximating a ridge for­mation by a triangular wedge; and (b) infinite wedge excited by plane SH waves (modified from Faccioli 1991).

FIGURE 21.15 Amplitude reduction ratio, 't, as a function of frequency and wave velocity (modified from Clough & Penzien 1993).

FIGURE 21.16 Forces acting on (a) active; and (b) passive failure wedges in Mononobe-Okabe analysis.

FIGURE 21.17 Geometry and notation for par­tially submerged backfill.

FIGURE 21.18 Static and seismic forces acting on a gravity retaining wall.

FIGURE 21.19 Non-dimensional lateral forces and moments on a rigid wall with unyielding back­fill for l-g static horizontal body forces.

FIGURE 21.20 Chart for determining soil-wall system frequency on the basis of shear modulus. 0, parabolic G, LlH = 5; 6., linear G, LlH = 5; 0, parabolic G, LlH = 1.5. Wall height = 10 m, soil density = 2.

FIGURE 21.21 Peak seismic thrusts for soil pro­files with parabolic variation in G (LiH = 5.0, A = 10%, V = 0.40) (modified from Wu & Finn 1999): --, Wood's (1973) static; -, 84 percen­tile; ---, upper bound.

FIGURE 21.22 Peak seismic thrusts for soil pro­files with parabolic variation in G (LiH = 1.5, A = 10%, V = 0.40) (modified from Wu & Finn 1999): --, Wood's (1973) static; -, 84 percen­tile; ---, upper bound.

FIGURE 21.23 Reduction in bearing capacity, R, under seismic loading conditions with (---) and without (-) the inclusion of soil inertia effects as a function of the horizontal seismic coefficient, kh (modified from Pecker 1996).

FIGURE 21.24 EqUivalent footing width for foot­ing subjected to eccentric and inclined loading at failure (modified from CGS 1992).

FIGURE 21.25 Simplified base curve recom­mended for calculation of CRR from SPT data along with empirical liquefaction data (modified from Seed et al. 1985).

FIGURE 21.26 Minimum values for Ka recom­mended for clean and silty sands and gravels (modified from NCEER 1997).

FIGURE 21.27 Correction factors to CRR as a function of the initial static shear stress ratio, 'ts/

O"~o> and relative density (modified from Harder & Boulanger 1997).

FIGURE 21.28 Curve recommended for calcula­tion of CRR for earthquake magnitude M = 7.5 from CPT data along with empirical liquefac­tion data (modified from NCEER 1997). Liquefac­tion data: • Stark & Olson (1995), .. Suzuki et al. (1995). No liquefaction: 0 Stark & Olson (1995), 6. Suzuki et al. (1995).

FIGURE 21.29 Curves recommended by work­shop for calculation of CRR from corrected shear­wave velocity (modified from NCEER 1997). Boundaries defined by: CRR = a (Vs!/I00)2 + b [1/(Vs!c - Vs!) - (l/Vslc)], a = 0.03 and b = 0.9; Vslc = 220,210 and 200 ms-1 for sands and gravels with FC ::::; 5, =5 and ~35%, respectively.

FIGURE 21.30 Post-liquefaction volumetric strains as a function of normalized standard penetra­tion resistance and average cyclic stress ratio for Mw = 7.5 earthquakes (modified from Toki­matsu & Seed 1987).

FIGURE 21.31 Relationship between volumetric strains in unsaturated sands as a function of cyclic shear strain and penetration resistance for an earthquake magnitude Mw = 7.5 (modified from Tokimatsu & Seed 1987).

FIGURE 21.32 Chart for determining the effec­tive shear strain in a soil layer during earth­quake shaking (modified from Tokimatsu & Seed 1987).

FIGURE 21.33 Effect of ground improvement techniques on settlement (modified from Yasuda et al. 1996). Clear values for: 0, Port Island; ., Rokko Island. -, range of measured values. Total number of measurements = 25.

FIGURE 21.34 The effect of sample preparation

LIST OF FIGURES xlvii

on undrained simple shear response of Syncrude sand (modified from Vaid et al. 1999).

FIGURE 21.35 Effect of stress path on undrained behavior of Toyoura sand (modified from Yoshi­mine et al. 1998). Dr = 39-41%, b = 0.5.

FIGURE 21.36 Correlation of residual strength, S" with (N j )60 (modified from Seed & Harder 1990; 100 kPa = 2000 psf). e, measured SPT data; 0, estimated SPT data; D, construction-in­duced liquefaction and sliding case histories.

FIGURE 21.37 Elements of deformation analysis.

FIGURE 21.38 Risk management framework pro­posed by Canadian Standards Association (modi­fied from International Journal on Hydropower and Dams 1998).

FIGURE 21.39 ANCOLD societal risk criteria (based on International Journal on Hydropower and Dams 1998).

FIGURE 21.40 Event tree used for the probability of liquefaction-failure (modified from Lee et al. 1998).

FIGURE 22.1 Risk components (modified from Health Canada 1994).

FIGURE 22.2 Top-down approach for risk assess­ment using step-wise refinement.

FIGURE 22.3 Environmental site management framework.

FIGURE 22.4 Fate and partitioning of common organic contaminants based on contaminant "fu­gacity" or escape potential (see MacKay et al. 1991, 1992, 1993).

FIGURE 22.5 Receptor screening process.

FIGURE 22.6 (a) Pathway process; (b) soil and groundwater screening processes.

FIGURE 22.7 Conceptual exposure pathways model.

FIGURE 22.8 Methods of presenting results of risk calculations.

FIGURE 22.9 Risk management options.

FIGURE 23.1 Soil particle sizes and characteris­tics.

FIGURE 23.2 Silicon tetrahedron (a) and silica tetrahedra arranged in a hexagonal network (b).

FIGURE 23.3 Octahedral unit (a) and sheet struc­ture of octahedra (b).

FIGURE 23.4 Synthesis pattern for the clay min­erals (reproduced from Fundamentals of Soil Be­havior, J.K. Mitchell © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

FIGURE 23.5 Ion-water interaction (as postu­lated in Frank and Wen (1957)).

FIGURE 23.6 Possible mechanisms of water ad­sorption by silicate mineral surfaces: (a) hydrogen bonding; (b) ion hydration; (c) attraction by os­mosis; and (d) dipole attraction (modified from Mitchell 1993).

FIGURE 23.7 Distribution of ions adjacent to a clay surface according to the concept of the dif­fuse double layer.

FIGURE 23.8 Energies of repulsion, attraction and net interaction for interacting clay particles minerals (reproduced from Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, J.K. Mitchell © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wi­ley & Sons, Inc.).

FIGURE 23.9 Structure-determining factors and processes (modified from Mitchell 1993).

FIGURE 23.10 Particle associations in clay sus­pensions: (a) dispersed and deflocculated; (b) face-to-face aggregated, but deflocculated; (c) edge-to-face-flocculated, but dispersed; (d) edge­to-edge flocculated, but dispersed; (e) edge-to­face flocculated and aggregated; (f) edge-to-edge flocculated and aggregated; (g) edge-to-face and edge-to-edge flocculated and aggregated (modi­fied from van Olphen 1977).

