ENCYCLOPEDIA OFGEOLOGYEDITED BY

RICHARD C. SELLEYL. ROBIN M. COCKSIAN R. PLIMER

ELSEVIERACADEMIC

PRESS

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York OxfordParis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

CONTENTS xxvii

Contents

Volume 1

AFRICAPan-African Orogeny A Kröner, R J SternNorth African Phanerozoic S LüningRift Valley L Frostick

AGGREGATES M A Eden, W J French

ALPS See EUROPE: The Alps

ANALYTICAL METHODSFission Track Analysis B W H HendriksGeochemical Analysis (Including X-ray) R H WardenGeochronological Techniques E A EideGravity / R SmallwoodMineral Analysis N G Ware

ANDES S M Kay, C Mpodozis, V A Ramos

ANTARCTIC B C Storey

ARABIA AND THE GULF / A Al-Jallal, A S Al-Sharhan

ARGENTINA VA Ramos

ASIACentral S G LucasSouth-East / Metcalfe

ASTEROIDS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

ATMOSPHERE EVOLUTION S J Mojzsis

AUSTRALIAProterozoic / M TylerPhanerozoic J J VeeversTasman Orogenic Belt D R Gray, D A Foster

B

BIBLICAL GEOLOGY E Byford

BIODIVERSITY A W Owen

BIOLOGICAL RADIATIONS AND SPECIATION P L Forey

BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS M R Walter, A C Allwood

BIOZONES N MacLeod

BRAZIL F F Alkmim, M A Martins-Neto

BUILDING STONE A W Hatheway

11226

34

43547792

107

118

132

140

153

164169

197

208222237

253

259

266

279

294

306

328

A

xxviii CONTENTS

CALEDONIDE OROGENY See EUROPE: Caledonides Britain and Ireland; ScandinavianCaledonides (with Greenland)

CARBON CYCLE G A Shields 335

CHINA AND MONGOLIA H Wang, Shihong Zhang, Guoqi He 345

CLAY MINERALS / M Huggett 358

CLAYS, ECONOMIC USES Y Fuchs 366

COCCOLITHS See CALCAREOUS ALGAE

COLONIAL SURVEYS A J Reedman 370

COMETS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

CONSERVATION OF GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS L Cornish, G Comerford 373

CREATIONISM E Scott 381

DELTAS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deltas

DENDROCHRONOLOGY M Bridge 387

DESERTS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deserts

DIAGENESIS, OVERVIEW R C Selley 393

DINOSAURS See FOSSIL VERTEBRATES: Dinosaurs

EARTHMantle GJH McCall 397Crust GJHMcCall 403Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles) H Palike 410

EARTH STRUCTURE AND ORIGINS GJH McCall 421

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE R C Selley 430

EARTHQUAKES See ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Aspects of Earthquakes;TECTONICS: Earthquakes

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY G R Davis 434

ENGINEERING GEOLOGYOverview M S Rosenbaum 444Codes of Practice D Nor bury Aspects of Earthquakes A W Hatheway 456Geological Maps / S GriffithsGeomorphology £ M Lee, J S Griffiths, P G Fookes 474Geophysics / K Gascoyne, A S Eriksen 482Seismology J J Bommer, D M Boore 499Natural and Anthropogenic Geohazards G J H McCall 515Liquefaction / F Bird, R W Boulanger, IM Idriss 525Made Ground / A Charles 535

c

D

E

448

463

CONTENTS xxix

Problematic Rocks F G Bell 543Problematic Soils F G Bell 554Rock Properties and Their Assessment F G Bell 566Site and Ground Investigation / R Greenwood 580

Volume 2

ENGINEERING GEOLOGYSite Classification A W Hatheway 1Subsidence A B Hawkins 9Ground Water Monitoring at Solid Waste Landfills / W Oneacre, D Figueras 14

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY W E Dubbin 21

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY P Doyle 25

EROSION See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; AeolianProcesses; Fluxes and Budgets

EUROPEEast European Craton R G Garetsky, S V Bogdanova, R Gorbatschev 34Timanides of Northern Russia D G Gee 49Caledonides of Britain and Ireland R A Strachan , J F Dewey 56Scandinavian Caledonides (with Greenland) D G Gee 64Variscan Orogeny W Franke, P Matte, J Tait 75The Urals D Brown, H Echtler 86Permian Basins A Henk, M J Timmerman 95Permian to Recent Evolution PA Ziegler 102The Alps O AP fiffnerMediterranean Tectonics £ Carminati, C Doglioni 135

160

FAKE FOSSILS D M Martill 169

FAMOUS GEOLOGISTSAgassiz D R Oldroyd 174Cuvier G Laurent 179Darwin D R Oldroyd 184Du Toit / C Loock, D F Branagan 188Hall R H Dott, JrHutton D R Oldroyd 200Lyell D R Oldroyd 206Murchison D R Oldroyd 210Sedgwick D R Oldroyd 216Smith D R Oldroyd 221Steno / M Hansen 226Suess B Fritscher 233Walther I Seibold 242Wegener B Fritscher 246

FLUID INCLUSIONS A H Rankin 253

F

194

Holocent W Lemke, J HarffA 147

160EVOLUTION S Rigby, E MEharper

169FAKEFOSSILS D I Martill

125

xxx CONTENTS

FORENSIC GEOLOGY K Pye 261

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATESArthropods LI Anderson 274Trilobites A WA Rushton 281Insects E A Jarzembowski 295Brachiopods D AT Harper 301Bryozoans P D Taylor 310Corals and Other Cnidaria C T Scrutton 321Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids) A B Smith 334Crinoids M / Simms 342Echinoids A B Smith 350Graptolites R B Richards 357Molluscs Overview N J Morris 367Bivalves E M Harper 369Gastropods / Fry da 378Cephalopods (Other Than Ammonites) P Doyle 389Ammonites G E G Westermann 396Porifera / K Rigby 408

FOSSIL PLANTSAngiosperms P Kenrick 418Calcareous Algae / C Braga, R Riding 428Fungi and Lichens T N Taylor, M Krings 436Gymnosperms P Kenrick 443

FOSSIL VERTEBRATESJawless Fish-Like Vertebrates D K Elliott 454Fish / A Long 462Palaeozoic Non-Amniote Tetrapods / A Clack 468Reptiles Other Than Dinosaurs R R Reisz 479Dinosaurs A M Yates 490Birds G / Dyke, L M Chiappe 497Swimming Reptiles G W Storrs 502Flying Reptiles D Naish, D M Martill 508Mesozoic Amphibians and Other Non-Amniote Tetrapods A R Milner 516Cenozoic Amphibians A R Milner 523Mesozoic Mammals Z-X Luo 527Placental Mammals D R Prothero 535Hominids L R M Cocks 541

Volume 3

GGAIA GJHMcCall

GEMSTONES C Oldershaw 6

GEOARCHAEOLOGY L Joyner 14

GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION £ M Cameron 21

GEOLOGICAL CONSERVATION / E Gordon 29

GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING A K Turner 35

1

CONTENTS xxxi

GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING P Canard 43

GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION A Maltman 53

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES G L Merries Davies 60

GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS P M Allen 65

GEOLOGY, THE PROFESSION G L Jones 73

GEOLOGY OF BEER S J Cribb 78

GEOLOGY OF WHISKY S J Cribb 82

GEOLOGY OF WINE / M Hancock† 85

GEOMORPHOLOGY P H Rahn 90

GEOMYTHOLOGY A Mayor 96

GEOPHYSICS See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles); EARTHSYSTEM SCIENCE; ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Seismology;MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY; MOHO DISCONTINUITY; PALAEOMAGNETISM;PETROLEUM GEOLOGY: Exploration; REMOTE SENSING: Active Sensors; CIS;Passive Sensors; SEISMIC SURVEYS; TECTONICS: Seismic Structure at Mid-OceanRidges

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING D P Giles 100

GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS G J H McCall 105

GLACIERS See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Glaciers

GOLD MAMcKibben 118

GONDWANALAND AND GONDWANA J J Veevers 128

GRANITE See IGNEOUS ROCKS: Granite

GRENVILLIAN OROGENY R P Tollo 155

H

HERCYNIAN OROGENY See EUROPE: Variscan Orogeny

HIMALAYAS See INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY UP TO 1780 O Puche-Riart 167

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1780 TO 1835 D R Oldroyd 173

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1835 TO 1900 D R Oldroyd 179

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1900 TO 1962 D F Branagan 185

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY SINCE 1962 U B Marvin 197

I

IGNEOUS PROCESSES P D Asimow 209

IGNEOUS ROCKSCarbonatites K Bell 217Granite AIS Kemp 233

Deceased

85

xxxii CONTENTS

Kimberlite GJH McCall 247Komatiite N TArndt, C M Lesher 260Obsidian G / H McCall 267

IMPACT STRUCTURES RAF Grieve 277

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT A B Roy 285

JAPAN / Tazawa 297

JUPITER See SOLAR SYSTEM: Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons

LAGERSTÄTTEN S E Gabbott 307

LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES M F Coffin, O Eldholm 315

LAVA N Geshi 323

M

MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY S G Lucas 331

MANTLE PLUMES AND HOT SPOTS D Suetsugu, T Kogiso, B Steinberger 335

MARS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Mars

MERCURY See SOLAR SYSTEM: Mercury

MESOZOICTriassic S G Lucas, M J Orchard 344Jurassic K N Page 352Cretaceous N MacLeod 360End Cretaceous Extinctions N MacLeod 372

METAMORPHIC ROCKSClassification, Nomenclature and Formation G Hoinkes, C A Hauzenberger, R Schmid 386Facies and Zones K Bucher 402PTt-Paths PJ O'Brien 409

METEORITES See SOLAR SYSTEM: Meteorites

MICROFOSSILSAcritarchs K J Doming 418Chitinozoa F Paris, J Verniers 428Conodonts R J Aldridge 440Foraminifera M A Kaminski 448Ostracoda D / Home 453Palynology P Coxon, G Clayton 464

MICROPALAEONTOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES I J Slipper 470

MILANKOVITCH CYCLES See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including MilankovitchCycles)

MILITARY GEOLOGY EPF Rose 475

MINERAL DEPOSITS AND THEIR GENESIS G R Davis 488

J

L

470

CONTENTS xxxiii

MINERALSDefinition and Classification E H Nickel 498Amphiboles R A Howie 503Arsenates K Hudson-Edwards 506Borates C Helvaci 510Carbonates B Jones 522Chromates PA Williams 532Feldspars R A Howie 534Feldspathoids M D Welch 539Glauconites J M Huggett 542Micas R A Howie 548Molybdates P A Williams 551Native Elements P A Williams 553Nitrates PA Williams 555Olivines G Cressey, R A Howie 557Other Silicates R A Howie 561Phosphates See SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: PhosphatesPyroxenes R A Howie 567Quartz R A Howie 569Sulphates G Cressey 572Sulphides D J Vaughan 574Tungstates P A Williams 586Vanadates P A Williams 588Zeolites W S Wise 591Zircons G J H McCall 601

MINING GEOLOGYExploration Boreholes M Vanecek 609Exploration N C White 613Mineral Reserves M Vanecek 623Hydrothermal Ores M A McKibben 628Magmatic Ores / £ Mungall 637

