Geosequestration Part 2

8/9/2019 Geosequestration Part 2

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Curtin University of Technology

Faculty of Media, Society and CultureDepartment of Communication and Cultural Studies

Cheng Shae Nee 7D6B4294 / 13869870

Communication Skills 116 Research Report

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Research Report


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1.0 Introduction

1.1 Purpose

The purpose of this report is to investigate geosequestration as the most recent efforts

to help curb global warming. This new form of technology is a highly controversial

issue and has been a topic of debate between hundreds of research organizations,

industrial bodies, governmental units, and environmental groups worldwide.

1.2 Audience

This report is exclusively directed to Minister of Resources and Energy since

geosequestration is closely related to the fossil fuel industry, which is a prominent

contributor to the Malaysian economy.

1.3 Background

In 2007, the United Nations reported that Malaysia has the highest growth rate of

carbon emissions among the top polluters in the world.(Malaysian growth of carbon

emissions highest in the world, says UN 2007) The impacts of global warming has

already begun to silently unfold in the country, as cases of acid rains, flash floods,

increase of temperature, as well as land slides creep up the scale year by year, costing

millions of dollars lost as well as emotional trauma. Serious actions and major

changes should be taken urgently in order to save Malaysia as well as the rest of the

world from the frightful consequences of global warming; therefore, the Malaysian

government should examine the various methods and efforts that are made to help

curtail global warming, in which geosequestration is one of them.


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1.4 Scope

This report highlights global warming as the main environmental issue. Since

Malaysia has not readily adopted geosequestration as a major project, reports,

examples, projects, and newsletters from other countries, such as Australia and

United States, which are in the frontline of research and development of this project,

shall be used as a reference.

1.5 Matters of discussion

Issues that are of main concern surrounding geosequestration shall be examined and

discussed in this report. Among them are its requisites, the peak oil crisis, renewable

energy, costs, energy penalty, storage potency and leakage possibility.

1.6 Report structure

This report shall start off with a brief introduction on the methods, specifications, and

the current projects of geosequestration followed by the arguments supporting

geosequestration, arguments rejecting geosequestration, and finally a conclusion by

the author followed by recommended actions to take.


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2.0 Global warming and geosequestration

Many years ago, the idea that the human species could alter something as vast and complex asthe atmosphere was considered abstruse, even far-fetched. This naivety and foolishness of

mankind has placed humankind in a critical and threatening position, as we now finally begin

to feel the painful pangs of consequence as the result of our own ignorance. Reported cases of

heat waves, change in weather behaviour, coastal flooding, massive drought, and the melting

of glaciers escalate year by year, costing us not only destruction of property and land, but also

taking away many loved ones.

Figure 1 - Flood in southern Malaysia Figure 2 Air condition in Kuala Lumpur, June 22

(In pictures: Floods hit Malaysia 2007) (Air quality worsening: DOE n.d.)

2.1 Definition of global warming

Global warming is a condition whereby the earth experiences an increase in

temperature due to the escalation of greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere.

Studies have shown that earths temperature is subjected to oscillation through

periods of time; however, recent evidence depicts an abnormal increase in global

temperature resulting in significant climate change, which is clearly outside the

bounds of natural viability. Scientists highly suspect that human activity is

responsible for this stark increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.


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2.2 Causes of Global warming

Fossil fuels are currently supplying 85% of all the energy supply for our world today,

enabling us to enjoy a life of quality and urbanization, far beyond what our

forefathers had ever imagine or dreamt of. (Friedmann 2007) However, due to an ever

growing fossil fuel dependant world, the concentration of green house gasses,

primarily carbon dioxide, begin to increase rapidly, resulting in global warming, a

backlash on our efforts to create a better life for mankind.

Figure 3 - Global warming: Causes and effects

(Global warming Facts n.d.)

2.3 Growing interest for geosequestration

There is a growing consensus not only among scientists, but also politicians and

corporate conglomerates that something must be done fast to combat this alarming

phenomenon. However, many politicians and business figures deeply involved in the

fossil fuel industry find themselves entangled between being environmentally

responsible, meeting the publics expectations as well as achieving the companys

financial goals. When geosequestration was brought to the table, it sparked a

considerable amount of interest not only among environmental groups, but also

politicians and corporations because it not only offers a solution to global warming,

but also enables the fossil fuel industry to continue without being held liable for any

malfeasance towards the environment.