FIGURE 23.11 Soil states in relation to critical or steady state line, and pore pressure and volume changes during deformation where llu = change in pore pressure (reproduced from Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, J.K. Mitchell © 1993 John Wi­ley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

FIGURE 23.12 Composite relationship shOwing dependence of residual friction angle <\>" on soil composition: A = activity; PI = plasticity index (from Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, J.K. Mitch­ell © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

FIGURE 23.13 Volume and pore pressure changes during shear: (a) drained conditions where llV = change in volume, and Vo = initial volume; and (b) undrained conditions where llu =

xlviii LIST OF FIGURES

change in pore pressure (modified from Mitchell 1993).

FIGURE 23.14 Four types of direct How through a soil mass.

FIGURE 24.1 (a) Potentiometric surface of the Dakota Sandstone, contour inteIVal 100 ft (from Darton 1909, U.S. GeoI. SUIV. Water Supply Pa­per 227); (b) Example of a hydrogeologic cross­section describing the pattern of groundwater How (modified from Domenico & Schwartz 1998, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permis­sion of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

FIGURE 24.2 Hydrogeologic cross-sections illus­trating the importance of hydraulic conductivity contrasts, continuity of units, and recharge and discharge relations on groundwater How: (a) sand lenses with little horizontal discharge; (b) sand layers with Significant horizontal discharge; and (c) sand layers discharging both bedrock and overburden (modified from Sara 1991, Practical Handbook of Ground-Water Monitoring, D.M. Nielsen ed.). © 1991 CRC Press, Inc. Reprinted with permission of CRC Press, Inc.).

FIGURE 24.3 Longitudinal dispersivity versus scale with data classified by reliability (after Gelhar et al. 1992, Water Resources Res., v. 28, pp. 1955-1974). © 1992 American Geophysical Union.

FIGURE 24.4 General groundwater contamina­tion scenario with dense, non-aqueous phase liq­uids (after Kueper & Frind 1991, Water Re­sources Res., v. 27, pp. 1049-1057). © 1991 American Geophysical Union.

FIGURE 24.5 Interface between air, water and a solid surface (modified from de Marsily 1986, Quantitative Hydrogeology). © 1986 Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted with permission of Aca­demic Press, Inc.

FIGURE 24.6 Capillary pressure CUIVes given as a function of the degree of saturation with respect to the wetting and non-wetting phases (modified from Domenico and Schwartz 1998, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wi­ley & Sons, Inc.

FIGURE 24.7 Capillary pressure-water saturation drainage CUIVes for a tetrachloroethene-water system for sands of differing hydraulic conductiv­ity (modified from Kueper & Frind 1991, Water

Resources Res., v. 27, pp. 1059-1070). © 1991 American Geophysical Union.

FIGURE 24.8 Typical relative permeability curves (after Demond & Roberts 1987, Water Resources Bulletin, v. 23, pp. 617-628). © 1987 American Water Resources Association. Reproduced by permission of American Water Resources Associ­ation.

FIGURE 24.9 The downward percolation of a NAPL in the unsaturated zone is determined by the nature of the spill: (a) a sudden loss results in maximum spreading and a large quantity trapped at residual saturation; and (b) a slow leak causes the product to follow a set of channels and a min­imal quantity is trapped at residual saturation (after Domenico & Schwartz 1998, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission ofJohn Wi­ley & Sons, Inc.

FIGURE 24.lO Percentages of dissolved carbon dioxide species activities at one atmosphere pres­sure and at ( ... ) 50, (-) 25 and (--)O°C as a func­tion of pH (after Hem 1995, U.S. GeoI. SUIV., Wa­ter Supply Paper 2254).

FIGURE 24.11 Log C-pH diagram for chro­mium hydroxide complexes (after Domenico & Schwartz 1998, Physical and Chemical Hydroge­ology). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIGURE 25.1 Schematic showing (a) base and (b) side slope of barrier system for Kettleman Hills landfill: PLCS = Primary leachate collection system; SLCS = Secondary leachate collection system; GM = Geomembrane (modified from Bryne et al. 1992).

FIGURE 25.2 Schematic shOwing different collec­tion systems (modified from Rowe 1988).

FIGURE 25.3 Two leachate drainage systems: (a) French drains; and (b) blanket drain (modified from Rowe et al. 1995b).

FIGURE 25.4 Schematic shOwing examples of poor leachate collection system deSigns: (a) prob­lematic; and (b) even worse. Schematic also shows a leachate mound developed once there is exces­sive clogging of the geotextile filter and/or the drainage gravel and/or the pipe (modified from Rowe 1992).

FIGURE 25.5 Schematic showing examples of blanket leachate collection system deSigns includ-

LIST OF FIGURES xlix

ing a geotextile filter layer (modified from Rowe 1992).

FIGURE 25.6 Distributed clogging model param­eters (modified from Rowe & Fleming 1998).

FIGURE 25.7 Method of defining acceptable zone of water content based on compaction, hydraulic conductivity and shear strength considerations (modified from Benson et al. 1999).

FIGURE 25.8 Percentage ofliners with a compac­tion water content within a given range having k :5

1 X 10-9 m S-1 (modified from Daniel 1998).

FIGURE 25.9 Percentage of eeLs with kfie1d :5 1 X 10-9 m S-1 versus percentage plotting above the line of optimums (modified from Daniel 1998).

FIGURE 25.10 Hydraulic containment ("hydrau­lic trap") inward flow but outward diffusion (mod­ified from Rowe 1997).

FIGURE 25.11 Hydraulic trap landfill (Halton) showing potential shadow effect due to landfill construction. Also shown is the subliner contin­gency layer (modified from Rowe et al. 1995b).

FIGURE 25.12 Schematic shOwing two single composite liner systems: (a) geomembrane (GM) over compacted clay liner (eeL) over an attenua­tion layer (AL) over an aquifer; and (b) GM over a geosynthetic clay liner (GeL) over an attenuation layer over an aquifer.

FIGURE 25.13 Double layer thickness varia­tions: (a) concentration and valency effects; and (b) dielectric effects (modified from Rowe et al. 1995b).

FIGURE 25.14 Hydraulic conductivity versus static confining stress for permeation of synthetic municipal solid waste (MSW) (simulated Keele Valley landfill) leachate (modified from Petrov & Rowe 1997). Distilled water-hydrated, permeant: (_) distilled water, (.) MSW leachate. MSW lea­chate-hydrated, permeant: 0 MSW leachate.

FIGURE 25.15 Results of regression analysis on diffusion-saturation data (modified from MacKay 1997). (-) De/D. = exp [-1.03 exp (0.017 Sr)1.64]; where Da and Da = diffusion coefficient of gas through soil pores and air, respectively.

FIGURE 25.16 Variation in temperature at landfill base with leachate head for a number of landfills (modified from Barone et al. 1997).

FIGURE 26.1 Five examples of liner systems: (a) Single geomembrane liner; (b) Single compos-

ite liner; (c) double geomembrane liner; (d) dou­ble liner with geomembrane primary liner and composite secondary liner; (e) double composite liner.

FIGURE 26.2 Head of liquid on top of the liner in the case of a liner on a slope: (a) hydrostatic conditions; and (b) unconfined flow along the slope (after Giroud 1997, © Geosynthetics Inter­national, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 26.3 Liquid flow in a primary liquid col­lection layer (modified from Giroud & Houlihan 1995).

FIGURE 26.4 Liquid flow in the primary liquid collection layer, through a defect in the primary liner, and in the secondary liquid collection layer (leakage detection and collection layer), in the case of a double liner: (a) cross-section; and (b) plan view of the secondary liner (modified from Giroud et al. 1997a).