MOHO DISCONTINUITY P Giese 645

MOON See SOLAR SYSTEM: Moon

Volume 4

N

NEW ZEALAND N Mortimer

NORTH AMERICAPrecambrian Continental Nucleus W Bleeker 8Continental Interior D F Merriam 21Northern Cordillera J W H Monger, R A Price, W J Nokleberg 36Southern Cordillera AWSnoke 48Ouachitas K C Nielsen 61Southern and Central Appalachians R D Hatcher, Jr 72Northern Appalachians C R van Staal 81Atlantic Margin D R Hutchinson 92

1

36

542

506

498

xxxiv CONTENTS

OCEANIA (INCLUDING FIJI, PNG AND SOLOMONS) H Davies, P Bani, P Black,I Smith, E Garaebiti, P Rodda 109

ORIGIN OF LIFE / Bailey 123

PALAEOCLIMATES B W Sellwood, P J Valdes 131

PALAEOECOLOGY E M Harper, S Rigby 140

PALAEOMAGNETISM T H Torsvik 147

PALAEONTOLOGY L R M Cocks 156

PALAEOPATHOLOGY S G Lucas 160

PALAEOZOICCambrian N C Hughes, N A Heim 163Ordovician R A Fortey 175Silurian L R M Cocks 184Devonian G R McGhee 194Carboniferous A C Scott 200Permian P B Wignall 214End Permian Extinctions RJ Twitchett 219

PANGAEA S G Lucas 225

PETROLEUM GEOLOGYOverview / Gluyas 229Chemical and Physical Properties C Clayton 248Gas Hydrates M Hovland 261The Petroleum System C Cornford 268Exploration / R Parker 295Production KJ Weber, L C van Geuns 308Reserves R Arnott 331

PLATE TECTONICS R C Searle 340

PRECAMBRIANOverview L R M Cocks 350Eukaryote Fossils S Xiao 354Prokaryote Fossils M D Brasier 363Vendian and Ediacaran MAS McMenamin 371

PSEUDOFOSSILS D M Martill 382

PYROCLASTICS R J Brown, E S Calder 386

Q

QUARRYING A W Hatheway 399

REEFS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Reefs ("Build-Ups")

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM A Feenstra, G Franz 407

o

p

R

371

268

CONTENTS xxxv

REMOTE SENSINGActive Sensors G Wadge 414CIS P J Mason 420Passive Sensors / G Liu 431

RIFT VALLEYS See AFRICA: Rift Valley

ROCK MECHANICS JP Harrison 440

ROCKS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION R C Selley 452

RUSSIA A S Yakubchuk, A M Nikishin 456

SATURN See SOLAR SYSTEM: Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons

SEAMOUNTS S M White 475

SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTSDepositional Systems and Fades J Collinson 485Alluvial Fans, Alluvial Sediments and Settings K D Jäger 492Anoxic Environments P B Wignall 495Carbonate Shorelines and Shelves D W J Bosence 501Contourites M Rebesco 513Deltas T Elliott 528Deserts N P Mountney 539Lake Processes and Deposits M R Talbot 550Reefs ('Build-Ups') B W Sellwood 562Shoreline and Shoreface Deposits J How ell 570Storms and Storm Deposits P Myrow 580

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSESErosional Sedimentary Structures J Collinson 587Depositional Sedimentary Structures / Collinson 593Post-Depositional Sedimentary Structures / Collinson 602Aeolian Processes N Lancaster 612Catastrophic Floods A J Russell 628Deep Water Processes and Deposits D J W Piper 641Fluvial Geomorphology / Lewin, P A Brewer 650Glaciers M / Hambrey, N F Glasser 663Karst and Palaeokarst M J Simms 678Landslides S F Burns 687

Volume 5

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSESParticle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes M Felix, W McCaffrey 1Deposition from Suspension IN McCave 8Fluxes and Budgets L Frostick 17

SEDIMENTARY ROCKSMineralogy and Classification R C Selley 25Banded Iron Formations A Trendall 37Chalk / R Ineson, L Stemmerik, F Surlyk 42Chert N H Trewin, S R Payers 51

s

1

xxxvi CONTENTS

Clays and Their Diagenesis / M HuggettDeep Ocean Pelagic Oozes R G RothwellDolomites H G MachelEvaporites A C KendallIronstones W E G TaylorLimestones R C SelleyOceanic Manganese Deposits D S CronanPhosphates W D BirchRudaceous Rocks / McManusSandstones, Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution J Gluyas

SEISMIC SURVEYS M Bacon

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY P P Mclaughlin, Jr

SHIELDS K C Condie

SHOCK METAMORPHISM P S DeCarli

SOIL MECHANICS / Atkinson

SOILSModern G J RetallackPalaeosols G J Retallack

SOLAR SYSTEMThe Sun K R LangAsteroids, Comets and Space Dust P MooreMeteorites G J H McCallMercury G J H McCallVenus M A Ivanov, J W HeadMoon P MooreMars M R Walter, A J Brown, S A ChamberlainJupiter, Saturn and Their Moons P MooreNeptune, Pluto and Uranus P Moore

SPACE DUST See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

STRATIGRAPHICAL PRINCIPLES N MacLeod

STROMATOLITES See BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS

SUN See SOLAR SYSTEM: The Sun

6270799497

107113120129141

151

159

173

179

184

194203

209220228238244264272282289

295

TECTONICSConvergent Plate Boundaries and Accretionary Wedges G K Westbrook 307Earthquakes G J H McCall 318Faults S Stein 330Folding / W Cosgrove 339Fractures (Including Joints) / W Cosgrove 352Hydrothermal Activity R P Lowell, P A Rona 362Mid-Ocean Ridges K C Macdonald 372Hydrothermal Vents At Mid-Ocean Ridges R M Haymon 388Propagating Rifts and Microplates At Mid-Ocean Ridges R N Hey 396Seismic Structure At Mid-Ocean Ridges S M Carbotte 405Mountain Building and Orogeny M Searle 417Neotectonics I Stewart 425

T

CONTENTS xxxvii

Ocean Trenches R J Stern 428Rift Valleys L Frostick 437

TEKTITES G J H McCall 443

TERRANES OVERVIEW L R M Cocks 455

TERTIARY TO PRESENTPaleocene J J Hooker 459Eocene / / Hooker 466Oligocene D R Prothero 472Miocene J M Theodor 478Pliocene C Soligo 486Pleistocene and The Ice Age A Currant 493

THERMAL METAMORPHISM R Abart, R Milke 499

TIME SCALE F M Gradstein, J G Ogg 503

TRACE FOSSILS P J Orr 520

uULTRA HIGH PRESSURE METAMORPHISM H-J Massonne 533

UNCONFORMITIES A R Wyatt 541

UNIDIRECTIONAL AQUEOUS FLOW / Best 548

URALS See EUROPE: The Urals

URBAN GEOLOGY A W Hatheway 557

VENUS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Venus

VOLCANOES G J H McCall 565

W

WEATHERING W B Whalley, P A Warke 5 81

Index 591

V

557

533

478

459

NOTE

Bold page number locators refer to complete articles on the various topics covered by this encyclopedia.Illustrations and tables are indicated by italic page numbers.

Text is located by page numbers in normal print.

Cross references, prefixed by see and see also, are also listed at the end of each article.

a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:32 6£ 5:567-569,S:571f

Aalenian stage 3:352t, 3:354f, 4:460-461Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99f

Aar uplift 2:134fAbathomphalus mayroensis 3:373Abel, Othenio 2:235Abereiddian stage 4:183 fabernathyite 3:508fAbitibi Belt, Canada 5:39Absaroka sequence, North America 4:25,

4:26f, 4:27f9 4:28absolute ages 1:77, 1:78, l:82t, 4:202f,

4:203abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386fAcadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:88, 4:90f,

4:91Acanthodes 2:465acanthodians 2:465Acanthostega

cladogram 2:47Ofglobal distribution 2:472flimbs 2:471fphysical appearance 2:467, 2:469skeletal material 2:47If

Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429, 4:10f,4:13f,4:15f, 4:350

accreted terranesEast European Craton 4:458f, 4:459fNew Zealand 4:5fpalaeoterranes 5:455Russia 4:469fsouthern Cordillera 4:53Uralide orogeny 2:88, 2:89f

accretionary lapilli 4:387t, 4:390taccretionary wedges 5:307-317

Annieopsquotch accretionary tract 4:82f,4:85, 4:87f, 4:89

controlling factors 5:31 Itcritical taper 5:309fdecollement 5:309, 5:309f, 5:310f,

5:311f95:315f,5:316f95:315f,5:316f95:315f,5:316fEast European Craton 4:459ffluid flow 5:312, 5:313f

fluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f,5:311f, 5:315, 5:316f

formation processes 5:307, 5:308f,5:309, 5:310f, S:311f

methane hydrates 5:312, 5:314fNew Zealand 4:5fobduction 5:315oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316foccurrences 5:307ocean trenches 5:430?, 5:431-432, 5:435fOuachita Mountains 4:70-71Russia 4:468, 4:469fsediment thickness 5:311, 5:312fseeps and vents 5:312Siberian craton 4:462/", 4:463stability 5:3 09fsubcretion 5.-309/", 5:314tectonic erosion

background information 5:313basement topography 5:314, 5:315ffluid pressure effects 5:315, 5:316f

turbidites5:310f,5:311fAcer trilobatum 2:419fAcetabularia 2:433achondrites 5:23It, 5:234facid rain 1:255, 3:383Aconcagua 1:127, 1:153, l:155facritarchs 3:418-428

applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425Cambrian 4:169fclassification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359extraction methods 3:473late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356/", 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419 f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:421fprocesses 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422fwall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution 3:426,

3:426f, 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427

palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fpreservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f, 4:191

Acropora palmata 4:506f, 4:507Acropora palmata 4:506f, 4:507Actinoceras 2:391f, 2:392Actinoceratids 2:391f, 2:392actinolite 3:397,3:398 f, 3:401 f, 3:403,3:505actinopterygians 2:466active sensors 4:414

background information 4:414lidar 4:414, 4:415fradar

altimetry 4:415applications

earthquakes 4:418ground motion measurements

4:417, 4:418froughness mapping 4:416structural/geomorphological

mapping 4:416subsidence 4:419tectonic processes 4:418volcanism 4:419, 4:419f

Doppler radar 4:415general discussion 4:414imaging radars 4:415operating geometries 4:415fradar amplitude images 4:415, 4:417fsynthetic aperture radar systems

4:415t, 4:417, 4:418fsensing techniques 4:414sonar 4:414, 4:415f

active tectonics 5:425Actonian substage 4:183 fadakites 1:119-120, l:125f, 1:157-158,

1:350Adamanian faunachron 3:345fadamite 3:508t, 3:508fAdelaidean stage 1:242Adelaide Rift Complex l:215f, 1:220,

1:245, 1:248 fadelite 3:508fadelogyrinids 2:475adenine 2:161, 2:162fAdirondack Massif 3:155-156, 3:157f,

3:158f,3:159f,3:163fAdriatic Sea 2:125, 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656adularia 3:535Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR) 4:616

Index

A

592 INDEX

Advanced Visible Infrared ImageSpectrometer (AVIRIS) 4:438, 4:438t

Aegean stage 3:34Sfaegerine/aegirine 3:221t, 3:567Aegir Ridge 1:101 fAegir Sea 4:155f, 4:155-156, 4:353f,

