Geomorphology.1.Earths Interior

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INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

The configuration of the surface of the earth is largely a product of the processes

operating in the interior of the earth.

Exogenic as well as endogenic processes are constantly shaping the landscape.


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Why know about earth’s interior

Understanding of the earth's interior is essential to understand the nature of changes that

take place over and below the earth's surface

To understand geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, eathquakes etc..

To understand the internal structure of various solar system objects

To understand the evolution and present composition of atmosphere

Future deepsea mineral exploration

Sources of information about the interior

Direct Sources

Deep earth mining and drilling reveals the nature of rocks deep down the surface.

[Mponeng gold mine and TauTona gold mine in South Africa are deepest mines reaching

to a depth of 3.9 km. And the deepest drilling is about 12 km deep]

Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.

Mponeng mine

South Africa

Deepest mine

Gold mine

Deapth: 2.4 miles (3.9 km)

Indirect Sources

Depth With depth, pressure and density increases and hence temperature. This is

mainly due to gravitation.

Meteors Meteors and Earth are solar system objects that are born from the same

nebular cloud. Thus they are likely to have a similar internal structure.

Gravitation The gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on the

surface. It is greater near the poles and less at the equator. This is because of the

distance from the centre at the equator being greater than that at the poles.


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The gravity values also differ according to the mass of material. The uneven distribution

of mass of material within the earth influences this value. Such a difference is called

gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass

of the material in the crust of the earth.

http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/141856/why-is-earths-gravity-stronger-at-

the-poles

Magnetic field The geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what's

happening inside the Earth's core. Shifts in the magnetic field also provide clues to the

inaccessible iron core. But their source remains a mystery.

Not important for exam. But if you are a science enthusiast and if you want to know more…

What causes the magnetic field of earth?

Our planet’s magnetic field is believed to be generated deep down in the Earth’s core.

Nobody has ever taken the mythical journey to the centre of the Earth, but by

studying the way shockwaves from earthquakes travel through the planet, physicists

have been able to work out its likely structure.

Right at the heart of the Earth is a solid inner core, two thirds of the size of the Moon

and composed primarily of iron. At a hellish 5,700°C, this iron is as hot as the Sun’s

surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity prevents it from becoming liquid.

Surrounding this is the outer core, a 2,000 km thick layer of iron, nickel, and small

quantities of other metals. Lower pressure than the inner core means the metal here

is fluid.

Differences in temperature, pressure and composition within the outer core cause

convection currents in the molten metal as cool, dense matter sinks whilst warm, less

dense matter rises. The Coriolis force, resulting from the Earth’s spin, also causes

swirling whirlpools.

This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic

fields. Charged metals passing through these fields go on to create electric currents

of their own, and so the cycle continues. This self-sustaining loop is known as the

geodynamo.

http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/141856/why-is-earths-gravity-stronger-at-the-poles

http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/141856/why-is-earths-gravity-stronger-at-the-poles


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The spiralling caused by the Coriolis force means that separate magnetic fields

created are roughly aligned in the same direction, their combined effect adding up to

produce one vast magnetic field engulfing the planet.

Some sources explained in detail

High Levels of Temperature and Pressure Downwards

Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to an interior which

is very hot.

The high temperatures are attributed to automatic disintegration of the radioactive

substances

Gravitation and the diameter of the earth helps in estimating pressures deep inside.


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Evidence From The Meteorites

When they fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme friction

and the inner core is exposed.

The heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar composition of the

inner core of the earth, as both evolved from the same star system in the remote past.

The most important indirect source is sesmic activity. The major understanding of the

earth’s internal structure is mainly from the study of sesmic waves.

Sesmic waves

The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior.

What causes earthquakes? [We will study sesmic waves (Earthquake waves) in detail

later]

Abrupt release of energy along a fault causes earthquake waves.

A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rock layer.

Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. But the friction exerted by the

overlying rock strata prevents the movement of rock layer. With time pressure builds

up.

Under intense pressure, the rock layer, at certain point, overcomes the friction offered

by the overlying layer and undergoes an abrupt movement generating shockwaves.

This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.

The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake,

alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.


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The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface. The point on the

surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to experience the

waves. It is a point directly above the focus.

Earthquake Waves

All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere (depth up to 200 km from the

surface of the earth).

An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.

Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.

Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all

directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.

The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves

called surface waves. These waves move along the surface.

The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different elasticity

(stiffness) (Generally density with few exceptions). The more elastic the material is,

the higher is the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when

coming across materials with different densities.

There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

Behaviour of Earthquake Waves

The earthquake waves are measured with the help of a seismograph and are of three

types—

1. the 'P' waves or primary waves (longitudinal nature),

2. secondary waves or 'S' waves (transverse in nature) while the

3. surface waves are long or ‘L’ waves.


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The velocity and direction of the earthquake waves undergo changes when the

medium through which they are travelling changes.

When an earthquake or underground nuclear test sends shock waves through the

Earth, the cooler areas, which generally are rigid, transmit these waves at a higher

velocity than the hotter areas.

Primary Waves (P waves)

Also called as the longitudinal or compressional waves.

Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave.

P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface.

These waves are of high frequency.

They can travel in all mediums.

Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases

Their velocity depends on shear strength or elasticity of the material.

[We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few

exceptions. For example: Mercury (liquid metal) has density greater than Iron but speed of

sound in mercury is lesser compared to that in iron. This is because the shear strength of

mercury is very low (this is why mercury is liquid) compared to that of iron.]