FIGURE 26.5 Determination of the linear coeffi­cient of uniformity.

FIGURE 26.6 Graphical solution of Eq. 26.52 for a geomembrane defect having a diameter, d, of2 mm (after Giroudetal. 1997b, © Geosynthet­ics International, reproduced with permission): qi = (-) 10-7 m s-I, (--) 10-8 m s-I, ( .... ) 10-9

m S-I.

FIGURE 26.7 Rate of liquid migration through a defect having a diameter, d, of 2 mm in a geo­membrane underlain by a medium with a hydrau­lic conductivity, kUM, and overlain by a medium that is significantly more permeable than the un­derlying medium, for various values of the head ofliquid on top of the geomembrane, h (after Gi­roud et al. 1997c, © Geosynthetics International, reproduced with permission): (-) thickness of the medium of hydraulic conductivity, kUM, under­lying the geomembrane is tUM = 0.6 m; ( .... ) thick­ness of the underlying medium is infinite.

FIGURE 26.8 Geosynthetic deflection: (a) geo­synthetic supported by soil; and (b) geosynthetic overlying a void (materials overlying the geomem­brane are not shown).

FIGURE 26.9 Geosynthetic deflection under a soil layer.

FIGURE 26.10 Geomembrane connected to a bat­tered wall (after Giroud & Soderman 1995, © Geosynthetics International, reproduced with permission): 1 = position of the geomembrane at

LIST OF FIGURES

the time of installation; and 2 = position of the geomembrane after settlement.

FIGURE 26.11 Typical configurations of a geo­membrane exposed to wind: (a) geomembrane anchored in an anchor trench; (b) geomembrane anchored under a pavement or a layer of soil; (c) geomembrane restrained by a soil layer on a bench; (d) geomembrane restrained by an inter­mediate anchor trench; (e) geomembrane an­chored under a structure at the top and restrained by liquid or solids below a certain level; (f) at bot­tom of reservoir, geomembrane anchored in an­chor trenches; (g) at bottom of reservoir, geo­membrane anchored by strips of soil or pavement (after Giroud et al. 1995c, © Geosynthetics Inter­national, reproduced with permission).

FIGURE 26.12 Geometry of uplifted geomem­brane.

FIGURE 26.13 Geomembrane anchorage to resist uplift by wind.

FIGURE 27.1 Hydraulic-barrier cover system.

FIGURE 27.2 Capillary-barrier cover system and partially saturated hydraulic conductivity func­tions.

FIGURE 27.3 Evapotranspirative cover system, also called monolayer or monocover (modified from Benson & Khire 1995).

FIGURE 27.4 Example of MSW landfill cover: (a) CCL hydraulic barrier; and (b) composite hy­draulic barrier. All thicknesses are typical. Note: i = cover slope.

FIGURE 27.5 Example of low-level radioactive waste landfill cover.

FIGURE 27.6 Example oflightweight site remedi­ation cover over soft waste.

FIGURE 27.7 Leachate generation rates at five hazardous waste landfills in units of liters per hectare per day (lphd == I ha- I day-I). Covers in­corporate geomembrane hydraulic barriers (mod­ified from Gross et al. 1997). Note: symbols and letters identify the five landfills (modified from Gross et al. 1997).

FIGURE 27.8 Identification of typical compo­nents of hydraulic-barrier cover system and water movement and storage in cover system.

FIGURE 27.9 Capillary-barrier cover system over mine waste at Waite Amulet site, Quebec, Canada (modified from YanfuI1993).

FIGURE 27.10 Water content and air-filled poros­ity of capillary barrier and mine waste at Waite Amulet site, Quebec, Canada (modified from Woyshner & Yanful 1995).

FIGURE 27.11 Field gaseous oxygen profiles in capillary barrier and mine tailings at Waite Amu­let site, Quebec, Canada (modified from Yanful 1993).

FIGURE 27.12 Cover system internal drainage layer: (a) values of (have/hm) or (tave/tm) modified from Giroud and Houlihan 1995; and (b) flow continuity at slope bench or transition.

FIGURE 27.13 Conceptualization of HELP water balance model (modified from Schroeder et al. 1994a).

FIGURE 27.14 Seepage force and buoyant unit weight for a soil layer overlying a hydraulic barrier on an infinite slope.

FIGURE 27.15 Definition of two-part wedge and flow thickness for the case of a slope of finite height.

FIGURE 27.16 Definition of slope with a tapered soil layer.

FIGURE 27.17 Definition of slope with a partly ta­pered soil layer.

FIGURE 27.18 Result of direct shear test on a GCL illustrating peak and large-displacement shearing resistances.

FIGURE 27.19 Interpretation of interface or in­ternal shear test on cover system components: (a) test results for peak strength; (b) tangent fric­tion angle, <1>(;, and apparent adhesion/cohesion, ai; and (c) secant friction angle, <1>'i' Similar interpre­tations are applied to large displacement and re­sidual conditions.

FIGURE 27.20 Estimated on solid waste landfill shear modulus reduction (C/CmaJ and damping curves. Data from: Idriss et al. 1995, Augello 1998, and Matasovic 1998.

FIGURE 27.21 Shear wave velocities, v" for southern California solid waste landfills (modified from Kavazanjian et al. 1996).

FIGURE 27.22 Results of parametric study com­paring calculated peak horizontal acceleration for on landfill top deck and peak bedrock acceler­ation (modified from Bray & Rathje 1998). Data from Harder 1991 for earth dams, and Seed et al. 1991 for deep cohesionless/stiff cohesive soils.

LIST OF FIGURES li

Shear wave velocity, Vs: (X) medium, (0) high, (+) observed at all.

FIGURE 27.23 Hynes and Franldin (1984) perma­nent seismic displacement chart (modified from Richardson et al. 1995).

FIGURE 27.24 Basic elements of classical New­mark sliding-block analysis with constant yield ac­celeration, kyo

FIGURE 27.25 Yield acceleration degradation model: (a) measured shear force-displacement curve; and (b) yield acceleration degradation (modified from Matasovic et al. 1997).

FIGURE 27.26 Results of Newmark seismic de­formation analysis for constant and degrading yield acceleration at a normal stress = 20.7 kPa (modified from Matasovic et al. 1997). (e) peak parameters, (0) residual parameters; and ( .. ) degradation model.

FIGURE 27.27 Sources of cover settlement.

FIGURE 27.28 Total settlement data for MSW landfills, measured from the time the landfill reaches final grade (data from Edgers et al. 1992, Konig et al. 1996, and Spikula 1996).

FIGURE 28.1 Typical overburden well installation (center). Left-hand and right-hand figures, re­spectively, show optional detail if DNAPL is, or is suspected of being, present, and flush mount installation.

FIGURE 28.2 Typical bedrock well installation: (a) intermediate or deep bedrock well; and (b) shallow bedrock well.

FIGURE 28.3 Protective casing installation. (a) flush-mount; and (b) above-grade.

FIGURE 28.4 Sample stratigraphic and instru­mentation logs: (a) for an overburden well; (b) for a bedrock well.

FIGURE 28.5 Typical chain-of-custody record.

FIGURE 28.6 Cumulative probability plots to as­sess normality of data.

FIGURE 28.7 Example of box plots.

FIGURE 28.8 Example of radial diagram.

FIGURE 28.9 (a,b) SEQUENCE plots for redox parameters and chemical constituents in ground­water at Plattsburg Air Force Base.