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2.4 Definition of geosequestration

Geosequestration, also synonymous to carbon capture and storage (CCS), refers to a

process where carbon dioxide is captured from a large point source, compressed to a

super critical liquid, and then injected into impermeable geological formations

underground where is it expected to be entombed for hundreds, if not thousands of

years.

In a nutshell, the sequestration of carbon dioxide can be broken into three simple

steps: capture, transport, and storage. (Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS) 2005)

Figure 4 - How geosequestration works

(FitzGerald 2006)

2.5 Storage sites for carbon dioxide

There are already a number of potential sites identified that are ideal for carbon

dioxide storage, in which among them are depleted oil and gas fields, deep saline

aquifers, and unmineable coal seams. (Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS) 2005)


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2.6 Requisites and special conditions

Among the gasses emitted from major flue sources, carbon dioxide stands to be just

one of the elements in the cocktail of gasses. One essential requisite of CCS is that

the gas captured must solely be carbon dioxide, with no other types of gasses present;

therefore, either filtration can be done, or a process that is more efficient and

complimentary to geosequestration called coal gasification can be applied. (Claussen

2004) The proceeding step is to compress the gas into a supercritical liquid, and then

transport it to its sequestration site. After burying the liquid into the subterranean,

ongoing site monitoring has to be done to ensure public safety and environment well-

being. (Friedmann 2007)


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3.0 Arguments for geosequestration

3.1 Potency of the earth to secure gasses

The idea of artificially pumping carbon dioxide into the earth may sound

uncomfortable or even alarming to many. There is much concern that deploying this

project on a large scale will cause an imbalance to Mother Nature, resulting in

detrimental unforeseen consequences.

3.1.1 Revolutionary discovery

A very reassuring discovery has been made by scientists from The University

of Manchester, who found that carbon dioxide has been stored naturally for

millions of years in several fields of the Colorado Plateau and Rocky

Mountains of the United States. (Carbon Dioxide Has Been Naturally Stored

For A Million Years In Colorado And Rocky Mountains 2008) This amazing

breakthrough acts as a reassurance to the public that carbon dioxide can be

stored in suitable geological formations of the earth without causing any

environmental disproportion.

Figure 5 - The Rocky Mountains of Colorado

(Foitle 2005)


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3.1.2 Oil and gas fields a proven fact

This confidence in fact, can also be built by closely examining oil and gas

reservoirs. Though more buoyant than water, natural gas and oil are trapped

deep beneath the earths surface for millions of years due to an overlying

impermeable rock that acts as a barrier. (Causebrook 2004) The exact same

principle can be applied to geosequestration by injecting liquefied carbon

dioxide into the same reservoirs that was once trapped with natural gas and

oil.

Figure 6 The generation and entrapment of natural gas and oil

(What are fossil fuels? How do they form? n.d.)

3.2 Economical and environmental gains

3.2.1 Oil fields

On top of that, investors may even enjoy some extra benefits from the by-

products of geosequestration. In the United States, carbon dioxide is used to

enhance oil recovery, dispersing oil and natural gas from the reservoir whilebeing injected into the underlying cap rock. For this sole purpose, it is

estimated that within 20 years, 1.5 million tons of carbon dioxide can be

sequestered coupled with the recovery of 5 million barrels of oil. (CO2

Injection Boosts Oil Recovery, Captures Emissions 2005)


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3.2.2 Unmineable coal seams

Similarly, unmineable coal seams can also provide rewarding and profitable

by-products when subjected to geosequestration. Unmineable coal beds

typically contain large quantities of methane. When subjected to

geosequestration, the coal absorbs carbon dioxide, and in turn, desorbs

methane gas, providing a value-added revenue stream. (Paterson 2006)

3.2.3 Saline aquifers

On the other hand, the third potential carbon dioxide storage site, saline

aquifers, does not yield any valuable by-products. However, these saline

aquifers will likely become the preferred repositories because of their

estimated potential capacity of 350 1000 gigatonnes worldwide. (Kharaka

et al. 2006)

3.3 An answer to the peak oil crisis

3.3.1 Living in an oil built society

We live in an age that historians might one day refer to as the Fossil Fuel

Age. Urbanized and developed societies simply live and breathe on the

products and benefits of petroleum, a God-given black gold. The world

demands over 80 million barrels of petrol a day. (Lundberg 2005) On the top

of that, economies of countries such as China and India that are booming

madly intensify this worldwide thirst for petroleum.