4:354, 5:455aeolianites 4:134aeolian systems 4:612-627

accumulation processes 4:623, 4:623faeolian deposits

desert pavement (reg) 4:626general discussion 4:616loess l:528t, 1:555-556, l:556f, 3:94,

4:2^,4:616, 4:617fsand dunes

aeolian placers 3:604dune processes 4:620general discussion 4:618lamination 4:599linear trends 4:622fliquefaction 1:5 28tmorphology 4:540, 4:541f, 4:619frelict dune systems 4:625fsedimentary structures 4:621^

4:622sediment characteristics 4:622wind variability 4:620f

sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,4:622f

wind ripples 4:618background information 4:612climatic effects 4:626controlling factors 4:624fdust deposition 4:626/", 4:627Mojave Desert, United States 4:624fpreservation 4:623, 4:623fsand dunes

aeolian placers 3:604dune processes 4:620general description 4:618lamination 4:599linear trends 4:622fliquefaction l:528tmorphology 4:540, 4:541f, 4:619fpetroleum reservoirs 4:235trelict dune systems 4:625fsedimentary structures 4:621 f, 4:622sediment characteristics 4:622wind variability 4:620f

sea-level changes 4:626, 4:626fwind

creep (reptation) 4:612-614, 4:613ferosion processes

agricultural lands 4:614fdust storms 4:616, 4:616f, 4:617f,

5:21, 5:273, 5:274/general discussion 4:615landforms 4:615, 4:615fMars 5:273, 5:274f

particle size 4:613fsaltation 4:612-614, 4:613fsediment transport 4:612suspension processes 4:612-614,

4:613 f

transport modes 4:613 fwind profiles 4:612fwind shear velocity 4:613f

aerial photographycolonial surveys 1:372engineering geomorphology 1:476field mapping 3:44geoarchaeology 3:16mineral exploration 3:616tpassive sensors 4:432

Aeronian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f, 4:187f,5:511f,5:517f

Aerosaurus 2:486-487Aethocrinus moorei 2:346, 2:346fAfar Triple Junction 5:481-482Afghanistan 3:7t, 3:12, 3:344, 4:215-216Africa

Carboniferous glaciation 4:208fgemstones 3:7tGondwana 3:128Homininae 5:49Itmarine reptiles 2:504-505Miocene

evaporites 1:24mammals 5:484Oligo-Miocene rifting 1:17tectonic processes 5:481

Namibia 4:164North Africa 1:12-25

Atlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, l:16f,1:17

background information 1:12black shales 1:21, l:22fCambrian l:14f, I:15f9 1:18, l:18f,

1:19 fCarboniferous l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f,

1:21Cretaceous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:22f,

l:23,l:23f,l:24fdepositional history

Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, l:18f,Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, l:18f,l:19f,l:20fl:19f,l:20f

Campanian-Maastrichtian 1:22f,1:23, 1:24, l:24f

Carboniferous l:19f, 1:21Cenomanian-Turonian boundary

l:22f, 1:23Cretaceous 1:19f, I:22f9 1:23,1:23f,

1:24 fDevonian l:19f, l:20f, 1:21, l:22fEocene 1:24, l:24fevaporites 1:21, 1:24Holocene 1:25Infracambrian 1:17, 1:19 fJurassic 1:19 f, 1:23, 1:23 fMiocene 1:24nummulitic limestones 1:24, 1:24fPermo-Triassic l:19f, 1:21Silurian 1:18, 1:19f, l:20f, l:22f

Devonian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,l:21,l:22f

Eocene 1:24, l:24fglaciation 1:18Holocene 1:25Jurassic l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f, 1:23,1:23f

Miocene 1:17, 1:24Oligocene 1:17Ordovician l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19 f, 1:20 fPermian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21petroleum reserves 1:12, l:14f, 1:24Phanerozoic chronostratigraphy 1:14frift valleys 1:16, l:16f, 1:17Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17,

1:23sedimentary basins 1:13, l:13fSilurian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,

l:20f, l:22fstructural evolution

Alpine Orogeny 1:17general discussion 1:13Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, 1:16fInfracambrian tectonic processes

1:13Mesozoic extensional phase 1:16,

l:16fOligo-Miocene rifting 1:17post-Infracambrian/pre-Hercynian

tectonic processes 1:13tectonic map 1:15f

Tertiary I:14f9 l:15f9 l:15fTriassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17

Oligocene 5:476Pan-African orogeny 1:1-12

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3f,l:4f, l:5f

background information 1:1belt distribution l:2fCambrian 4:165central Africa 1:10, l:llfDamara Belt I:2f9 1:7Gariep Belt l:2f, 1:8Gondwana correlations 1:11Kaoko Belt l:2f, 1:9LufilianArcL-2/;i:7, l:8fMadagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7fMozambique Belt I:2f9 l:3f, 1:4, l:5f,

1:7fnorth-eastern Africa 1:10Phanerozoic 1:307-308, l:308fPrecambrian 4:378pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3fRokelide Belt l:2f, 1:10Saldania Belt l:2f, 1:8Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, l:10fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:53 6fWest Congo Belt l:2f, 1:9Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, l:8f

Pliocene 5:49ItAgadir fault 2:97agardite 3:508fAgassiz, Louis 2:174-179

Buckland, William 2:177catastrophism 2:177Cuvier, Georges 2:174Discours de Neuchdtel 2:176early career 2:174Etudes sur les Glaciers 2:176

INDEX 593

Agassiz, Louis (continued)evolutionary theories 2:178fossil fish research 2:175glaciation 1:430, 2:209, 3:181, 4:663,

5:493glaciation research 2:176, 2:177fGreat Lakes glaciation 2:178Harvard career 2:175Lepisosteus 2:176Lyell, Charles 2:175, 2:177-178major publications 2:176Murchison, Roderick 2:177-178Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Harvard University 2:175National Academy of Sciences 2:175portrait 2:175fpublications 3:62research publications 2:176taxonomic classification system

2:175-176tropical glaciation 2:178Wollaston Medals 3:62

agates 3:13, 5:60-61Agenian mammalian age 5:479faggregates 1:34-43

applicationsbituminous construction materials

1:41concrete 1:42mortar 1:42railway track ballasts 1:41unbound pavement construction 1:42

background information 1:34, 4:399classification 1:34, 1:36extraction methods 1:35grading process 1:36, 1:37finvestigation process 1:35military geology 3:478particle shape

elongation index (British Standard812) 1:38

examples 1:3 8fflakiness index (British Standard 812)

1:38general discussion 1:38

petrographic studies 1:38, 1:39fsources 1:34, 1:35testing procedures

abrasion value (British Standard 812)1:40

chemical tests 1:41concrete prism test 1:41crushing value (British Standard 812)

1:40density 1:39Franklin point load strength 1:40,

1:575, L-576*, 1:577ffreeze-thaw test 1:40general discussion 1:39impact value (British Standard 812)

1:39Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM

C131/C535) 1:40magnesium sulphate soundness test

(British Standard 812) 1:40

methylene blue absorption test 1:41Micro Deval test 1:40mortar bar test 1:41polished stone value (British Standard

812, part 114) 1:40Schmidt Rebound Hammer value 1:40slake durability test 1:41, 1:577,

1:577f10% fines value (British Standard 812)

1:40water absorption 1:39

Aglaophyton major 2:438f, 2:439fagnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462Agricola 3:497, 3:500Agulhas Ridge 3:316tAiken, Sarah 2:195Ainiktozoon loganense 2:280fAiry, George 1:98, 3:183aistopods 2:473/", 2:475Akidograptus acuminatus 4:176akimotite 5:183tAlabama, United States 4:72, 4:73falabandite (MnS) 3:575;Alamo impact event 4:199Alaska, United States 3:123, 3:237*, 4:8,

4:36-47, 5:466, 5:476Alaunian stage 3:345fAlbanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:521f, 2:523, 2:525,

2:526fAlbania 3:237tAlbany Fraser Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211,

l:213f, l:214f, 1:219, l:239f, 3:164f,4:352

albedolarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:320fMercury 5:239-240soils 3:85-87

Albemarle canyon 4:106fAlberti, Frederich August von 3:344Albian-Cenomanian boundary 1:326,

3:147Albian stage

anoxic events 3:363Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil l:322f, l:324f, 1:325f, 1:326chronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364, 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3:370f, 3:383f

albite 3:235*, 3:243f, 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535,albite 3:235*, 3:243f, 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535,3:631-632, 5:533f

alchemy 3:168Alcudian stage 4:167fAldan-Stanovoy Shield 4:461

alder flies 2:300*aldermanite 5:126Aldrin, E. 5:266*Aleutian Islands 3:237*, 4:45Aleutian Range 4:45Aleutians Trench 5:430*, 5:43 OfAleutian-Wrangell magmatic arc 4:38Alexander Island 3:154Alexander terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46alfisols 5:^96*, 5:199, 5:200algae

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425classification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:421fprocesses 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422/wall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426/, 3:427/Palaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427preservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f

biokarst 4:680-681, 4:681fcalcareous algae 2:428-436

Archaeolithophyllum 2:435fbackground information 2:428calcified cyanobacteria 2:434, 2:435fcarbonate sedimentation 3:524f, 3:529Cayeuxia 2:435fchlorophyta (green algae)

charophyceae 2:433, 2:434fcyclocriniteae 2:433dasycladales 2:432, 2:433fHalimeda 2:432, 2:432fhalimedales 2:432

coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:431fextraction methods 3:471, 3:472fgymnocodiaceae 2:434haptophyta 2:430, 2:431fLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383^Palaeocene 2:433/i 5:462Phanerozoic 2:428, 2:428fphylloid algae 2:434, 2:435freef environments 2:243, 2:244,

2:428, 2:429frhodophyta (red algae)

corallinales 2:428, 2:429fLithothamnion 2:429fpeyssonneliaceae 2:430, 2:430fPolystrata 2:430f

594 INDEX

algae (continued]solenoporaceae 2:429, 2:430fSolenoporella 2:430f

shorelines and shelves 4:506stratigraphic range 2:428f

Carboniferous 4:212dinoflagellates 5:462Doushantuo Formation, China 4:360,

4:361feukaryotes

early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:3S9fgreen algae 4:358-359, 4:359f, 4:360late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:358red algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:360, 4:361f

Jurassic 3:355, 3:356lichens 2:441Miocene 5:482Oligocene 5:476shorelines and shelves 4:506stramenopile algae 4:358, 4:360Vendian 4:376

Algeria 1:12-25, 5:236alkanes 4:248, 4:249fallargentum 3:553, 3:553?Alleghanian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:79,

4:88-89, 4:90f9 4:91Allen, John 3:189Allochthon Boundary Thrust 3:162allochthonous (detrital) sediments

classification 5:26, 5:26tconglomerates 5:26general discussion 5:26sandstones 5:27, 5:2 7f

allocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490allogromids 3:45Ofallophane 1:561Allosaurus 2:493falloys 3:18, 3:19f, 3:553-554alluvial environments 4:492-494

alluvial fansdeserts 4:540, 4:541f9 4:542facies analysis 4:489foccurrence 4:492petroleum reservoirs 4:23Strudaceous rocks 5:135, 5:138f

alluvions 4:492alluvium

densities 5:321fground subsidence 2:13physical properties l:483tshock metamorphic effects 5:180t

anthropogenic impact 4:493colluvial fans 4:492composition factors 4:492fluvial deposits 4:493Holocene 4:493Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP)