FIGURE 29.1 Conceptual models for three cases of point-source contamination: (a) the non-NAPL

case; (b) the LNAPL case; and (c) the DNAPL case (reproduced from Cherry et al. 1996 with permission).

FIGURE 29.2 Engineered remedial actions for subsurface contamination. Actions may include: (a) source-zone isolation, containment or removal; (b) plume control through the use of pump-and­treat systems; (c) passive to semi-passive plume control through the use of permeable reactive walls; or (d) funnel-and-gate systems case (repro­duced from Cherry et al. 1996 with permission).

FIGURE 29.3 Elements of a typical soil vapor ex­traction (SVE)/bioventing system for remediation of VOC contamination in the vadose zone. The key features are the screened well and vacuum pump. Optional features may include passive wells to enhance the flow of air through the zone of contamination, or low permeability ground­surface covers. Upwelling of the water table be­neath the vapor extraction wells may inhibit the removal of contaminant mass in these regions.

FIGURE 29.4 The elements of a dual soil vapor extraction (SVE)/air sparging system. Air sparging is used to enhance the removal of VOCs within the capillary fringe and beneath the water table. Johnson et al. (1993) suggest that the air-sparge zone is characterized by discrete air flow chan­nels.

FIGURE 29.5 Typical dual pump system for re­covery of LNAPLs such as petroleum hydrocar­bons in the subsurface. LNAPL liquid and resid­ual will remain in the subsurface following the removal of the recoverable mobile LNAPL.

FIGURE 29.6 Chemical flushing for the enhanced removal of NAPL case (reproduced from Cherry et al. 1996 with permission). The system includes injection wells for the remedial fluids, and with­drawal wells for the recovery of contaminants and remedial fluids. A forced gradient is maintained between the injection and withdrawal wells.

FIGURE 29.7 The conceptual remediation of a source zone and associated plume by pump-and­treat. While remediation of the plume may be achievable over periods of years to decades, the prospects for remediation of the source zone by pump-and-treat are not promising (reproduced from Cherry et al. 1996 with permission): (a) plan view; and (b) efficient quality.

FIGURE 29.8 Possible options for the intercep­tion and treatment of contaminant plumes by

Iii LIST OF FIGURES

permeable reactive barriers. Options include: (a) rows of unpumped wells; (b) permeable reac­tive walls; or (c) funnel-and-gate systems case (re­produced from Cherry et al. 1996 with permis­sion).

FIGURE 29.9 Sectional views of groundwater flow through permeable reactive barriers. The bar­rier systems are installed perpendicular to the horizontal groundwater flow direction, and par­tially penetrate a surficial granular aquifer. For a permeable reactive wall in (a), the zone of cap-

ture for groundwater approaching the barrier is slightly greater than the dimensions of the reac­tive wall if the hydraulic conductivity of the reac­tive medium exceeds that of the aquifer. In (b), for a funnel-and-gate system with the same reac­tive medium, the zone of capture is larger than the dimensions of the treatment gate, but some groundwater flow is diverted around the edges and beneath the low permeability funnel walls.

FIGURE 30.1 Example of potential contamination in an urban area.

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 Great rock groups

TABLE 2.2 Definitions and relationships between various soil properties. Refer to Fig. 2.1 and Sec­tion 2.3 for notation.

TABLE 3.1 Particle sizes

TABLE 3.2 Roundness criteria and values (after Youd 1973, © ASTM, reproduced with per­mission)

TABLE 3.3 Maximum and minimum densities for granular soils (modified from Lambe & Whitman 1979)

TABLE 3.4 Relative denSity, Dr (formerly speCific gravity), of various minerals

TABLE 3.5 Atterberg limits of clay minerals (after Lambe and Whitman 1979, Soil Mechanics SI Version, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, reproduced with permission)

TABLE 3.6 Soil classification chart (after ASTM Standard D 2487, © ASTM, reproduced with per­mission)

TABLE 3.7 Classification of peat structure (after MacFarlane 1969, © University of Toronto Press, reproduced with permission)

TABLE 3.8 Classification of peat based on the modified von Post system (after Landva & Pheeney 1980, © NRC Press, reproduced with permission)

TABLE 3.9 Engineering-use chart for different soil groups (after Wagner 1957). Relative desir­ability ranges from one (most desirable) to 14 (least desirable). No entry means the soil should not be used for this application

TABLE 3.10 Hydraulic conductivity of soils, k

TABLE 3.11 Approximate values of K" for sands for initial loading and unloading-reloading

TABLE 3.12 Approximate values of Poisson's ratio for soils

TABLE 3.13 Compressibility of soils (modified from Sowers & Sowers 1970)

TABLE 3.14 Values of Ga.iGe for soils (after Ter­zaghi et al. 1996, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, reproduced with permission)

TABLE 3.15 Classification of expansive soils on the basis of shrinkage index and expansion index (based on United States Bureau of Reclamation quoted in Ranganatham & Satyanatayana 1965, and after Anderson & Lade 1981, © ASTM, re­produced with permission)

TABLE 3.16 Values of constant Il used with Equa­tion 3.32 to estimate cycliC shear modulus at low strains (after Hardin & Dmevich 1972)

TABLE 3.17 Values of constant K2 used with Equation 3.33 to estimate cyclic shear modulus at low strains for sands (after Seed & Idriss 1970)

TABLE 4.1 Summary of geophysical methods: on land

TABLE 4.2 Summary of geophysical methods: off­shore

TABLE 4.3 Classification of soil samples

TABLE 4.4 Summary of advantages and disadvan­tages of in situ testing

TABLE 4.5 Summary of applicability of common in situ and field tests

TABLE 4.6 Summary of advantages and limita­tions of some common in situ tests

TABLE 4.7 Summary evaluation for determining engineering soil parameters from in situ tests

TABLE 4.8 Summary of key reference sources for correlations of engineering properties and design parameters with in situ test results

TABLE 4.9 Summary of requirements of ground­water tracers

liii

liv LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 5.1 Summary of some mathematical equa­tions proposed for the soil-water characteristic curve

TABLE 5.2 Salt solutions that provide stable rela­tive humidity environments

TABLE 6.1 Common rock-fonning minerals (after Farmer 1968)

TABLE 6.2 Properties of common rock-forming minerals (after Farmer 1968)

TABLE 6.3 Geological classification of igneous rocks (modified from Bowen 1984)

TABLE 6.4 Sedimentary rock classification (after Farmer 1968)

TABLE 6.5 Metamorphic rock classification (after Farmer 1968)

TABLE 6.6 Engineering classification of rock by strength (adapted from ISRM 1978a; CGS 1992)

TABLE 6.7 Classification of rock with regard to RQD value

TABLE 6.8 Summary of method of obtaining the five independent parameters in anisotropic rocks

TABLE 6.9 Typical results of anisotropic elastic parameters for strong and weak rocks

TABLE 6.10 Effect of high horizontal stresses and time-dependent defonnation

TABLE 6.11 Swelling potential of various types of rocks from free swell test

TABLE 6.12 Estimation of constants mb/mj, s, and a for the generalized Hoek-Brown failure crite­rion based upon rock-mass structure and disconti­nuity surface conditions. Note that the values given in this table are for an undisturbed rock mass (adapted from Hoek et al. 1995)