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3.3.2 The peak oil crisis

However, many of us turn a blind eye to the fact that this supply of black

gold is finite and will one day come to an end. When we have consumed

crude oil to the brim and there are no more crude oil reserves left, that is

when humans have reached peak consumption of crude oil. While many

experts claim that peak oil production is finally here, there is much dispute

over its exact age and date. (Doyle 2004) Despite of that, oil industry guru,

Jan Lundberg released this statement:

The end of abundant, affordable oil is in sight, and the implications are

colossal. About now in our hydrocarbon phase of human history, we have

pulled out of the Earth approximately half of the available petroleum (crudeoil and natural gas). The other half still in the ground is harder to extract and

may not - as assumed - fuel the global economy or even provide a transition

to another phase (Ruppert 2005)

Figure 7 Graphical prediction of world oil production

(Savinar 2003)


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3.3.3 In search for a replacement to oil

Regardless of when this trillion dollar crisis will finally hit us, it is crucial

that society must start to decrease its dependence on oil, and look for

solutions to fuel this demand for power and energy supply. In this wave of

panic, many groups such as the United States Air Force, the US Department

of Energy, the Scottish Government and Australian government are forced to

look into the coal as a likely candidate for oil substitution. However, coal has

always been in a precarious position and has been heavily criticised as being

notorious in contributing to the carbon dioxide built up in our atmosphere.

Coal is an extremely dirty source of power, and imposes huge costs on

peoples health, the environment and the economy, stated Keith Allot, the

head of WWF-UKs climate change programme. (The Cost Of Coal On The

Environment 2006) When geosequestration was brought to the table, it

captured the attention of many leaders for it remains the smartest choice and

only answer to balance the scale between the peak oil crisis as well as global

warming.

3.4 Renewable energy

Figure 8 - Photovoltaic programs for the National Centre for Photovoltaics

(Renewable energy Technologies n.d.)

One might question: Why do we need to artificially sequester carbon dioxide whenthere are renewable, carbon-free means of energy to turn to? Indeed, many of us look

to the future and have high hopes for renewable, carbon-free energy such as solar-

power, wind-power, hydro-power, tidal-power, and geothermal power.

Environmental friendly and continuous energy may sound ideal and rosy to many, but

why isnt the government deploying this renewable energy on a larger scale?


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3.4.1 Shortcomings of renewable energy

The answer lies in the immaturity of the technology of renewable energy and

its inability to fulfil our current energy demands. Currently, carbon-free and

renewable types of energy are simply insufficient to cater our ever growing

energy demand.

3.4.2.1 Solar energy

Solar energy is unrealistic for an ordinary consumer for its high price

tag, spatial limitations, toxicity of its waste, and negative net energy

output.

3.4.2.2 Wind energy

Wind power is a more economically viable option, but has its

drawbacks as well, for it contributes to noise pollution, practical only

to limited areas, and is a threat to birds if wrongly situated.

3.4.2.3 Hydro energy

Hydro-power is already being used extensively around the world, but

its main issues lie in the environmental destruction of dammed rivers,

and the risk of drought due to fluctuating climate.

3.4.2.4 Tidal energy

Tidal energy is restricted to estuarine areas that experience uncertain

tidal swings and will also obstruct sea life migration.

3.4.2.5 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is a relatively clean and feasible option, but is

also very risky since the other gasses it emits (primarily Hydrogen

Sulphide) is toxic and dangerous to human life. (McCluney 2003)


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3.4.2 Fossil fuels as the backbone for renewable energy

Last but not least, most of these renewable energy sources are built primarily

with the aid of fossil fuels. From its production, transportation and

construction, they are dependant heavily on fossil fuels as a leading source of

energy and material. This draws us to the conclusion that in order to build an

ideal world that sustains on renewable energy, our precious remaining

reserves of fossil fuels should be invested in developing the renewable energy

technology until the dependence on fossil fuels is finally removed altogether.