3:285, 3:296liquefaction 1:5 28tnomenclature 4:492riverine deposits 4:492sequence stratigraphy 5:166-167shorelines and shelves 4:57IfSouth-east Asia 1:178f

stratigraphic dating 4:492almandine 3:561Alpha-Mendeleyev Ridge 3:316tAlphonso X 3:168Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,

4:471Alportian subdivision 4:202fAlps 2:125-135

alpine nappe structuresgeneral discussion 2:129internal deformation 2:130, 2:13If,

2:132fSuess, Eduard 2:241, 2:241fthrust faults 2:130, 2:130f9 2:131f

Alpine-type mountain building 5:420,5:42 If

Central Alps 2:117, 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:654, 3:655f

Eastern Alps 2:128f, 2:129, 2:133-135gemstones 3:12geomorphology 2:125, 2:126fmountain-building processes

crystalline basement rocks 2:133'fgeneral discussion 2:132erogenic process 2:134fsubduction zones 2:133fSuess, Eduard 2:235

Oligocene 5:477orogenic events 2:136, 2:13 7fpalaeogeodynamics 2:138'f, 2:139f,

2:140f, 2:142fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:127f,

2:77fPliocene 5:488rock types 2:127structure 3:65Ofsubsurface geological structure

Central Alps 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:655f

Eastern Alps 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135Western Alps 2:127, 2:128f,

2:133-135tectonic processes 2:136tectonic units

Adriatic margin 2:125, 2:128f, 2:132,2:132f

Eurasian plate 2:125European margin 2:125, 2:128f,

2:132, 2:132fgeneral discussion 2:125Penninic nappes 2:126-127tectonic map 2:126f

ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks5:536f, 5:537

Variscides Orogeny 2:75Western Alps 2:117, 2:133-135

Alquist-Priolo Act 1:458Altaid Collage 4:458f, 4:465Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fAltai Mountains 4:456Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:122f, l:123f,

1:126, 1:153Alto Paranaiba Arch, Brazil 1:309, 1:309fAluk Plate 5:462aluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562f

aluminum (Al)carbonatites 3:223?crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174tglauconite 3:542?kimberlites 3:248tmineral analysis l:108tnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554obsidian 3:269?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tVenus 5:247?

alumotungstite ((W,A1)(O,OH)3) 3:557?alunite 3:631-632alvanite((Zn,Ni)Al4(VO3)2(OH)12-2H2O)

3:559?alvikite 3:220-221Amadeus Basin 3:139amalgams 3:119?, 3:553-554Amalthea 5:254?, 5:285Amazonas basin l:316f, l:317f, 3:129Amazon craton

background information 1:307banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 3:128general discussion 1:311orogenic belts 3:164fschematic map 1:311 fsuture zones 1:312ftectonic map l:307f, 3:132f

Amazon River 4:651?, 5:19?, 5:20famber 2:172, 2:274-275, 2:275 fAmbulararia 2:335ameghinite (NaB3O5-2H2O) 3:513?American Association for the Advancement

of Science 2:195, 3:64American Association of Geologists 2:195American Association of Petroleum

Geologists 3:190-192, 3:41, 3:64American Institute of Professional

Geologists 3:75, 3:77?Ames impact structure, Iowa, United States

3:284Amgan stage 4:167famicite 3:593?amino acids 4:127ammodiscana 3:45Ifammonia 3:629?ammonioleucite 3:593?ammonites 2:396-407

aptychi 2:398, 2:399farchitecture 2:396background information 2:396bathymetry 2:404, 2:405fblack shales 4:497, 4:499/r

buoyancy 2:402, 2:403fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380ffeeding habits 2:404growth stages 2:399habitat 2:404, 2:406fhydrostatics/hydrodynamics 2:402,

2:403f, 2:40SfJurassic 3:307-308, 3:352, 3:357longevity 2:399Maastrichtian-Danian boundary 3:375f

INDEX 595

ammonites (continued]migration 2:404morphology 2:396, 2:397forganism reconstruction 2:402, 2:403fphylogenetic relationships 2:398, 2:400fpoise 2:402, 2:403fpost-mortem drift 2:404predators 2:404pyritized fossils l:377f, 3:312septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401sexual dimorphism 2:400-401, 2:401fstability 2:403fsutures 2:398, 2:399f, 2:401

ammonoids 3:348f, 3:349amniotes

background information 2:479Carboniferous 4:211-212cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:478phylogenetic relationships 2:480fsynapsids 2:479tetrapods 2:468See also reptiles (Reptilia)

Ampferer, Otto 2:251-252, 3:193amphibians

albanerpetontids 2:521/", 2:523, 2:525,2:526f

caecilians 2:521/", 2:522, 2:525Cenozoic 2:523-526

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525, 2:526fassemblages 2:523caecilians 2:525Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

2:523frogs

general discussion 2:524Latonia gigantea 2:524Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fRana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525f

salamandersAndrias scheuchzeri 2:525fgeneral discussion 2:524Piceoerpeton 2:524-525

Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fend-Permian extinctions 2:516frogs 2:521, 2:521/", 2:524, 2:524f,

2:525fLissamphibia

albanerpetontids 2:521 f, 2:523caecilians 2:521f9 2:522Celtedens ibericus 2:521 fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521 ffrogs 2:521, 2:S21fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521Karaurus sharovi 2:521 fsalamanders 2:52If, 2:522Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fTriadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 fValdotriton gracilis 2:522f

Mesozoic 2:516-523background information 2:516Chroniosuchians 2:520end-Permian extinctions 2:516

fossil assemblages 2:516Lissamphibia

albanerpetontids 2:521 f, 2:523caecilians 2:521 f, 2:522frogs 2:521fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521salamanders 2:521f, 2:522

temnospondylsBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fJurassic 2:520Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520^Plagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,

2:518fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

origins 2:468Pleistocene glaciations 2:526Rhytidosteroidea 2:517fsalamanders 2:521f, 2:522, 2:524,

2:525ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fBuettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fJurassic 2:520Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517fMastodonsaurus 2:517fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fSideropskehli2:519fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

amphiboles 3:503-506carbonatites 3:221tchemical variations 3:505fcrystal structure 3:503, 3:504felement substitution 3:503-504granites 3:235?, 3:242kimberlites 3:254, 3:256t, 3:257fmelting processes 3:21 Ifradiometric dating 3:504spectral data 1:111 fSee also hornblende

amphibolite faciesAppalachians 4:74fcomposition 3:403continental collision tectonics 3:404fdefinition 3:387tmineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401fParis Basin 2:84pressure-temperature conditions 3:403f

regional metamorphism 3:396f, 4:409,4:409f, 4:410,4:413

temperature-depth diagram 3:412fvolatile components 3:407f

Amsbergian subdivision 4:202fAmurian Plate 4:471, 4:472fAnabar Shield 4:461Anadarko Basin 4:32fanagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 fanalcime 3:593tanapaite 5:122anapsids 2:479anaspids 2:458, 2:462Anatolepis 2:455Anatolia 2:144Ancestral Rocky Mountains orogeny 4:52Anchicodium 2:434Anchitherium 5:484ancient landslides 4:690f, 4:691Ancylus Lake 2:150-151, 2:153fandalusite 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241 f,

3:243f, 3:562, 3:562fAndaman Sea 4:53-54Andean Orogen 1:238fandesine 3:534f, 3:535andesites

Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:123f, 1:126Andes Mountains 1:128, 1:157explosive eruption characteristics 4:3871geotechnical properties 1:545tlava/lava flows 3:325, 3:325f, 3:327Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Pyrenees 2:99Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:24Iftridymite 3:571

Andes Mountains 1:118-131Argentina

fold-and-thrust beltsCordillera Principal belt 1:158Fueguian fold-and-thrust belt 1:159general discussion 1:158Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt

l:125f, 1:128, 1:158Santa Barbara fold-and-thrust belt

1:127, 1:158Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt

1:127, 1:158geochemical analysis 1:157fgeological settings 1:153volcanism 1:157

characteristics 1:118Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes

3:246Cretaceous 1:128Eocene 1:127, 1:128, 1:130fore-arc basins 1:118, 1:125, 1:126foreland basins 1:118-131Jurassic 1:128Miocene 1:126, 1:128, 1:130, 5:481morphology

central AndesAconcagua 1:127, 1:153, l:155fAltiplano-Puna Plateau segment

l:122f, l:123f, 1:126, 1:153

596 INDEX

Andes Mountains (continued]Chilean flat slab segment l:122f,

1:127digital elevation map 1:119 f, 1:122fgeneral discussion 1:125Peruvian flat slab segment l:122f,

1:125volcanic zones l:122f, l:123f, 1:126

Nazca Plate 1:119, l:120f, l:125f,1:130

northern AndesColombian Andes I:121f9 1:123digital elevation map l:119f, 1:121 fEcuadorian Andes l:121f, 1:123general discussion 1:121Venezuelan Andes 1:121, l:121f

sedimentary basins 1:123southern Andes

Chile triple junction l:124f, 1:125f,1:128, 1:130-131

digital elevation map 1:119f, 1:124ffore-arc volcanism l:125f, 1:128general discussion 1:127Liquine-Ofqui fault system l:124f,

1:127magmatism 1:128volcanic zones l:124f, 1:125'f,

1:127, 1:128subducting oceanic plates 1:119,

l:119f, l:120fvolcanic zones 1:119, l:120f, l:121f,

l:122f, l:124f, l:125f, l:155fmountain-building processes 5:419,

5:419fNeogene 1:126, 1:130Oligocene 5:477Palaeocene 1:130Palaeogene 1:126, 1:130Pliocene 1:126, 1:130,5:488tectonic evolution

basin formation 1:129batholiths 1:129-130extensional arc systems 1:128fold-and-thrust belts 1:121, 1:126,

1:127, 1:130, 1:158general discussion 1:128Miocene 5:481Neogene 1:130rifting events 1:128

Tertiary 1:125Triassic 1:128

andisolization 5:199andisols 5:196t, 5:199, 5:200andosols 1:561andradite 3:561Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525, 2:525fanemones 2:324Angara

See SiberiaAngaraland 2:238, 2:240fAngaran flora 4:206f9 4:217Angayucham terrane 4:40f, 4:42,

4:46-47angel insects 2:300tAngelosaurus 2:485-486

angiosperms 2:418-427Acer trilobatum 2:419fArchaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,

2:423-424background information 2:418Carboniferous 2:422/", 2:423cell structure 2:420fCenozoic 2:422f, 2:424characteristics 2:418, 2:419fclassification 2:419, 2:421fCretaceous 3:370diversification 2:424, 2:426ffloral diversity 2:419fJurassic 2:422f, 2:423magnoliids2:418, 2:419fMesozoic2:418, 2:422fMiocene

Acer trilobatum 2:419fP or ana oeningensis 2:420 fQuercus 2:420f

Oligocene 2:420forigins 2:420, 2:422fpalaeolatitudes 2:426fPalaeozoic 2:422f, 2:423Palmoxylon 2:420fPermian 2:422fpollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424f, 2:426fpollen-feeding insects 2:426, 2:427fP or ana oeningensis 2:420 fQuercus 2:420fTriassic 2:422f, 2:423water lily 2:42 5'f