TABLE 6.13 Results of simple shear test on rock joints

TABLE 6.14 Calculation of secondary principal stresses from overcoring test data

TABLE 7.1 Primary functions provided by geo­synthetics

TABLE 7.2 Typical range of properties for cur­rently available geotextiles

TABLE 7.3 Selected values of geotextile reduction factors against creep deformation

TABLE 7.4 Flow rate (m3 min- I m-I ) and reduc-

tions from index values, i.e. 10 kPa nonnal stress, (%)

TABLE 7.5 Recommended test method details for geomembranes and geomembrane seams in shear and in peel

TABLE 7.6 Range of reduction factors for use in Eq.7.9

TABLE 7.7 Range of partial factors for use in Eq. 7.11

TABLE 7.8 Range of reduction factors for use in Eq.7.13

TABLE 8.1 Groundwater analysis

TABLE 8.2 Approximate hydraulic conductivity of various soils (from u.s. Army 1983, Driscoll 1986, Cedergren 1989, Powers 1992)

TABLE 8.3 Typical dewatering systems

TABLE 8.4 Installation procedure: wellpoints, vacuum wells, suction wells, eductor wells, deep wells, horizontal drains (wells), vertical drains

TABLE 8.5 Selection of a filter pack

TABLE 9.1 Correction factors (adapted from Vesic 1973, 1975)

TABLE 9.2 Values of factors Fy, Fe, and Fq

TABLE 9.3 Allowable settlements and deflections (adapted from Polshin & Tokar 1957)

TABLE 10.1 Advantages and disadvantages of var­ious pile types (adapted from Tchepak 1997)

TABLE 10.2 Interface friction angle, 8, for piles in sand (adapted from Stas & Kulhawy 1984)

TABLE 10.3 Horizontal stress coefficients (adapted from Stas & Kulhawy 1984)

TABLE 10.4 Limiting values of ultimate shaft and base resistance for piles in sand

TABLE 10.5 Ultimate shaft friction correlation factors for CPT tests (adapted from MELT 1993)

TABLE 10.6 Base capacity factors for CPT (adapted from MELT 1993)

TABLE 10.7 Base factor, Kb (adapted from De­court 1995)

TABLE 10.8 Recommendations for pile group ef­fiCiency estimation

TABLE 10.9 Summary of some correlations for

LIST OF TABLES Iv

drained Young's modulus for pile settlement anal­ysis

TABLE 10.10 Homogeneous soil: summary of equations

TABLE 10.11 Elastic lateral response of piles

TABLE 10.12 Approximate solutions for elastic lateral response of long piles (adapted from Pender 1996)

TABLE 10.13 Solutions for elastic lateral response of piles (adapted from Poulos & Hull 1989)

TABLE 10.14 Empirical correlations for Young's modulus in clays (for laterally loaded piles)

TABLE 10.15 Empirical correlations for Young's modulus in sands (for laterally loaded piles)

TABLE 10.16 Summary of some computer pro­grams for pile group analysis

TABLE 11.1 Bearing capacity failure modes in lay­ered and jointed rock mass

TABLE 11.2 Correction factors for Nc and Ny (adapted from Sowers 1979)

TABLE 11.3 Presumed allowable bearing pres­sure (adapted from the Canadian Foundation En­gineering Manual-CGS 1992)

TABLE 11.4 Summary of field methods for deter­mination of rock mass deformation modulus

TABLE 11.5 Empirical correlations for side shear resistance determination

TABLE 11.6 Stability criteria of concrete dam safety assessment

TABLE 11.7 Classification of concrete-rock con­tact

TABLE 11.8 Results of tests for basic friction angle, <Pb, at a number of Ontario dams

TABLE 11.9 Results of direct tension tests

TABLE 11.10 Results of stability study of Barrett Chute Dam

TABLE 11.11 Strength parameters of "equiva­lent" contacts (adapted from Lo et al. 1991a)

TABLE 12.1 Static stiffnesses of a disk resting on the surface of a homogeneous halfspace

TABLE 12.2 Equivalent radii for a rectangular footing having dimensions a and b

TABLE 12.3 Parameters of cone model footings resting on surface of soil halfspace

TABLE 12.4 Stiffness and damping constants for embedded footings

TABLE 12.5 Stiffness and damping parameters (~ = 0)

TABLE 12.6 Stiffness and damping constants for Single piles

TABLE 12.7 Stiffness and damping parameters of horizontal response (LIR > 25 for homogeneous soil and LlR > 30 for parabolic soil profile) (re­produced from Novak & EI Sharnouby © 1983 with permission of ASCE)

TABLE 12.8 Maximum allowable amplitudes for hammer foundations

TABLE 13.1 Physical properties of granular base and subbase materials

TABLE 13.2 Typical gradation requirements for subbase and base (adapted from TAC 1997)

TABLE 13.3 Aircraft versus highway loads

TABLE 13.4 Typical pavement thicknesses (mm) used by Canadian provincial agencies for selected sub grade and traffic loading (traffic loading of 1 X 106 cumulative ESALs) TAC 1997.

TABLE 13.5 Catalog design thicknesses for Port­land cement concrete pavements (adapted from MTO 1990)

TABLE 14.1 Suggested semi-quantitative proba­bility scale for landslide hazard magnitude or in­tensity (adapted from Hungr 1997)

TABLE 14.2 Usual techniques and instruments used in warning systems

TABLE 15.1 Soil improvement methods (adapted from Munfakh 1997a and Holtz 1989)

TABLE 15.2 Lightweight fill materials (adapted from Magnan 1987)

TABLE 15.3 Types of vertical drains, common in­stallation methods and typical geometric charac­teristics (adapted from Jamiolkowski et al. 1983)

TABLE 15.4 Procedures necessary to improve the reliability of predictions of the settlement and consolidation rates of vertical drain installations (adapted from Holtz et al. 1991)

TABLE 15.5 Thermal properties of soil (adapted from Mitchell 1993)

lvi LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 15.6 Design parameters and common soil properties for electro-osmotic consolidation

TABLE 16.1 Strength properties reported for peats

TABLE 16.2 Approximate required geosynthetic force, Treq (kN m- I ) (F- = 1) values for embank­ments on fibrous peat Bm = 0.34

TABLE 17.1 Classification scheme for earth reten­tion systems (adapted from O'Rourke & Jones 1990)

TABLE 17.2 Partial factors used in the design of vertical walls and abutments (adapted from Jones 1996)

TABLE 17.3 Partial factors used in the design of reinforced slopes (adapted from Jones 1996)

TABLE 17.4 Comparison of drilled, grouted and driven nails: case histories (adapted from Bruce & Jewell 1987)

TABLE 1B.1 Pipe stiffness categories and typical performance limits

TABLE 1B.2 Pipe design standards

TABLE 1B.3 Soil parameters for trench load anal­ysis

TABLE 1B.4 Design values of soil modulus in MPa (adapted from McGrath 1998)

TABLE 1B.5 Pipe stiffness classes

TABLE 1B.6 C values for a variety of pipes and two backfill moduli

TABLE 1B.7 F values for a variety of pipes and two backfill moduli

TABLE 1B.B Design example I: 500-mm diameter reinforced concrete pipe

TABLE 1B.9 Bedding factors and equivalent lat­eral earth pressures for use in direct design