3.4.3 Geosequestration bridging the gap

Having issues such as peak oil production, global warming, and limitations of

renewable technologies all entangled together, the clean coal notion

combined with geosequestration is probably the last and most ideal choice for

us to answer to these problems. Geosequestration could probably help

mitigate the effects of global warming, enhance oil production, answer to

peak oil crisis, and buy us more time to improve and develop the

technologies of renewable energy for the future.


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4.0 Arguments against geosequestration

Geosequestration may sound rosy and seems like the key to the future problems that lie ahead

of us. However the pendulum for geosequestration swings to the opposite direction as

geologists and scientist dive deeper into research for this course.

4.1 Potency for leakage

This multi-million dollar project done on an extensive large scale and on the global

level will have a high impact on mankind and wildlife if it fails to deliver. One of the

critical issues and most life threatening impacts it would put upon mankind is that if

leakage should occur.

4.1.1 Negative experimental evidence

Since the many projects of geosequestration are still in its infant stage, there

are currently no reports of damage or leakage from any storage fields.

However, a recent experiment done in the Frio Formation drew this

conclusion: The chemical data coupled with geochemical modelling indicaterapid dissolution of minerals.rapid mineral dissolution could have

important environmental implications with regard to creating pathways in the

rock seals and well cements that could facilitate leakage of CO2 and brine.

(Kharaka et al. 2006)


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4.1.2 Leakage effects

4.1.2.1 Asphyxiation of beings

An appalling event that took place in 1986, northwest of Cameroon,

Africa can most likely reflect the lethal damages and destruction if

large, concentrated volumes of carbon dioxide escape from its

chamber. Lake Nyos, known as the killer lake, was saturated with

carbon dioxide due to an underlying dormant volcano beneath the

lake that was silently releasing carbon dioxide coupled with low

water temperature and high pressure. On August 26, year 1986, 1700

unwary Africans were asphyxiated while countless of animals

suffocated when this volcanic crater-lake Nyos eructed a dense cloud

of carbon dioxide onto the land. (Fiuk n.d.)

Figure 9 - The Lake Nyos disaster.

(Nelson 2004)


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4.1.2.2 Increase of ocean acidity

Leakage of carbon dioxide can also bring threat to marine life. The

ocean is absorbing roughly one third of our daily carbon dioxide

emissions, forming carbonic acid in the sea. Marine life, such as shell

fish and mussels, are highly sensitive to changes of pH levels of the

environment due to their biology of having integuments made from

calcium carbonate, a compound that sizzles when it touches acid. At

our current atmospheric state, the impacts of increased ocean acidity

can already be seen and is predicted to cause massive extinction to

marine life if unabated.(Oceans May Soon Be More Corrosive Than

When Dinosaurs Died 2006) How much more would this affect our

aquatic creatures if super reactive carbon dioxide leaks out from

storage sites in the ocean?

Figure 10 Carbon dioxide and the oceans pH

(Blumenthal 2007)

Geosequestration is such a high risk project since it costs billions of dollars,

deployed on an enormous scale, and deals with an extremely volatile liquid,

so much so that it cannot afford to commit a single error in management or

calculation.


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4.2 Limitations of storage space

Geosequestration may serve as a delightful theoretical idea, but to put it into practical

terms, it may come of as problematic and worrisome. A representative from

Australias coal-power generators, John Boshier, expresses his concerns over the

sheer scale of potential storage space our earth can offer.

With 80 per cent of Australias generation from coal, that means we have to find

carbon capture and storage sites for most of that. Thats 200 million tonnes of carbon

dioxide at the moment rising to lets say 300 million tonnes by 2030. Thats a lot of

carbon storage sites to find.(Going underground: carbon dioxide storage experiment

2008)

For every tonne of anthracite burned, the carbon dioxide generated would be 3.7

times more. If geosequestration was to be brought into mainstream, a total amount of

50 cubic kilometres of liquid, concentrated carbon dioxide would be injected into the

earths crust daily. A-grade sites with solid, impermeable cap rock will soon be filled

to the brim, and power companies, if not subjected to leakage liability, may succumb

to pressure and resort to high-risk B, C, D or E grade sites. (Richard 2006)

4.3 Liability over leakage

This also leads us to ponder over another imperative concern: Who should be liable if

leakage occurs? An article from Freehills internet site stated: In most jurisdictions,

an operators liability for a site ceases once it has been rehabilitated to the satisfaction

of the regulator. (Geosequestration - some regulatory and legal issues 2004) On top

of that, it was reported in The Age that Australias insurance industry is not willing to

provide coverage for any damages caused by leakage since the risk profile for this

technology is yet to be known. (Baker 2007) That leaves the government, tax-payers,

and our future generation to take on the risks and cost of restoration if accidents

occur.