Anglaspis 2:464fanglesite (PbSO4) 3:630*Anglian stage 5:496fAngola 3:7*angrites 5:23ItAnbanguera 2:515anhydrite

classification 5:26*densities 5:321fgeotechnical properties 1:552hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,

5:394*hydrothermal vents 5:391occurrence 5:32fporosity 1:5 52t

anilite (Cu7S4) 3:575*Anisian stage 3:345,3:345f, 3:347f, 3:349f,

4:219f, 4:221f9 5:506f, 5:517fankerite (Ca(MgFe)(CO3)2)

carbonatites 3:221thydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632ironstones 5:99limestones 5:108, 5:108tmetamorphic facies 3:401foccurrence 5:108t

ankylosaurs 2:493annabergite 3:508f, 3:509*Annamia 5:455, 5:457fAnnieopsquotch accretionary tract 4:82f,

4:85, 4:87f, 4:89Anning, M. 2:509Anomalocaris 4:379anorthite 3:398f, 3:534f, 3:535

anorthoclase 3:534/~, 3:534-535anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite

(AMCG) suite 3:155-156, 3:159f,3:160, 3:161f

anoxic environments 4:495-501Cretaceous 1:23, 3:363, 3:370-371,

4:497_499

crinoids 2:349dysaerobic assemblages 4:497, 4:498fearly Earth 1:201euxinic environments 4:495-496formation processes 4:499identification process

biofacies 4:497, 4:499fblack shales 4:496-497fossils 4:497, 4:498fgeneral discussion 4:495pyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497f

Jurassic 3:355lakes 4:550-551modern environments 4:495North Africa 1:23oceanic anoxic events 4:497oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ) 4:495,

4:496fsapropels 4:500-501silled basins 4:495, 4:496fSilurian 4:193superanoxic event 4:499upwelling zones 4:495, 4:496f

Ansted, D. T. 3:476-477Antarctica 1:132-140

Antarctic Peninsula I:133f9 l:134f, 1:137Carboniferous 4:208fEast Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135,1:136Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:238fEllsworth Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,

l:133f, l:134f, 1:136Eocene 5:467/i 5:468, 5:470geological map 1:134fglaciation 1:139, 4:208fGondwana 3:128Gondwana breakup event 1:138, 1:138fMarie Byrd Land l:133f, l:134f, 1:137marine reptiles 2:504-505meteorites 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236, 5:236f,

5:237fOligocene 5:474orogenic belts 3:164fPalaeocene 5:460palaeoclimate 1:139palaeosols 5:206fPermian 4:215, 4:218fPermian-Triassic boundary 4:222sharks 2:463-465Silurian 3:129Suess,Eduard 2:238, 2:240fsupercontinents 1:132, 1:133 fThurston Island l:133f, l:134f, 1:137topography 1:132, l:133fTransantarctic Mountains

Reason Supergrooup 1:135general discussion 1:135geological map l:134fmafic sills l:136f

INDEX 597

Antarctica (continued)Ross Orogeny 1:135Theron Mountains l:136ftopography 1:132, 1:133 fTriassic 3:344

tree ferns 4:218fTriassic 3:344, 3:350vegetation 1:136, 1:139volcanism 1:139West Antarctica

HaagNunataks l:134f, 1:136rift system l:134f, 1:139

Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663;, 4:664/", 4:664,4:664;, 4:665f, 5:473-474

Antarctic Plate l:119f, 1:119-120, 1:153anthoinite (WA1(O,OH)3(?)) 3:587tanthophyllite 3:397f, 3:398f, 3:504-505anthophyte hypothesis 2:444-445, 2:445'fAnthozoa

anatomy 2:324fclassification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

anthracite 4:28anthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:47 4f, 2:476f

anthrosolization 5:200anticlines

anticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238 f, 4:240f,4:241f, 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301f

Bashkirian anticline 2:51, 2:90deltas 4:535fold geometry 5:339fhangingwall anticlines 4:535Kamennogorsk anticline 2:51Kvarkush anticline 2:51, 2:55, 2:90Nemaha anticline 4:34fNorth American continental interior

4:34fremote sensing 4:298frollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f, 4:240f,

4:537-539Anticosti Island, Canada 4:187f, 4:190antidunes 4:597antigorite 3:397f, 3:559, 3:566, 3:566fantimony (Sb)

hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tmineral classification systems 3:501t,

3:502tnatural occurrences 3:553;, 3:554soil concentrations 2:22;toxicity 2:22*world production rates 1:438t

Antler orogeny 4:50ants 2:297f, 2:300tApachean faunachron 3:345fApateon 2:476fapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 5:120-128

carbonatites 3:221;, 3:221-222crystal structure 5:123, 5:123ffission track analysis

age determination 1:47, l:48f, 1:49f

alpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:52fannealing process 1:45, l:46f, 5:127etch pits 1:46, 1:47ffission track length 1:48, 1:48ffission tracks 1:45f, 1:46ffossil partial annealing zone 1:45,

l:46fgeneral discussion 1:43thermal history modelling 1:49, l:50f,

l:51furanium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He

dating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127fluorapatite 5:123, 5:124fkimberlites 3:254Lagerstatten 3:312, 3:312fvine nourishment 3:88

apatite-pyromorphite 3:508fApectodinium 5:462, 5:468, 5:470Apedolepis 2:462Apennines 2:125, 2:135-146, 2:235-237Apex Chert, Pilbara region, Western

Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fApidium 2:433Apollo 11 5:266;Apollo 12 5:266;Apollo 13 5:266-267Apollo 14 5:266tApollo 15 5:266£Apollo 16 5:266?Apollo 17 5:266;, 5:2 70fAppalachians

Cambrian 4:76Carboniferous 4:78Devonian 4:78Gondwana 4:72, 4:79granitic rocks 3:237;Laurentia 4:72, 4:73, 4:79Northern Appalachians 4:81-92

Annieopsquotch accretionary tract4:82f, 4:85, 4:89

Avalon tectonostratigraphical zone4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f

Dunnage tectonostratigraphical zone4:82f, 4:84, 4:87f

Exploits tectonostratigraphicalsubzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f

Gander tectonostratigraphical zone4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f

glossary information 4:91granitic rocks 3:236Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:83-84Humber tectonostratigraphical zone

4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fMeguma tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fNotre Dame tectonostratigraphical

subzone 4:82f, 4:84f9 4:85, 4:87forogenesis 4:83Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87,

4:87fPrecambrian basement 4:12tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57f, 4:89,

4:90f

tectonostratigraphical zones 4:81,4:82f

tectonostratigraphic relationships4:84f

Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f

Ordovician 4:76Pangaea 4:74/", 4:79Permian 4:216physiography 4:22fRodinia 4:72, 4:73Silurian 4:78Southern/Central Appalachians 4:72-81

Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Carolina terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:78Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:77Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80figneous processes 4:73, 4:75fmagnetostratigraphy 4:7'6fNeoacadian orogeny 4:78occurrence 4:72origins 4:72passive margin development 4:76,

4:76fphysiographic provinces 4:7'3 fPine Mountain terrane 4:77sedimentary depositional processes

4:73superterranes 4:7'4f, 4:75fSuwannee terrane 4:72, 4:80Taconic orogeny 4:77tectonic evolution 4:74f, 4:75fTugaloo terrane 4:78volcanism 4:73, 4:75f

tectonic map 4:23fWilson Cycle 4:72, 4:74f

apparent polar wander paths 1:85f, 4:153,4:153 f

Appenines 2:126f, 3:650f, 3:654, 3:655fAppinite 3:237;applied geology

geological conservation 3:29-35background information 3:29Earth heritage conservation 3:29geodiversity

environmental impacts 3:31geomorphology 3:30-31geotourism 3:30human impact 3:33importance 3:30public awareness 3:34soils 3:31

site managementsite assessment 3:31site management techniques 3:33sustainable management 3:33

geology as a profession 3:73-78academic education 3:74disciplinary specialties 3:74employment areas

academia 3:75government 3:75industry 3:75-76

historical background 3:73

598 INDEX

applied geology (continued)learned societies 3:60, 3:75professional organizations 3:75, 3:77tprofessional qualification system

academic qualifications 3:73fcodes of ethics 3:73f, 3:76continuing education 3:73fexperience 3:73fgeneral discussion 3:73standards 3:76websites 3:77t

regulations and licensing 3:78military geology 3:475-487

engineering geologydugout construction map 3:483ftunnelling 3:481, 3:482fWorld War II 3:481

German military geologistsengineering geology 3:481quarrying activities 3:478, 3:479f,

3:484fterrain analysis 3:483, 3:484fwater supply 3:479, 3:481f

historical background 3:476present-day activities 3:486-487quarrying activities 3:478, 3:479f,

3:480f, 3:484fremote sensing 3:486-487specialty geological maps 3:483,

3:483 f, 3:484f, 3:485f, 3:486fterrain analysis 3:483, 3:484fwater supply 3:479, 3:479f, 3:481f,

3:482fApsaravis 2:499, 2:501fApterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tAptian extinction event 3:370Aptian stage

anoxic events 3:363Atlantic Margin 4:104fbolide impact craters 3:363tBrazil l:322f, l:324f, 1:325, 1:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fenvironmental zones 3:365fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363^magnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3:37Of, 3:383f

aquamarines 3:7taquifers 5:48, 5:112Aquitaine Basin 3:654fAquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fArabia 1:140-152

Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5lOfArabian-Nubian Shield 1:140

carbonate shorelines and shelves 4:509,4:509 f, 4:5 lOf

Carboniferous glaciation 4:208 feconomic geology 1:152geological column 1:142 f9 1:144 fgeological mapping 1:141Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:511fgranitic rocks 3:237tmeteorites 5:236Ordovician 3:129Persian Gulf 4:509, 4:509 f, 4:5 lOfstratigraphy

Carboniferous I:142f9 I:144f9 1:145Cretaceous 1:142 f9 1:144 f, 1:146,

1:147Eocene 1:147general discussion 1:141Infracambrian 1:141, l:142f, l:144fJurassic l:142f, 1:144 f, 1:146Miocene 1:148Neogene 1:148Palaeozoic 1:141, l:142f, l:144fPermian l:142f, l:144f, 1:145Pliocene 1:148Triassic l:142f, l:144f, 1:145

structural geology 1:148, l:149f, l:150fTriassic 5:506fvolcanism 1:151

Arabian-Nubian Shieldgeneral description 1:140Gondwana l:238forogenic events 1 :2fPan-African orogeny 1:2, 1:3 f, l:4f, 1:5 fPliocene 5:488structural elements 1:148, 1:1 5 Oftectonic map 1:149 f

Arabian Plate 1:148, 1:149 f, 1:1 50fArachnida4:211Aracuai Belt, Brazil 1:3 lOfAracuai orogenic event 1:313 f, 1:315Araeoscelis 2:482-483aragonite (

bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372fchemical diagenesis 1:394gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383fhydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tironstones 5:99lacustrine deposits 4:558limestones 5:108, 5:108tnon-marine environments 3:530-531occurrence 3:523-524, 5:1 08toolitic sands 4:510-511ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fAraguaia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:319Aral Sea 1:166, l:166f, 2:86, 2:87f, 5:451Arandaspis 2:462, 2:464fAraucaria heterophylla 2:449-450Araucaria mirabilis 2:45 OfAraucarioxylon 2:439f, 2:448f, 2:449Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:287f,