TABLE 1B.1O Design example II: 3-m diameter corrugated steel pipe

TABLE 1B.11 Design example III: 300-mm diam­eter HDPE pipe

TABLE 1B.12 Arching solutions for HDPE pipe example

TABLE 1B.13 HDPE pipe results for bonded, smooth and frictional interface

TABLE 1B.14 Flexible pipe design using Iowa de­flection equation

TABLE 19.1 Summary of trenchless technology methods

TABLE 19.2 Shield tip resistance pressures, ps

TABLE 19.3 Pipe-soil interface friction coeffi­cients, tan ()

TABLE 20.1 Thermal properties of various mate­rials

TABLE 20.2 Values of n-factors for different sur­faces

TABLE 21.1 Comparison of site classification for attenuation models for shallow crustal events in active regions

TABLE 21.2 Smoothed coefficients used to esti­mate pseudo-acceleration response spectra (g) for the random horizontal component at 5% damping

TABLE 21.3 Site classification

TABLE 21.4 Fa as a function of site class and earthquake spectral acceleration, Sa, at 0.3 s

TABLE 21.5 Fvas a function of site class and spec­tral acceleration, Sa at 1 s period

TABLE 21.6 Values of G/Go and V/Vso

TABLE 21.7 Summary of energy ratios for SPT procedures (adapted from Seed et al. 1985)

TABLE 21.8 Influence of earthquake magnitude on volumetric strain ratio for dry sands (adapted from Tokimatsu & Seed 1987)

TABLE 21.9 Usual minimum criteria for design earthquakes (adapted from CDSA 1995)

TABLE 21.10 Consequence classification of dams (adapted from CDSA 1995)

TABLE 22.1 Types of risk assessment frameworks

TABLE 22.2 Summary of environmental sampling strategies

TABLE 22.3 Examples of industries/activities and their contaminants

TABLE 22.4 Sources of toxicity information

TABLE 23.1 Characteristics and properties of common clay minerals

TABLE 23.2 Practical ranges of flow parameters for fine-grained soils

TABLE 23.3 Direct and coupled flows through soils

LIST OF TABLES lvii

TABLE 24.1 Height of capillary rise in sediments (adapted from Fetter 1994)

TABLE 24.2 Range in values of total porosity and effective porosity

TABLE 24.3 Observed effective diffusion coeffi­cients for chloride through a number of soils (adapted from Rowe et al. 1995b and Rowe & Weaver 1997)

TABLE 24.4 Effective diffusion coefficients for chloride in porous rock (adapted from Rowe et al. 1995b)

TABLE 24.5 Some published Henry's law, log K"w, log "I<oc, solubility and density values (adapted from Montgomery & Welkom 1989)

TABLE 24.6 Typical JK values of various sedi­ments

TABLE 25.1 Relationship between average and maximum head on a liner below a drainage layer (adapted from Giroud & Houlihan 1995)

TABLE 25.2 Koerner & Koerner's (1995) recom­mended minimum values for geotextile filters for use with mild leachate and select waste over the geotextile

TABLE 25.3 Comparison of calculated values of hydraulic conductivity based on Eq. 25.17 and measured values for two Ontario landfills

TABLE 25.4 Recommended minimum testing fre­quencies: one test for each volume or area noted below (adapted from Daniel & Koerner 1995)

TABLE 25.5 Final bulk GCL void ratios obtained in confined swell tests (adapted from Rowe & Lake 1999)

TABLE 25.6 Basic characteristics of three thermal locked needle-punched GCLs tested

TABLE 25.7 Uptake of water by bentonite (inter­preted from Daniel & Shan 1992)

TABLE 25.8 Effect of concentration of permeat­ing NaCI solution and ethanol-water mix on hy­draulic conductivity of a particular GCL product at 33-36 kPa

TABLE 25.9 Effect of permeating fluid on hydrau­lic conductivity of a particular GCL product at 35 kPa (adapted from Ruhl & Daniel 1997)

TABLE 25.10 Summary of results of permeability tests on partially saturated bentonite (adapted from Daniel et al. 1993)

TABLE 25.11 Chemical resistance guidelines for some commonly used geomembranes at 38°C (adapted from Koerner 1998)

TABLE 25.12 Suggested limits of different test values for incubated geomembranes

TABLE 25.13 Range of effective diffusion coeffi­cients for selected contaminants in low activity natural geologic barrier or compacted clay (poros­ity = 0.31-0.39)

TABLE 25.14 Some effective diffusion coefficients in soil-bentonite liners (22°C)

TABLE 25.15 Diffusion coefficient in two GCLs as inferred by Lo (1992)

TABLE 25.16 Some published diffusion coeffi­cients in air and water (adapted from Thibodeau 1996; Barone et al. 1992)

TABLE 25.17 Typical ranges of partitioning coef­ficient, Sgf, and diffusion coefficient, Dg, and per­meability, P g, for polyethylene geomembranes (see Rowe 1998a for full details and sources of data)

TABLE 25.18 Solubility and diffusion coefficient for water in three types of geomembrane (adapted from Eloy-Giorni et al. 1996)

TABLE 25.19 Calculated time for antioxidant depletion based on test data by Hsuan and Koerner (1995) (see Rowe (1998a) for details)

TABLE 25.20 Effect of temperature on diffusion coefficient, DT, hydraulic conductivity, kT, in a liner at temperature, T, relative to values at 10 °C (adapted from Rowe 1998a)

TABLE 26.1 Typical hydraulic gradients (critical applications may require designing for higher gra­dients than those given; adapted from Giroud (1988, 1996) and Luettich et al. (1992))

TABLE 26.2 Giroud's retention criterion for geotextile filters (adapted from Giroud 1982, 1988, 1994)

TABLE 26.3 Maximum value, kUM max (m S-I), of the hydraulic conductivity of the medium under­lying the geomembrane for Eqs 26.37-26.47 to be valid with an acceptable approximation in the case where Cqo = 0.21 (good contact) and tUM = 0.6 m (adapted from Giroud et al. 1997c)

TABLE 26.4 Minimum value, kUMmin (m S-I), of the hydraulic conductivity of the medium underlying the geomembrane for Eq. 26.51 (i.e. Bernoulli's

lviii LIST OF TABLES

equation for free flow through an orifice) to be valid with an acceptable approximation (adapted from Giroud et al. 1997c)

TABLE 26.5 Corresponding values of relative de­flection, y/h or y/d, geosynthetic strain, E, and di­mensionless parameter Q (adapted from Giroud et al. 1990)

TABLE 26.6 Typical density, thickness and mass per unit area for geomembranes, and relationship between mass per unit area and threshold wind velocity (adapted from Giroud et al. 1995c)

TABLE 26.7 Values of the geomembrane normal­ized tension, T/(Se L), as a function of the geo­membrane strain, E, the relative uplift, u/L, and the uplift angle, e (adapted from Giroud et al. 1995c)

TABLE 27.1 Comparison of some public-domain water balance models

TABLE 27.2 Run-off coefficients (adapted from Fenn et al. 1975) suggested by Koerner & Daniel (1997) for simplified manual water balance calcu­lations

TABLE 27.3 Percolation rates through final cover systems with barriers incorporating geomem­branes estimated using the HELP model (adapted from Gross et al. 1997)

TABLE 27.4 Interfaces upon which cover system components have undergone sliding

TABLE 27.5 Summary of advantages and disad­vantages associated with test devices for measur­ing interface shear strength (adapted from Gilbert et al. 1995)

TABLE 27.6 Engineering measures to increase cover system slope stability factor of safety