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4.4 Intergeneration equity

This further draws us to the matter of intergenerational equity, on whether or not we

allow ourselves to leave our future generations an unhealthy, sickly, inhabitable

world. An ancient proverb tells us: We do not inherit the earth from our forefathers;

we borrow it from our children. Instead of making this world a better place for

generations to come, we pass on a heavy responsibility of monitoring the storage sites

as long as the liquid is kept in there. Also, due to the dynamic nature of our earth,

biological activity, chemical reactions, and geological processes can potentially alter

the conditions of the injected field, making it permeable and exposing our offspring

to the risk of asphyxiation. It would be awfully iniquitous for us to make our children

carry this incessant burden to guard these sites, what more to expose them to the risk

of leakage and make them pay for our mistakes with their lives?

4.5 Inefficiency and time constrain

Much financial investment from the government will have to be poured into this

project, yet it is uncertain that Geosequestration can tackle our climate problems

given the limited amount of time. Scientists stress that we have 10 years left to abate

global warming, but reports show that geosequestration could only possibly be done

on a commercial level by the year 2020. In addition, the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC) reported that geosequestration would only manage to capture

only 9 to 12 percent of the green house gas by year 2020 at maximum efficiency, and

only about 21 percent by 2050. (Why geosequestration is no solution to climate

change n.d.) These predictions, calculated with current data, have not included the

possibility of the increase in carbon dioxide emissions by developing nations, such as

China or India.


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4.6 Higher energy demand and increased expenses

Last but not least, geosequestration has been highly criticized for its high usage of

energy, and thus decreasing the net output of energy. One of the most basic principles

in serving climate justice is to simply consume less. Geosequestration defies this

fundamental notion because its procedures itself requires a copious amount of energy

input.

4.6.1 Costs of coal gasification

Coal gasification, a process introduced to increase CCS efficiency, is a

painfully pricey procedure that will devour up to a quarter of the net energyproduced.

4.6.2 Costs for transportation

In addition to that, the transportation of the gas would require up to hundreds

of kilometres of piping, in which its costs varies according to the conditions

of the terrain.

4.6.3 Costs for compression

On top of that, compressing carbon dioxide to a supercritical state would

further drain away 20 percent of the net energy yielded, in which would leave

55 percent of power left for the growing and ever demanding

market.(Richard 2006)

The energy penalty for drilling, injection, and ongoing site observation has yet to be

taken into account.

To force our existing and future tax payers to cater for the cumulative costs of this

high-risk, impermanent, and unproven technology would be unspeakably foolish and

onerous.


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4.7 Distraction from renewable energy

4.7.1 Influence from mega oil industries

Fossil fuel companies promote geosequestration as the bridging gap

between abating global warming while renewable energy advances to the

point of being capable to fulfil our energy demands. It would be nave for us

to think that multinational oil giants would allow their market to shrink while

permitting renewable technologies take over their once dominated

establishment. Geosequestration is only a way to extend their supremacy in

the energy industry by further entrenching our dependence of fossil fuels.

(Stewart and Long 2004)

4.7.2 Drainage of funds from renewable energy technology

If this claim to bridge the gap was true, there would be an equal funding

and support for geosequestration, fossil fuel, and renewable energy.

However, this fabricated statement is neither true nor realised due to the one

sided financial support given, in which renewable energy stands to be at thelosing end.

4.7.2.1 The United States

In the United States, FutureGen was established in the year 2003 and

granted $1 billion for a ten year project to demonstrate a

revolutionary clean coal technology, which is also equivalent to

$100 million a year. (Fossil Energy: DOE's FutureGen Initiativen.d.) However, in the year 2006, a press release by the Environmental

and Energy Study Institute reported that the bold request by

Representative Rosa DeLauro to increase funds for renewable energy

by $500 million was ruled out of order, and a mere $23 million was

granted. In the following September of the same year, the US

Department of Energy (DOE) proposed to eliminate funds for


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hydropower and geothermal researches, justifying that these

technologies are mature and need no further funding. (Clayton

2006)

4.7.2.2 Australia

The situation in Australia, though not typical to the US, is also

equally daunting. Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial

Research Organisation (CSIRO) was granted $500 million to

research on emission technologies, tailored to suite geosequestration.