3:288, 3:291t, 3:291fArbuckle Mountains 4:62f, 4:64fArchaea l:203f, 4:125f, 4:365f, 4:365-366

ArchaeanAntarctica 1:132, l:134fArchaean stromatolites

attributes I:286f9 l:289tbiosediments

domical stromatolites 1:291 fgeneral discussion 1:285

columnar stromatolites 1:291 fconical stromatolites 1:29Ifgeneral discussion 4:367geographic distribution 1:280fphotograph 4:367fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

atmospheric composition 4:351Australia 1:208, 1:209 fbanded ironstone formations (BIFs) 5:40biodiversity 1:261chert 4:351, 4:368Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fcrustal aggregation 4:12, 4:14fEarth origins 4:3 64fEast European Craton

Baltic Shield 4:456-457crustal provinces 4:459fcrustal segments 2:38, 2:42 f, 2:43f,

2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47fVolga-Ural Basin 2:47f

Eoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517feukaryotes 4:357general discussion 4:350Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fHearne craton 4:16, 4:17fIndian Sub-Continent 3:287International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fkomatiites 3:261, 3:266Mesoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517fmicroorganisms l:280fNeoarchean Era 5:51 If, 5:517fNorth American continental interior

4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23fPaleoarchean Era 5:511f, 5:517fplanetary comparisons 1:427fprokaryotes 4:368Rae craton 4:16Siberian craton 4:462/", 4:463Slave craton 4:16, 4:18fsouthern Cordillera 4:48stromatolites

attributes l:289tbiosediments 1:285, 1:287columnar stromatolites 1:291 fconical stromatolites 1:29Ifdomical stromatolites 1:291 fearly biosphere 4:367, 4:367fphysical properties l:286f

supercontinents 4:12, 4:14fSuperior craton 4:llf, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:17f,

4:19 ftektites 5:454Wyoming craton 4:16

Archaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,2:423-424

archaeobacteria 4:355f

CaCO3

INDEX 599

Archaeocidaris 2:355archaeocyathans 4:565Archaeoellipsoides 4:368Archaeolithophyllum 2:434, 2:435farchaeological geology

See geoarchaeologyArchaeopteris 4:195Archaeopteris bibernica 2:445, 2:445fArchaeopteryx 2:497, 3:358-359Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172Archaeoscillatoriopsis disciformis 4:3 69fArchaeothyris 2:487Archeria crassidisca 2:476-477arches 4:579farchosauromorphs 2:484arc magmatism

Andes Mountains 1:118-131granitic rocks 3:237*Grenville orogeny 3:155-156, 3:157Northern Appalachians

Notre Dame arc 4:85, 4:87fPopelogan-Victoria arc 4:#2/", 4:57/1,

4:89Victoria arc 4:82f

northern Cordillera 4:44ocean trenches 5:431

Arctic Caledonides 2:71f, 2:72fArctic Sea 2:108Arctic Shelf 4:464, 4:464fArdennes 2:75, 2:81f, 2:83-84Ardipithecus 2:541Ardipithecus ramidus 5:49ItArdmore Basin 4:32/", 4:66fArduino, Giovanni 3:170Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico

5:244-245Arenicolites 4:224Arenigian subdivision 4:84f, 4:87f,

4:175-176, 4:177, 4:177f, 4:178-179aretes 4:670, 4:672^Areyongia 2:462arfvedsonite 3:505-506Argand, Emile 2:240, 2:252, 3:193Argentina 1:153-163

Andes Mountainsfold-and-thrust belts

Cordillera Principal belt 1:158Fueguian fold-and-thrust belt 1:159general discussion 1:158Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt

l:125f, 1:128, 1:158Santa Barbara fold-and-thrust belt

1:127,1:158Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt

1:127, 1:158geochemical analysis 1:157fvolcanism 1:157

background information 1:153borate deposits 3:513tCambrian l:156fCarboniferous glaciation 4:208fCenozoic l:156fflying reptiles 2:514geological settings

Aconcagua 1:153, l:155fAndes Mountains 1:153central segment 1:153digital elevation map 1:154ffold-and-thrust belts 1:156foreland basins 1:153-156morphology 1:155fNazca Plate 1:155fnorthern segment 1:153orogenic belts 1:156fsouthernmost segment 1:157southern segment 1:156volcanism 1:153, 1:156

Gondwana 3:128Grenville orogeny l:156f, 1:161-163Mesozoic

Choiyoi Province 1:161Chon Aike Province 1:161general discussion 1:161orogenic belts 1:156frift systems 1:162f

PalaeozoicChilenial:160/", 1:163Cuyanial:160/", 1:161orogenic belts l:156fPampial:160/, 1:163Patagonia l:160f, 1:163terranes 1:161

Proterozoic l:156fSilurian 3:136fstable platform

cratons 1:160 fgeneral discussion 1:159sedimentary basins

Chaco-Parana basin 1:159Colorado basin 1:159Salado basin 1:159San Jorge basin 1:161

terranes 1:160 fuplift areas 1:159

Triassic 3:345-346wine geology 2:87f

argentite (Ag2S) 3:575*, 3:582f, 3:630targentopyrite 3:575*argillaceous sediments

See claysArgo Basin 3:316tArgo Land 3:147argon (Ar)

atmospheric concentrations 1:1971,1:198, 1.-199/", 3:553

mantle sources 3:228natural occurrences 3:553*radiometric dating

absolute dating techniques 1:88tCarboniferous stratigraphy 4:202fgeoarchaeology 3:20geological time-scale 5:518glauconite 3:547sedimentary rocks 5:146, 5:147/, 5:69

Venus 5:246*Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505faridisols 5:196*, 5:200arid regions

See deserts

Ariel 5:290-291, 5:291*Arikareean stage 5:473/", 5:478, 5:479faristarainite (Na2MgB12O2o- 8H2O)

3:513*Aristarchus (lunar crater) 5:271Aristotle 3:168Arizona, United States 4:48-50, 4:55-56,

5:207f, 5:476-477Arkansas, United States 4:61-71Arkoma Basin 4:64f, 4:66f, 4:67, 4:68fArkona Basin 2:156farkoses 5:27*, 5:29fArmenia 4:215-216Armorica

Armorican MassifAnisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk

palaeogeography 2:110fAptian-Albian palaeogeography

2:116fBaj ocian-Bathonian palaeogeography

2:112fBerriasian-Valanginian

palaeogeography 2:115fKimmeridgian-Tithonian

palaeogeography 2:114fOligocene2:121/"Palaeocene2:119/"Rhaetian-Hettangian

palaeogeography 2:111 fScythian-Bundsandstein

palaeogeography 2:109fSenonian-Danian palaeogeography

2:118fVariscides Orogeny 2:75

Armorican Terrane Assemblage 2:75-85,5:455

Caledonian Orogeny 2:59Central Armorican Basin 2:96Devonian 2:78, 2:79Ordovician 2:78palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,

4:155f, 4:155-156, 4:353fSilurian 2:78tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,

2:82f, 2:83fterranes 2:75-85, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f

Armstrong, N. 5:266*arrojadite 5:125-126arsenic (As)

arsenates 3:506-510alteration 3:508crystal structure 3:506nomenclature 3:506occurrence 3:509physical properties 3:506, 3:508fsolubility 3:508stability 3:506

hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*mineral classification systems 3:501*,

3:502*natural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554soil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

arsenoclasite 3:508farsenocrandallite 3:508f

600 INDEX

arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:575t, 3:576f,3:582-583, 3:583f, 3:585t, 3:630t

arsentsumebite 3:508tarthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-281

amber 2:274-275, 2:275fchitin 2:274-275classification 2:275fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367f, 3:368,

3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fDevonian 4:196ecdysis 2:275exoskeletons 2:274-275feeding strategies 2:278flight ability 2:277fossil record 2:276horseshoe crabs 2:277f, 2:280insects 2:295-300

Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tarthropod relationships 2:297fbiodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:296f,

2:298fCarboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,

2:299f, 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tcollection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fDevonian 2:296-298, 2:299/",

4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300tJurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299fPhanerozoic 2:298fPterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300ttaxonomy 2:2951Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,

3:350morphology 2:274ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463

applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454tCretaceous 3:460f, 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures l:262tecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f9 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556life cycle 3:457

morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,3:457/i 3:458f, 3:4S9f

Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454t, 3:457,3:458 f, 3:460f

Ordovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa

classification 3:453, 3:454tecology 3:457living examples 3:454fmorphology 3:455f, 3:456fshell morphology 3:457f, 3:458f,

3:459fstratigraphic ranges 3:460f

Quaternary 3:460f, 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,

4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

podomeres 2:274, 2:275relevance 2:279reproduction 2:278respiration 2:277Silurian 4:191terrestrialization 2:276-277trace fossils 2:279visual systems 2:279, 2:280f

arthurite 3:508fArthur's Seat 2:96fArtinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215t,

S:511f, 5:517fartiodactyls 2:536-537, 2:539Arumberia 4:377Arundian subdivision 4:202fArvenian land mammal age 5:473fasbestos 1:43 8tAscomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441aseismic ridges 4:476-477, 4:482ash 4:387t, 4:390tash clouds 5:571, 5:574f, 5:576?, 5:576fAshe formation, Appalachians 4:76-77Ashgillian stage

Appalachians 4:74, 4:84f, 4:87fbiozones4:187ffauna 4:180-181general description 4:179general discussion 4:175-176Ordovician 4:179fVariscides Orogeny 2:78

AsiaCentral Asia 1:164-169

geologic history 1:168Kazakhstan

Cambrian 1:173 fCarboniferous 4:201geology 1:164Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fKokchetav Massif 5:533,

5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537Ordovician 1:173 fPermian 5:Sllf

Silurian 1:173f, 4:191-192tektites 5:451terranes 3:130fTien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165fTriassic 3:344Uralide orogeny 2:86

Kyrgyzstan 1:167Tadzhikistan 1:168, 1:518 fterrains l:165fTien Shan Mountains 1:164, l:165f,

1:167Turkmenistan 1:166Uzbekistan 1:167

Japan 3:297-305accretion terranes 3:297, 3:300-302arc-trench system 3:297, 3:298fbackground information 3:297biota 3:302earthquakes 3:298, 3:300fgeology 3:300, 3:301fHidaka Metamorphic Belt, Japan

3:240-241palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:304fPermian-Triassic boundary 4:221-222strike-slip fault systems 3:304fsubduction zones 3:297, 3:298f,

3:303-304tectonic processes

pre-Neogene terrains 3:300, 3:302ftectonic evolution 3:302, 3:303f

topography 3:297, 3:299fvolcanism 3:297, 3:299/", 3:300f

massifs l:346fSouth-east Asia 1:169-196

accretion terranesamalgamation 1:176, 1:17 6tconstraining factors l:176t, l:179tdistribution l:170f, l:172f, I:182f9