TABLE 27.7 Deaggregated peak horizontal bed­rock accelerations as a percentage of the aggre­gated peak probabilistic acceleration of 0.328 g for Evansville, Indiana, for a 2% probability of ex­ceedence in 50 years (adapted from USGS Web site)

TABLE 27.8 Earthquake parameters, correspond­ing peak horizontal bedrock acceleration esti­mates and peak horizontal accelerations recorded on the top of the Operating Industries Inc. (OIl) landfill, California (adapted from Matasovic et al. 1998)

TABLE 27.9 Ratio of yield acceleration, ky, to peak acceleration of cover system as a function of calcu­lated permanent seismic displacement (adapted from Hynes & Franklin (1984) curves, shown in Figure 27.23)

TABLE 27.10 Results of parameter study of calcu­lated post-closure secondary settlements, (8M), as a percentage of initial landfill height, HJ

TABLE 28.1 Purging/sampling equipment us­ability

TABLE 28.2 Features contributing to the variabil­ity in groundwater quality measurements

TABLE 28.3 Examples of sources of error in groundwater monitOring data

TABLE 28.4 Outcomes and errors in statistical testing

TABLE 28.5 Contaminant exposure pathways by medium

TABLE 29.1 Description and characteristics of common low permeability barrier technologies

TABLE 30.1 Advantages and disadvantages of var­ious potential soil clean-up goals

TABLE 30.2 Remedial technology evaluation cri­teria

TABLE 30.3 Typical contaminant types

TABLE 30.4 Soil treatment technologies generally applicable to compound groups

TABLE 30.5 Types of physical barriers

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Dr S. L. Barbour Department of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan 57 Campus Drive Saskatoon Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A9 TEL: 306-966-5369 FAX: 306-966-5427 e-mail: S_L_Barbour@engr.usask.ca

Dr R. J. Bathurst Department of Civil Engineering Royal Military College of Canada Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7K 7B4 TEL: 613-541-6000 x6479 FAX: 613-545-8336 e-mail: bathurst-r@rmc.ca

Dr D. Becker Golder Associates Ltd 2180 Meadowvale Boulevard Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5N 5S3 TEL: 905-567-4444 FAX: 905-567-6561 e-mail: dbecker@golder.com

Dr D. T. Bergado School of Civil Engineering Asian Institute of Technology P.O. Box 4 Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand TEL: 66-2-516-0110 FAX: 66-2-524-6050 e-mail: bergado@ait.ac.th

Dr D. Blowes Department of Earth Sciences University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 TEL: 519-888-4878 FAX: 519-746-3882 e-mail: blowes@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca

Dr R. Bonaparte GeoSyntec Consultants 1100 Lake Hearn Drive N.E. Atlanta, Georgia 30342-1523 USA TEL: 404-705-9500 FAX: 404-705-9400 e-mail: rbonaparte@geosyntec.com

Dr J. A. Cherry Department of Earth Sciences University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 TEL: 519-888-4516 FAX: 519-883-0220 e-mail: cherryja@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca

Dr D. DuBois Golder Associates Ltd 2180 Meadowvale Boulevard Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5N 5S3 TEL: 905-567-4444 FAX: 905-567-6561 e-mail: DDuBois@golder.com

MrW. Dyck Conestoga-Rovers & Associates Ltd 651 Colby Drive Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2V 1C2 TEL: 519-725-3313 FAX: 519-725-1394 e-mail: wdyck@craworld.com

Dr M. H. EI Naggar Department of Civil & Environmental Engi-

neering University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B9 TEL: 519-661-4219 FAX: 519-661-3942 e-mail: naggar@uwo.ca

R. M. Faure Etudes et recherches en Genie Civil

lix

Ix CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Centre d'Etude des Tunnels 25 Av. F. Mitterrand 69500 Bron, France TEL: 33-472-143481 FAX: 33-472-143490 e-mail: rene­michel.faure@cetu.equipement.gouv.fr

Dr W. D. L. Finn Anabuki Chair of Foundation Geodynamics Kagawa University 2217-20 Shinmachi Hayashi -cho Takamatsu City 761-0396 Japan TEL: 81-87-864-2170 FAX: 81-87-864-2031 e-mail: finn@eng.kagawa-u.ac.jp

Mr G. Ford Presidio Trust P.O. Box 29052 San Francisco, CA 94129-0052 USA TEL: 415-561-4292 FAX: 415-561-4180 e-mail: gford@presidiotrust.gov

Dr D. G. Fredlund Department of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan 57 Campus Drive Saskatoon Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A9 TEL: 306-966-5342 FAX: 306-966-5427 e-mail: DeI.Fredlund@skyfox.usask.ca

Dr R. Gillham Department of Earth Sciences University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl TEL: 519-888-4658 FAX: 519-746-1829 e-mail: rwgillha@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca

Dr J.-P. Giroud GeoSyntec Consultants 621 N.W. 53rd St., Suite 650 Boca Raton, FL 33487 USA TEL: 561-995-0900 x213 FAX: 561-995-0925 e-mail: jpgiroud@geosyntec.com

Dr Ralph Haas Department of Civil Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl TEL: 888-4567 x2176 FAX: 519-888-6197 e-mail: haas@uwaterloo.ca

Dr A. M. Hefny School of Civil & Structural Engineering Division of Geotechnics & Surveying Nanyang Technological University Nanyang, Singapore 639798 TEL: 65-790-6936 FAX: 65-792-1650 e-mail: camhefny@ntu.edu.sg

Dr R. D. Holtz Department of Civil & Environmental Engi-

neering University of Washington Wilcox Hall 260, Box 352700 Seattle, WA 98195-2700 USA TEL: 206-543-7614 FAX: 206-685-3836 e-mail: holtz@u.washington.edu

Dr Y. G. Hsuan Geosynthetics Institute 475 Kedron Avenue Folsom, PA 19033-1208 USA TEL: 610-522-8440 FAX: 610-522-8441 e-mail: ghsuan@coe.drexel.edu

Dr C. J. F. P. Jones Department of Civil Engineering The University Newcastle Upon Tyne NEI 7RU UK TEL: 44-191-222-7117 FAX: 44-191-222-6613 e-mail: c.j.f.p.jones@newcastle.ac.uk

Dr R. M. Koerner Geosynthetics Institute 475 Kedron Avenue Folsom, PA 19033-1208 USA TEL: 610-522-8440 FAX: 610-522-8441 e-mail: Robert.Koerner@cbis.ece.drexel.edu

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS !xi

Dr J.-M. Konrad Departement de genie civil Fac. des Sciences et de Genie U niversite Laval Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4 TEL: 418-656-2131 x3878 FAX: 418-656-2928 e-mail: Jean-Marie.Konrad@gci.ulaval.ca

Dr P. V. Lade Department of Civil Engineering Aalborg University Sohngaardsholmsvej 57 9000 Aalborg Denmark TEL: 45-96-358452 FAX: 45-98-142555 e-mail: Lade@civil.auc.dk

Dr S. Leroueil Departement de Genie civil U niversite Laval Ste-Foy, Que, Canada G1K 7P4 TEL: 418-656-2601 FAX: 418-656-2928 e-mail: Serge.Leroueil@gci.ulaval.ca

Dr K. Y. Lo Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B9 TEL: 519-661-2125 FAX: 519-661-3942 e-mail: jlemon@eng.uwo.ca