The outcome however, was not very encouraging. Dr Ian MacGill,

from the department of Electrical Engineering of the University of

New South Wales released this statement regarding CCS:

Over the last five years, weve seen remarkably little progress, I

would say, in terms of getting from promises through to actual

demonstration projects being built and operating and basically

providing lessons on how were going to do this at significant

commercial scale.(Going underground: carbon dioxide storage

experiment 2008)

If our final aim is to transit from fossil fuels to clean, renewable energy, it

should be evident that governmental grants are equally divided, a clear and

detailed transition scheme is planned out, and that the research on

geosequestration would actually provide us the results worthy of the money

we have been pumping in for.


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5.0 Conclusion

Geosequestration comes in a package. This package is a blended mix of benefits and

drawbacks this project can bring. We are not to pick and choose, but can only either

accept or reject it altogether. To sum it all up, arguments that are supportive of

geosequestration includes the potency of the earth to store gasses, the economical and

environmental benefits, a solution to the peak oil crisis, as well as a bridging gap

between renewable energy breakthrough and fulfilling oil demands; whereas

arguments that are against geosequestration are its possibility of leakage, limited

storage space, liability, intergenerational equity, energy penalty, time constrain,

increase in costs and its distraction from renewable energy. Our ancestors have

always managed to come up with clever, creative ideas to solve problems. There were

many glorious triumphs, but behind every triumph, there were a thousand more

failures. Mankind initiated Geosequestration out of good intent, as it is one of the

many innovative, and heartfelt efforts made to solve global warming, which can

either save us or kill us all. We either take up the risk and implement this unproven

global experiment, or remain dormant and await the wrath of nature to come upon us.

All in all, Sir Isaac Newton stated this universal law that stands firm till this day:

For every action, there is a reaction.

We take, therefore, we must give back. It is time for us to pay our debts back to

mother earth before she takes everything back herself.


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6.0 Recommendations

This report is dedicated to investigate geosequestration as a possible future technique that can

be use to abate the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. It would be highly

unfair to rule out geosequestration at this point of the report since it is already an ongoing,

fully-funded, highly expensive project in the United States and Australia. One should not take

heed to the empty blares of the supporters for this technology but polish up the manner of

approach towards this field. The findings of this report suggest that the government should

observe these recommendations if geosequestration should be carried out in our country:

Conduct hazardous experiments far from human and wildlife habitat at minimal

calculated risks.

Modify carbon compression techniques to make it more economical and energy

saving.

Obtain the publics full consent before conducting the project.

Provide proper education to the public on safety measures and survival techniques if

leakage should occur.

Construct a detailed and well planned restoration and emergency plan if leakage

should occur. Set up a council to draw up proper legislations in relation to the liability of

geosequestration.

Draw up a clear and concise transition plan to decrease our dependence on fossil fuels

and work towards fulfilling energy demands by renewable sources.

Invest the precious remaining reserves of our countrys fossil fuel into improving

renewable energy technology.

Ensure that the renewable energy industry is not sidelined due to the ongoing project

of geosequestration.

Enforce stringent decrees that safeguards public welfare on companies involved in

this project. Should the company resort to injecting liquid carbon dioxide into high-

risk sites that can endanger life, severe penalty should be imposed.


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7.0 Reference List

Baker, R. 2007. Insurance doubt on carbon plan. The Age.http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/insurance-doubt-on-carbon-plan/2007/02/20/1171733764521.html (accessed April 14, 2008).

Blumenthal, L. 2007. Oceans' growing acidity alarms scientists.http://www.mcclatchydc.com/homepage/story/23138.html (accessed April 20, 2008).

Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS). 2005.postnote (238): 1-4. Parliamentary Office ofScience and Technology. http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/postpn238.pdf(accessed April 14, 2008).

Carbon Dioxide Has Been Naturally Stored For A Million Years In Colorado And Rocky

Mountains. 2008. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080217212303(accessed April 12, 2008).