The shadow zone for ‘P’ waves is an area that corresponds to an angle between 1030 and

1420


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This gives clues about Solid inner core

Secondary Waves (S waves)

Also called as transverse or distortional waves.

Analogous to water ripples or light waves.

S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.

A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or gases.

These waves are of high frequency waves.

Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of

the Earth's crust, mantle.

The shadow zone of 'S' waves extends almost halfway around the globe from the

earthquake's focus.

The shadow zone for ‘S’ waves is an area that corresponds to an angle between 1030 and

1800

This observation led to the discovery of liquid outer core. Since S waves cannot travel

through liquid, they do not pass through the liquid outer core.


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Surface Waves (L waves)

Also called as long period waves.

The are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse vibration.

Generally affect the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depth.

Develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the epicenter.

They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.

These waves are responsible for most the destructive force of earthquake.

Recoded last on the seismograph.

Propagation of Earthquake Waves

Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or

propagate, they cause vibration in the body of the rocks through which they pass.

P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the

material in the direction of the propagation.

As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and

squeezing of the material.

Other two waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.


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The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the

vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which

they pass.

Emergence of Shadow Zone

Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations.

However, there exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone

is called the ‘shadow zone’.

The study of different events reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether

different shadow zone. Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P and S-waves.

It was observed that seismographs located at any distance within 105 ° from the

epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.

However, the seismographs located beyond 145 ° from epicentre, record the arrival of

P-waves, but not that of S-waves.

Thus, a zone between 105 ° and 145 ° from epicentre was identified as the shadow

zone for both the types of waves. The entire zone beyond 105 ° does not receive S-waves.


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The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone

of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105 ° and 145 ° away from the

epicentre.

The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but it is also a little over 40 per

cent of the earth surface.

But how these properties of ‘P’and ‘S’ waves help in determining the earth’s interior?

Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different

directions.

The variations in the direction of waves are inferred with the help of their record on

seismograph.

Change in densities greatly varies the wave velocity.

By observing the changes in velocity, the density of the earth as a whole can be

estimated.

By the observing the changes in direction of the waves (emergence of shadow zones),

different layers can be identified.

Not important for exam. But if you are a science enthusiast and if you want to know more…

Why does sound wave travel faster in a denser medium whereas light travels slower?

Sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the

medium.

Its velocity in an elastic medium is proportional to the square root of Tension in the

medium.

A higher density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by which

compression and rarefaction can take place. This way the velocity of sound increases

by increase in density.

Light on the other hand is a transverse electromagnetic wave.

It does not depend on the elastic property of the medium in which it travels.

Its velocity in a medium is determined by the electromagnetic (e.g. dielectric)

properties of the medium.

Effective path length on the other hand is increased by an increase in the density and

hence it leads to higher refractive index and lower velocity.


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Why S-waves cannot travel through liquids?

S-waves are shear waves, which move particles perpendicularly to their direction of

propagation.

They can propagate through solid rocks because these rocks have enough shear

strength.

The shear strength is one of the forces that hold the rock together, and prevent it from

falling into pieces.

Liquids do not have the same shear strength: that is why, if you take a glass of water

and suddenly remove the glass, the water will not keep its glass shape and will just

flow away.

In fact, it is just a matter of rigidity: S-waves need a medium rigid enough to

propagate. Hence, S-waves do not propagate through liquids.

Layers of the Earth

Layers of the earth are identified by studying various direct and indirect sources [we

studied this in previous topic]

The structure of the earth's interior is layered. It is made up of several concentric layers

Broadly three layers can be identified—crust, mantle and the core.

Layers based on chemical properties

(1) crust,

(2) mantle, and

(3) core.

http://www.earthobservatory.sg/faq-on-earth-sciences/what-difference-between-body-waves-and-surface-waves-and-between-p-waves-and-s


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The Crust

Crust is the outer thin layer with a total thickness normally between 30-50 km.

The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas. Oceanic crust

is thinner (5-30 km thick) as compared to the continental crust (50-70 km thick).

The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much

as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region.

It forms 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth's volume.


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It is the part of the Earth above the Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity [The boundary

between crust and mantle. It is underlain by the circulating mantle of the

asthenosphere].

The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material (granatic rocks) and below

that lie crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.

The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.

The continents are composed of lighter silicates—silica + aluminium (also called ‘sial—

while the oceans have the heavier silicates—silica + magnesium (also called ‘sima’),

which form a part of the mantle.

Mantle

The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity (35 km) to a depth of 2,900 km.

The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness

ranges from 10-200 km.

The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state.

Extends from Moho-Discontinuity to the outer core.

The density of mantle varies between 2.9 and 3.3.

The density ranges from 3.3 to 5.7 in the lower part.


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It is composed of solid rock and magma.

Forms 16 per cent of the earth's volume.

The outer layer of the mantle is partly simatic while the inner layer is composed of wholly

simatic ultra-basic rocks.

Asthenosphere

The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. The word astheno means

weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400 km. It is the main source of magma that

finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions. It has a density higher than the

crust’s.

Core

Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the earth's surface.

Accounts for 83 per cent of the earth's volume.

Core has the heaviest mineral materials of highest density.

It is composed of nickel and iron [nife]

The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid.

A zone of mixed heavy metals + silicates separates the core from outer layers.


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Seismic Discontinuities

1. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) - separates the crust from the mantle, its average

depth being about 35 km.

2. A soft asthenosphere (highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile). It’s a part of

mantle.

3. Gutenberg Discontinuity - lies between the mantle and the outer core. Below 2900 km

from earth’s surface.


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Geomorphology.1.Earths Interior

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