1:184forigins 1:171, 1:17 6trifting and separation events 1:174,

1:175, 1:175, l:175f,l:176tsutures 1:1791

alluvial diamond deposits 1:178fbackground information

accretion terranes 1:17'Of\ 1:171,I:172f9 1:173 f

general discussion 1:169Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169,

l:170fplate tectonics 1:169, 1:17Of,

1:171 f, l:172fstrike-slip fault systems 1:169,

l:170fWallace's Line 1:169, l:171f,

l:172fbrachiopods 1:173 f, 1:177fenergy resources

coal and lignite deposits 1:195epigenetic deposits 1:195hydrocarbon basins 1:190, l:194firon ore deposits 1:195magmatic arcs 1:190mineral deposits 1:190, l:195f

INDEX 601

Asia (continued)non-volcanic epithermal deposits

1:190oil and gas 1:187, l:194fophiolites 1:190tin deposits 1:194tungsten deposits 1:190

faunal assemblages 1:171, 1:178-182,1:183 f , 1:185 f

floral provinces 1:178-182, l:186fgemstones 1:196geological evolution

Cambrian 1:178Carboniferous 1:178, 1:181*,

1:182f, 1:184fCenozoic 1:187Cretaceous I:181t9 1:187, l:188fDevonian 1:178, l:181t, l:182fEocene 1:181*, l:188f, l:190fJurassic 1:181*, 1:186, l:188fMiocene 1:181*, I:192f9 1:193fOligocene l:181t, l:191f, l:193fOrdovician 1:178Permian 1:181t, 1:182, 1:184fPhanerozoic 1:177Pliocene 1:193 fProterozoicl:174/; 1:177Silurian 1:178Triassic 1:181*, 1:184, l:184f

glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174,l:178f, 1:182

granitoid belts l:187fpalaeoclimate 1:183/, l:185fRodinial:174/"stratigraphic correlation l:183f,

1:185 ftectonic evolution 1:177

subduction zones l:346fSee also China; Indian Sub-Continent;

MongoliaAskeptosaurus 2:504Askja volcano, Iceland 4:3871asphaltenes 4:250Asselian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215t,

5:511f,5:517fAstaracian mammalian age 5:479fastatine (At) 3:553tASTER 4:420-421, 4:434*, 4:436, 4:437asteroids

Asteroid 433 Eros 5:234fasteroid bombardment 1:199, 5:220-221beyond the Main Belt 5:223characteristics 5:221, 5:221*, 5:223fcloser than the Main Belt 5:222discovery 5:221distribution 5:220, 5:220fmeteorites 5:233, 5:234forbits 5:221, 5:221*, 5:222forigins 5:221rotation 5:223fsizes 5:222ftypes 5:221, 5:222, 5:222*, 5:223, 5:223t

Asteroxylon 2:437-438asthenosphere

description 1:403

melting processes 3:210, 3:211 fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:656plate tectonics theory l:440f, 4:340,

4:343fthermal gradients 3:411f

Aston, Francis 3:604-605Aston, Frederick 3:186Astrapanoteen land mammal age 5:473fAstraspis 2:457f, 2:457Astrid Ridge 3:316*astrobiology 4:363astronauts, lunar 5:266tastronomical calendars 1:77, I:78f9 l:81tastronomically calibrated time-scales

1:82-83, l:83f, 1:90, 1:90, l:90f,5:506f

astrorhizana 3:45Ifastrorhizata 3:45Ifastrorhizids 3:45OfAtacama Desert 3:555atacamite 5:394tAtalanta Planitia, Venus 5:257fAtchafalaya River delta 4:531, 4:532fAtdabanian stage 4:167fAteleaspis 2:464fAthens Plateau 4:65Atlantic Margin 4:92-108

background information 4:92carbonate shorelines and shelves 4:102,

4:103 fcrustal stretching 4:100, 4:101fcrustal transition zone 4:100deposition centres 4:104f, 4:104-105East Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA)

4:95, 4:96f, 4:99fenergy resources 4:105, 4:106fgroundwater 4:105-106, 4:107fimpact structures 4:95, 4:98fmineral deposits 4:105morphology

bathymetric map 4:93fgeneral discussion 4:93landslides 4:94/", 4:94-95submarine canyons 4:93-94, 4:94f

palaeoenvironments 4:102, 4:103f,4:104f

passive margin structure 4:95, 4:9 6/i4:99f

placer deposits 4:105postrift unconformity 4:98, 4:99f,

4:101fresearch issues 4:106salt diapirs 4:102salt tectonism 4:102, 4:102fseamounts 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95sedimentary history 4:102tectonic evolution 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f

Atlantic Ocean 3:362fAtlantic Shield l:306fAtlantis Seamount 3:315'/", 3:316tAtlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, l:16f, 1:17,

5:488atmosphere

Archaean composition 4:351biogeochemical cycles 1:431

Cretaceous 3:360Devonian 4:196, 4:196^Earth 1:197-207

asteroid bombardment 1:199carbon dioxide concentrations

abundances l:197tanthropogenic sources 1:343 f,

l:344f, 1:345 fchanges 1:2 06^end-Permian extinctions 4:223,

4:223fgeneral discussion 1:206geological evolution 1:340, 1:34If,

l:342fglacial/interglacial periods l:342f,

1:343 fOligocene 5:475

chemical composition l:197tcondensation 1:199evolution

anoxic environments 1:201living organisms 1:202, 1:203mass-independent fractionation

1:201-202metabolic energy 1:202oxygen concentrations 1:202, 1:203planetary formation effects 1:197snowball Earth events 1:204sulphur isotopes 1:201

nuclide binding energy 1:198, 1:198foutgassing 1:199Phanerozoic atmosphere

atmospheric changes 1:204carbon dioxide concentrations

1:206, l:206foxygen concentrations 1:206,1:206ftemperature history l:205f

primary atmosphere 1:198secondary atmosphere 1:200solar luminosity 1.-197/", 1:197-198temperature-pressure profile 1:201 fterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200*earth system science 1:430Gaia hypothesis 3:1-6gaseous elements 3:553large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:320,

3:320flong-term carbon cycle l:336f, l:338f,

1:339 fMars 1:197*, 5:273Miocene 5:482Neptune 5:291-292ozone layer 5:217fphysical characteristics 5:217fshort-term carbon cycle 1:335, I:336f9

1:337fsolar radiation 5:215, 5:219temperature variations 5:215Uranus 5:289Venus 1:197*weathering effects 5:589

Atoka formation, Ouachita Mountains4:63, 4:66f

Atokian stage 4:209f

602 INDEX

atolls 4:481, 4:564attapulgite

See palygorskiteAtterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186, 5:187taubrites 5:23^Auburn Arch, Australia 1:247faugelite 5:125-126augen, definition of 3:390taugen mylonite 3:388taugite3:22Jf, 3:242, 3:567Augustasaurus 2:506Aulechinus 2:352-353, 2:353fAulunian stage 4:202fAurelucian stage 4:183 fauroras 5:218, 5:219faurostibite 3:119taustenite 3:508fAustralasian tektites 5:445t, 5:445f, 5:446Australia

Archaean 1:208, 1:209 fBega Batholith, Australia 3:243fbolide impact craters 3:363tCambrian 4:164, 4:167fCarboniferous 3:139Carboniferous glaciation 4:208fcratons

Curnamona Craton 1:217-218Gawler Craton l:209f, l:210f, 1:215,

1:239 fKimberley Craton l:210f, 1:212,

1:239 fLucas Craton 1:210f, 1:213North Australia Craton 1:208, 1:209f,

1:211, l:211f, 3:128, 3:132fPilbara craton

banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39geological map 1:239fmicroorganisms 1:280 forigin of life 4:123origins 1:429orogenic events 1:208, 1:21 OfPrecambrian outcrops 1:209f

South Australian Craton 1:208,I:209f9 l:211f, 1:215

West Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209 f,l:210f

Yilgarn craton 1:208, I:209f9 I:210f9

1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39fish 2:462gemstones 3:7^, 3:12, 3:13Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:SllfGondwana 3:128granitic rocks 3:237tmammals 5:484meteorites 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:232f, 5:236migmatites 3:238fMiocene I:230f9 1:236, 5:484Neoproterozoic 1:220, 1:225, 1:225 f,

5:511fopal 3:13orogenic belts 3:164fpalaeogeography 1:23 Of, 1:236peraluminous granites 3:241fPhanerozoic 1:222-237

Bowen Basin I:239f9 1:241 fchronostratigraphy 1:223fglaciation I:226f9 1:234morphology I:232f9 1:236orogenic events

Delamerian Orogeny l:239f, 1:240,l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f

Lachlan Orogeny. See LachlanOrogeny

New England Orogeny 1:239 f,l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f,1:250, 4:202f

Ross Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245,1:248 f

Thomson Orogeny I:240t9 1:241 f,1:242

palaeogeographyCambrian, early 1:225, 1:225fCambrian, early-middle 1:225f,

1:226Cambrian, late 1:225f, 1:227Carboniferous 1:226 f9 1:234Cenomanian 1:229>/", 1:236Devonian, early l:226f, 1:230Devonian, middle-late l:226f, 1:230Eocene I:230f9 1:236Jurassic, early-middle 1:229 f, 1:235Jurassic, late 1:229 f, 1:235Miocene l:230f, 1:236Neocomian-Aptian 1:229 f, 1:235Neoproterozoic 1:225, 1:225 fOrdovician 1:225 f, 1:227Permian, early 1:227f, 1:234Permian, late 1:227f, 1:234Permo-Carboniferous l:227f, 1:234Pleistocene l:230f, 1:236Silurian l:226f, 1:229Triassic, early 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, early-middle 1:228 f, 1:235Triassic, late 1:228f9 1:235Triassic, middle I:228f9 1:235

plate velocities 1:233 f, 1:237stratitectonic regimes I:224f9 l:233tSydney Basin l:239f, 1:241 fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:223f, 1:224f,

1:225-226tectonic processes 1:231 f, 1:236

phosphorites 5:126Proterozoic 1:208-222

Adelaide Rift Complex 1:215f, 1:220Arunta Inlier 1:214, 1:239fbackground information 1:208basin formation 1:208, 1:211, 1:215f,

1:220Birrindudu Basin 1:219Calvert Superbasin l:212f, 1:215Centralian Superbasin 1:215f, 1:220Georgetown Inlier 1:215Granites-Tanami Complex l:210f,

1:211Hamersley Basin 1:208-209, 1:209f,

l:210f, 1:221Isa Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215Kimberley Basin I:209f9 I:211f9

1:219, 1:221, 1:239 f

Laurentia 1:213 f, 1:21 SfLeichhardt Superbasin 1:21 If,

1:214-215McArthur Basin l:209f, 1:214-215,

1:239 fMesoproterozoic 1:218mineral deposits 1:218f, 1:221Mount Isa Inlier 1:214, 1:239fNeoproterozoic 1:220orogenic events

Albany Fraser Orogeny 1:209f,1:210-211, l:213f, l:214f,1:219, l:239f, 4:352

Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, l:211f,4:352

Capricorn Orogeny l:209f,1:209-210, l:211f, l:212f,1:239 f

Chewings Orogeny l:212f, 1:215Edmundian Orogeny 1:214fEwamin Orogeny l:213f,

1:218-219Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:21 OfHall's Creek Orogeny 1:21 If,

1:212-213, l:239fHooper Orogeny I:211f9 1:212Isan Orogeny 1:213f, 1:218-219Kararan Orogeny l:212f, 1:213 f9