Causebrook, R. 2004. Geosequestration of carbon dioxidde - some frequently askedquestions.AusGeo news (76): 12-14. Geoscience Australia.http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA5536.pdf (accessed March 9, 2008).

Claussen, E. 2004. Global Climate Change and Coal's Future.http://www.pewclimate.org/press_room/speech_transcripts.coal.cfm (accessed April13, 2008).

Clayton, M. 2006. US to cut funds for two renewable energy sources. The Christian ScienceMonitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0915/p02s01-uspo.htm (accessed April 15,2008).

CO2 Injection Boosts Oil Recovery, Captures Emissions. 2005.http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/01/050110091718.htm (accessed April

12, 2008).

The Cost Of Coal On The Environment. 2006.http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070504151722,htm (accessed April13, 2008).

Doyle, R. 2004. Oil Haves and Have-Nots: The Fossil Fuel Age Will End, But Few Agree OnWhen. Scientific American 291 (3). http://www.mindfully.org/Energy/2004/Peak-Oil-Gas1sep04.htm (accessed April 13, 2008).

Fiuk, M. n.d. Volcanice Killers - Degassing Lake Nyos.http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageplanet/01volcano/01/indexmid.html (accessed March10, 2008).

Fossil Energy: DOE's FutureGen Initiative. n.d.

http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/futuregen/ (accessed March11, 2008).

Friedmann, S. J. 2007. Geological Carbon Dioxide Sequestration.Elements 3: 179-184.GeoScienceWorld. http://www.geoscienceworld.org (accessed March 9, 2008).

Geosequestration - some regulatory and legal issues. 2004. Freehills internet site.http://www.freehills.com.au/publications/publications_1602.asp (accessed April 15,2008).


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Going underground: carbon dioxide storage experiment. 2008. Transcript. Australia:Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 7 April.http://www.abc.net.ay/7.30/content/2007/s2210205 (accessed April 14, 2008).

Kharaka, Y. K., D. R. Cole, S. D. Hovorka, W. D. Gunter, K. G. Knauss, and B. M. Freifeld.

2006. Gas-water-rock interactions in Frio Formation following CO2 injection:Implications for storage of greenhouse gases in sedimentary basins. 34 (7): 577-580.GeoScience World. http://geology.geoscienceworld.org (accessed March 12, 2008).

Lundberg, J. 2005. The fall of petroleum civilization: peak oil. Culture Change.http://www.culturechange.org/fall_of_petroleum_civilization.html (accessed April13, 2008).

Malaysian growth of carbon emissions highest in the world, says UN. 2007.http://www.iht.com/bin/printfriendly/php?id=8523805 (accessed April 10, 2008).

McCluney, R. 2003.Renewable Energy Limits. Florida: University of Central Florida.http://www.windenergy.org.nz/documents/2004/040900-AusGeoseqReportExecSum.pdf (accessed March 12, 2008).

Oceans May Soon Be More Corrosive Than When Dinosaurs Died. 2006.http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060220232335.htm (accessed March11, 2008).

Paterson, L. 2006. Geosequestration technology. CSIRO.http://www.aph.gov.au/House/committee/scin/geosequestration/subs/sub10.pdf(accessed April 17, 2008).

Richard, M. G. 2006. Important! Why Carbon Sequestration Won't Save Us. TreeHugger.http://treehugger.com/files/2006/07/carbon_sequestration.php (accessed April 14,2008).

Ruppert, M. C. 2005. GlobalCorp.: FromTheWilderness.http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/031005_globalcorp.shtml (accessedMarch 14, 2008).

Stewart, K., and S. Long. 2004. Geosequestration: Bury carbon or burying our heads in thesand?Energy Bulletin.net. http://www.energybulletin.net/print/php?id=2908(accessed April 12, 2008).

Why geosequestration is no solution to climate change. n.d.http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/issues/climate-change/solutions/no-nuclear-no-geosequestration/not-geosequestration (accessed March 9, 2008).


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8.0 Bibliography

Adam, D. 2005. How will carbon capture and storage work? The Guardian.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2005/jun/16/thisweekssciencequestions.climatechangeenvironment (accessed April 12, 2008).

Air Force hopes coal will replace oil. 2008. http://www.dailypress.com/business/dp-biz_militarycoal_0322mar22,0,5222609,print.story (accessed April 14 2008).