Dr Jacques Locat Departement de Geologie et genie geologique U niversite Laval Ste-Foy, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4 TEL: 418-656-2179 FAX: 418-656-7339 e-mail: Jacques.Locat@ggl.ulaval.ca

Mr R. Loughney Loughney Associates, Inc. 25 Arrow Point Road New Preston, CT 06777 USA TEL: 860-868-9995 FAX: 860-868-1025 e-mail: richard.loughney@snet.net

Dr P. Lucia GeoSyntec Consultants 1500 Newell Avenue, Suite 800 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 USA TEL: 925-943-3034 FAX: 925-943-2366

Dr E. McBean Conestoga-Rovers & Associates Ltd 651 Colby Drive Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2V 1C2 TEL: 519-725-3313 FAX: 519-725-1736 e-mail: emcbean@craworld.com

Dr G. Milligan Geotechnical Consulting Group 9 Lathbury Road Oxford 0X2 7 AT UK FAX: 44-1865-516407 e-mail: g.w.e.milligan@gcg.co.uk

Dr J. K. Mitchell Via Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering Virginia Tech Blacksburg, VA 24061-0105 USA TEL: 540-231-7351 FAX: 540-231-7532 e-mail: jkm@vt.edu

Dr I. D. Moore Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B9 TEL: 519-661-3997 FAX: 519-661-3942 e-mail: ian@hazzstanl.engga.uwo.ca

Mr Luciano Picarelli Seconda Universita di Napoli Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile Via Roma 21 80125 Aversa, Italy TEL: 39-81-5010213 FAX: 39-81-5037370 e-mail: picarell@cds.unina.it

Dr H. G. Poulos Coffey Geosciences Pty. Ltd 142 Wicks Road

!xii CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

North Ryde, NSW 2113 Australia TEL: 61-2-9888-7444 FAX: 61-2-9888-9977 e-mail: harry_poulos@coffey.com.au

Mr B. L. Rodway Bruce Rodway and Associates Pty. Ltd 4/15 Mosman Street Mosman 2088, Australia TEL: 61-2-9969-6295 FAX: 61-2-9969-6295 e-mail: bruce.rodway@bigpond.com

Dr C. D. F. Rogers School of Civil Engineering University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham B 15 2TT UK TEL: 44-121-414-5066 FAX: 44-121-414-3675 e-mail: c.d.f.rogers@bham.ac.uk

Mr F. Rovers Conestoga-Rovers & Associates Ltd 651 Colby Drive Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2V lC2 TEL: 519-884-0510 FAX: 519-725-1158

Dr R. K. Rowe Vice-Principal (Research) Queen's University Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6 TEL: 613-533-3113 FAX: 613-533-2128 e-mail: kerry@civil.queensu.ca

Dr R. A. Schincariol Department of Earth Sciences The University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7 TEL: 519-661-3732 FAX: 519-661-3198 e-mail: schincar@julian.uwo.ca

Dr K. Schmidtke Conestoga-Rovers & Associates Ltd 651 Colby Drive Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2V lC2 TEL: 519-884-0510 FAX: 519-884-0111

Dr Gilles Seve CETE Mediterranee Laboratoire de Nice 56 Bd. Stalingrad F -06300 Nice France TEL: 33-4-92-00-8182 FAX: 33-4-92-00-8199 e-mail: gilles.seve@equipement.gouv.fr

Dr J. Q. Shang Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B9 TEL: 519-661-4218 FAX: 519-661-3942 e-mail: jshang@uwo.ca

Dr J. C. Small School of Civil Engineering The University of Sydney Sydney 2006, NSW Australia TEL: 61-2-9351-2128 FAX: 61-2-9351-3343 e-mail: j.small@civil.usyd.edu.au

Mr D. Smyth Department of Earth Sciences University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3Gl TEL: 519-888-4567 (Ext. 2899) FAX: 519-746-3882 e-mail: dsmyth@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca

Mr J. Sprenger GE Canada 2300 Meadowvale Blvd. Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5N 5P9 TEL: 905-858-5708 FAX: 905-858-5276 e-mail: james.sprenger@corporate.ge.com

Mr H. A. Tuchfeld GeoSyntec Consultants 1500 Newell Avenue, Suite 800 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 USA TEL: 925-943-3034 FAX: 925-943-2366 e-mail: HalT@geosyntec.com

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Dr M. Whittaker Consultant 161 Westminster Avenue Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6R IN8 FAX: 905-707-9084 e-mail: mwhittaker@home.com

Dr G. W. Wilson Department of Mining and Mineral

Processing The University of British Columbia Forward Building 517-6350 Stores Rd. Vancouver, BC Canada V6T lZ4 TEL: 604-822-6781 FAX: 604-822-5599 e-mail: gww@mining.ubc.ca

Dr E. K. Yanful Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B9 TEL: 519-661-4069 FAX: 519-661-3942 e-mail: eyanful@eng.uwo.ca

lxiii

PREFACE

This handbook aims to discuss, in one vol­ume, a wide array of topics that have entered the mainstream of geopractice (i.e. geotech­nical and geoenvironmental engineering) over the past two decades, while at the same time not losing sight of the more conven­tional aspects of the discipline that remain a core part of the work of geoprofessionals. These topics range from conventional satu­rated soil mechanics, to unsaturated soil be­havior, rock mechanics, hydrogeology and geosynthetics. The book deals with pave­ments, shallow and deep foundations, em­bankments, slopes, retaining walls, buried structures, dynamics and earthquakes, risk assessment and management, contaminant transport, groundwater monitoring, and con­tainment, treatment and remediation of con­taminated sites.

The 50 contributors to the 30 chapters of the book are all recognized experts in their field-from industry and the academic world. Each chapter was edited and, in order to keep this handbook as one volume, many were reduced to half their original length. Each chapter has been reviewed by at least two experts in the field. Many of these re­viewers were contributors to other chapters and are listed in the accompanying list of con­tributors. In addition, I would like to thank the following individuals who also served as reviewers of one or more chapters: Dr F. S. Barone, Dr S. F. Brown, Dr J. P. Carter, Mr J. M. A. Costa, Dr R. D. Holtz, Dr H. P. Hong, Dr F. Kulhawy, Dr B. Ladanyi, Mr C. Lake, Dr J. Mlynarek, Dr B. Ruth, Dr F. W. Schwartz, Mr C. Skinner, Dr D. Smith, Mr J. Thompson and Dr P. Ullidtz.

Notwithstanding the effort that was made to ensure that each chapter is as correct as practicable, there is little doubt that some er­rors (typographical or otherwise) will creep into a document of this size, especially in its first printing. Readers are requested to advise the undersigned of any errors (typographical or otherwise) or significant omissions they identifY-to the extent possible they will be corrected in subsequent printings.

I am indebted to the numerous contribu­tors to this book who have labored, in their "spare time" to produce a manuscript, re­spond to editorial and reviewer comments, and helped provide what I hope will be useful contributions to the profession.

Finally, lowe a deep debt of gratitude to my family (Kathy, Katrina, Kieron and Ken­dall) for their patience and understanding over the past four years as this book has taken shape; to the families of all the authors who will have contributed in a similar fashion to the compilation of each chapter; and to the typists and draftspeople who have assisted in the preparation of the manuscript-espe­cially to Joanne Lemon and Kathy Rowe who have been an invaluable help in getting this book to the publisher.

R. Kerry Rowe Department of Civil Engineering

Queen's University Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6

kerry@civil.queensu.ca

lxv