Bury carbon now, say experts. 2001. http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?/science/news/stories/s269960.htm (accessed April 14,2008).

Global, Regional, and National CO2 Emissions. n.d.http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/mys.htm (accessed April 10, 2008).

Goel, M. 2007. Carbon capture and storage technology for sustainable energy future. CurrentScience 92 (9): 1201-1202. Indian Academy of Sciences.

http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/may102007/1201.pdf (accessed March 14, 2008).

Hoag, H. 2007. Carbon storage deep down under. nature reports climate change 1: 4-5.nature.com. http://www.nature.com/reports/climatechange (accessed March 12,2008).

Luntz, S. 2004. Geosequestration Wins Support.Australasian Science 24 (4): 13. ProQuestScience Journals. http://proquest.umi.com (accessed March 12, 2008).

Mather, J. 2007.A vision for the future of energy in Scotland.http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/News-Extras/visionenergy (accessed April 13,2008).

Oil Recovery Process May Reduce Foreign Dependence. 2006.http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/08/060801053823.htm (accessed April

12, 2008).

Peel, G. 2006. Will Coal Replace Oil?http://www.fnarena.com/index2.cfm?type=dsp_newsitem&n=66A21D5C-17A4-1130-F5EDC6317BAD1CAC (accessed July 12, 2008).

Researchers Report On Possible Biological Effects Of Deep-Sea CO2 Sequestration. 2001.http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011012073925.htm (accessed April14, 2008).

Saddler, H., C. Reidy, and R. Passey. 2004. Geosequestration. The Australia Institute.http://www.windenergy.org.nz/documents/2004/040900-AusGeoseqReportExecSum.pdf (accessed March 9, 2008).

Study Finds Plenty Of Carbon Dioxide Storage Capacity Underground In Kentucky. 2006.

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Glossary

Term Definition

Anthracite A hard variety ofcoal that has a high content of

carbon and burns with little flame and smoke.

Asphyxiation To be killed when the body is deprived of oxygen

Calcium carbonate A white compound insoluble in water but dissolved in

acid. Also forms mollusc shells.

Carbon dioxide A colourless, odourless gas produced when carbon and

organic compounds are burned. Chemical formula: CO2

Coal A combustible rock, black in colour, and consist mainly

of carbonized plant matter. Can be used as fuel.

Coal gasification The process of reacting coal or gas with water to

produce hydrogen and carbondioxide.

CSIRO Also known as the Commonwealth Scientific and

Industrial Research Organisation, which is Australia's

national science agency.

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) A collection of methods that are used to increase the

amount of oil that can be extracted from an oil field.

Extinction A state where a species are no longer in existence

Fossil fuel A natural fuel such as coal, gas, or oil, formed in the

geological past from the remains of living organisms.

Geosequestration The process of storing liquid carbon dioxide in

underground chambers

Glaciers A large body of ice slowly moving down a slope or

valley or spreading outward onto a land surface

Global warming An elevation in global temperature due to an increase of

greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gas Gasses that can absorb infrared. Examples include


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carbon dioxide and methane

Heat waves A prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.

Hydrogen sulphide A colourless, poisonous gas with a smell of bad eggs,

made by the action of acids on sulphides. Chemical

formula: H2S

Impermeable A property that does not allow fluid or gasses to pass

through

Methane A colourless, odourless flammable hydrocarbon which

is the main constituent of natural gas and the simplest

member of the alkane series. Chemical formula: CH4

Peak oil The point where global petroleum production ismaximum, followed by a steady decline in the rate of

production of oil.

pH A figure expressing acidity or alkalinity on a numeric

scale, in which 7 is neutral. The lower the value, the

higher the acidity; the higher the value, the higher the

alkalinity.

Renewable energy A method of producing energy or electricity with

natural resources such as solar rays, wind power, tidalpower, geothermal heat, biomass etc.

United Nations An international organization formed in 1945,

whose objectives are to facilitate cooperation in

international law, international security, economic

development, social progress and human rights

issues.

WWF Formerly known as the World Wildlife Fund. The

WWF is an international non-governmental

organization for the conservation, research and

restoration of the natural environment.


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Attachments 1

References


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Attachments 2

Bibliographies

Geosequestration Part 2

Documents

Transcript of Geosequestration Part 2