1:217-218Kimban Orogeny 1:209 f, 1:211 f,

I:212f9 1:215-216King Leopold Orogeny 1:211,

l:215f,l:239f,3:132fOlarian Orogeny 1:213 f, 1:218-219Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209,

l:210fPaterson Orogeny 1:215f, 1:220,

1:239 fPetermann Orogeny 1:215f, 3:132fPine Creek Orogeny 1:209f, l:210f,a

Pinjarra Orogeny 1:209f, 1:210-211reactivation 1:214 f, 1:219-220Sleafordian Orogeny l:210f, 4:352Strangways Orogeny 1:211 f,

1:214-215Tanami Orogeny l:211f, 1:213Thomson Orogeny 1:239fTrans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211,

4:16, 4.-J9/", 4:352Wickham Orogeny 1:21 SfYapungku Orogeny 1:211 f,

1:214-215Palaeoproterozoic 1:208Pine Creek Inlier 1:239fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:223 f, I:224f9

1:225-226Tennant Creek Inlier l:211f, 1:214Victoria River Basin 1:209 f, l:214f,

l:215f, 1:219Ross Orogeny 1:248fsharks 2:463-465Silurian 3:129, 4:191-192South Australia 4:164Tasmanides 1:208, 1:209 f9 1:239 f

INDEX 603

Australia (continued)Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251

background information 1:237cross-sections l:224fdeformation processes 1:242, 1:245fDelamerian Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240,

1:240;, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 ffault traces l:243f, 1:245f, 1:246fgeochronology l:244fgeological map 1:238 f9 1:239f, 1:241 f,

I:244f9 1:245 fgranite intrusives 1:247f, 1:249fLachlan Orogeny. See Lachlan

Orogenylithofacies 1:240;, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243 fmafic rocks 1:243fmagmatism 1:244, 1:247f, 1:249 fmetamorphism 1:242, 1:246 fNew England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240;,

1:241 f, 1:242, I:249f9 1:250ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247orogenic events l:240tpalaeogeographic reconstruction

I:248f9l:249fProterozoic 1:223 f9 l:224f, 1:225-226Ross Orogeny 1:245subprovinces l:240ttectonic evolution

Andean-type mountain building1:250

arc-continent collisions 1:250back-arc basin formation 1:247,

1:248 f9 1:249basin inversion 1:245general discussion 1:244orogenic events 1:245, 1:247,

1:248 f, 1:249, 1:249 fRodinia breakup 1:245volcanism 1:250

Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240;,1:241 f, 1:242

timetable of events 1:223fturbidites l:240t, I:241f9 1:242,

1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f

tektites 5:443, 5:445*, 5:445f, 5:446,5:448 f9 5:449f, 5:450f

Triassic 3:344wine geology 3:84See also Gondwana

Australian Geological Survey 3:68Australian Plate 4:109australites 5:445f, 5:446, 5:448f, 5:449f,

5:450fAustralo-Antarctic Discordance 4:349Australopithecus 2:541, 2:542fAustralopithecus afarensis 5:49It,

5:491-492Australopithecus africanus 5:49ItAustralopithecus anamensis 5:49It,

5:491-492Australopithecus bahrelghazali 5:491tAustralopithecus garhi 5:491tAustralosphenida 2:528f

Austral Seamounts 3:316tAustria

See Suess, Eduard; tektitesAustriadactylus 2:510Austroalpine nappe 2:126fAustroalpine nappes 2:125, 2:1 34 fautochthonous sediments

carbonate grain analysis 5:30classification 5:26, 5:26;general discussion 5:30

autocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490Autunian stage 2:9 6f, 2:98autunite 3:508f9 5:123fAvalonia

Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63Cambrian 3:133 f9 4:1 69 fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:436Devonian 2:78, 2:79Gondwana 3:129Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:83 f9

4:87fOrdovician

Ordovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78palaeogeography 4:182terrane migration 4:1 82 f

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77 f,4:15Sf9 4:155-156, 4:353f, 4:83f

Silurian 2:78, 4:191,4:192tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,

2:82f9 2:83fterranes 3:133f9 5:455, 5:457fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

5:455trilobites (Trilobita) 2:293

Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88, 4:90fAveley interglacial stage 5:496favenevite (Cu5<

3:589tAves

See birds (Aves)AVHRR

See Advanced Very High ResolutionRadiometer (AVHRR)

Avicenna3:168, 3:500axial neovolcanic zone 5:380axinite 3:512fAzerbaijan 3:344Azores 3:315f,3:316t

B

Baas-Becking, Lourens 3:192Babington, William 3:60-61back-arc basins 2:135-146

Canada 3:157-160, 3:159fCaucasus-Black Sea region 4:471East European Craton 3:648, 3:650Mascarene-La Poile back-arc basin 4:88,

4:91Mediterranean region 3:654plate tectonics theory 1:440fsediment accumulation 3:597Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247, l:248f,

1:249

Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin4:82f9 4:87, 4:87f

Bacteria 1:203 f9 4:12Sf9 4:365f, 4:365-366baddeleyite 3:221;, 3:601, 3:606fbadlands

See desertsBaffin Island 4:11-12bafflestone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:563fBagnold, Ralph 3:188Baie Verte-Brompton-Cameron line 4:82f,

4:85Baie Verte Oceanic Tract 4:82f9 4:84f, 4:85,

4:89Baikalide Orogeny 4:463, 4:464, 4:464fBailey, Edward Battersby 3:62Baja California, Mexico 4:48, 4:60, 5:475bajadas 4:542Bajocian stage 3:352;, 3:354f

Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99f

Baker, George 3:195bakerite (Ca8BioSi6O35-5H2O) 3:513;Baker terrane 4:54Balanerpeton 2:473fBalanerpeton woodi 2:473f, 2:474-475Baldwin, Ralph 3:195Balearics 5:466-468Balkans 2:237fballast 1:483;, 1:488, 1:491*ball clay 1:366-367Balleny Islands 3:315f, 3:316;Baltica

apparent polar wander paths 4:153 fCaledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64-74Cambrian 1:173 f, 4:164, 4:170fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434-436,

3:437/", 3:439continental margin 2:65f, 2:67, 3:648Devonian 2:78, 2:79Ordovician

accretion terranes 1:173 fOrdovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78palaeogeography 4:181-182

orogenic belts 3:164fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,

4:152f9 4:152-153, 4:155f9

4:155-156, 4:353/", 4:354palaeolatitudes 4:154, 4:154fSilurian 1.-173/", 2:78, 4:191, 4:192tectonic evolution 2:73, 2:73fterranes 3:130f9 5:455, 5:457fTimanide Orogeny 2:50, 2:50fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

5:455trilobites (Trilobita) 2:291, 2:293Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89f

Baltic Basin 2:149-150, 4:456Baltic Ice Lake 2:150Baltic Sea 2:96f9 2:149-150, 2:152f9

2:153f9 2:155-159, 2:156f9 2:159;

O2(VO4)2n{Cu,Cs,K}Cl}

604 INDEX

Baltic Shieldbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 4:169fcrustal segments 2:41 fcrustal thickness 3:649f, 3:656, 3:657f,

3:658East European Craton 4:456geographic location 2:3 5'fstructural features 3:650, 3:651fSuess, Eduard 2:238tectonic evolution 3:648Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:652fBaltimore Canyon trough 4:96f, 4:98-100,

4:99f, 4:101f, 4:103, 4:104 f, 4:107fBaltimore Gneiss antiforms 3:157fBaltoscandian Platform

See Scandinaviaband/banding, definition of 3:390tbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:37-42

ancient sedimentary rock associations3:494-495

Archaean 4:351, 5:40background information 5:37banding 5:38, 5:38fbanding continuity 5:39Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:289fclassification 5:37definition 5:37economic deposits 1:438-439future research 5:41global distribution 5:39Indian Sub-Continent 3:286, 3:287lithologic associations 5:40metamorphism 5:39mineralogy 5:38nomenclature 5:37occurrence 5:33-34origins 5:40tectonic processes 5:39temporal distribution 5:39Vendian 4:372weathering processes 3:489

Bangiomorpha pubescens 4:356f, 4:358Banian stage 4:169fBanks, Sir Joseph 3:61, 5:229bannermanite (Na0.7(V6O15)) 3:589tBannock seamount 4:482baphetids

cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

Baraboo Range, Wisconsin, United States4:21

Barbados 5:444, 5:445*, 5:445f, 5:448-449barbosalite 5:124-125barchan dunes 4:600, 4:618-620, 4:619f,

4:620fBarents Sea 2:49, 2:52/j 4:214-215Barents Shelf 2.-50/", 2:53, 2:64, 2:64 f, 2:70Barents Trough 4:464fbariandite (Al0.6(V8O2o)-18H2O) 3:559*baricite 5:125-126barium (Ba)

barite (BaSO4) 3:573, 5:394*carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:224*crustal composition 5:174*hydrothermal fluids 3:629*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*lava/lava flows 3:224foceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tas organic proxy 4:500

bark lice 2:300*barnesite ((Na,Ca)(V6Oi6)-3H2O) 3:589*Baron, J G 3:203Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:21 If,

4:352Barrande, Joachim 2:195, 3:180barred coastline 4:574/", 4:575Barreirinhas basin l:326fBarrell, Joseph 3:186, 3:195Barremanian stage

Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil 1.-322/; 1:325*"chronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3:37Of, 3:383f

barrerite 3:593*barrier islands 4:577, 4:577/", 4.-57S*"barrier reefs 4:564Barrovian-type metamorphic complex,

Naxos, Greece 4:410, 4:411 f, 4:412*Barrow, George 3:184-185Barruelian subdivision 4:202fBarstovian stage 5:478, 5:479fBartholin, Thomas 2:227Bartonian stage 1:322*", 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467*", 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fbasalts

Andes Mountains 1:157continental flood basalts

Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315f,3:316*, 5:480

end-Permian extinctions 4:222large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315,

3:318,3:322mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339

Deccan TrapsAravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:291fBastar-Bhandara Craton 3:289fDevonian 4:198-199Dharwar Craton 3:288fflood basalts 3:315f, 3:316*, 3:317,

3:328, 3:363*geological map 3:287f

large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:317,

3:335-336mass extinctions 3:383, 4:198-199Palaeocene 5:462zeolites 3:598

Emeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316*, 4:215*",4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222,4:227

Ethiopian Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316*,5:474

explosive eruption characteristics 4:387'tgeotechnical properties 1:545*, l:546f,

3:102*komatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260eruption characteristics 3:262Fennoscandian Shield 2:39flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262fgreenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263*"magnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262/; 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-Cu-

PGE) mineralization 3:266occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261*", 3:264fwater content 3:266zirconium content 3:264f

lava/lava flows 3:323-330a'a lava 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326/",

5:567-569, 5:571fbackground information 3:323block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571fcharacteristics 5:567clays 1:545-546clinker 3:325/i 3:326, 3:326feffusion rate 3:324eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324*"flood basalts 3:328flow speed 3:324flow volume 3:324geotechnical properties 1:544-545,

l:546fnatural hazards

general discussion 3:328, 5:573Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328,

3:329fmitigation methods 5:576*Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329

pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,3:326/i 5:567-569, 5:571f

Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327/", 5:567-569,

5:571fstructure

cooling joints 3:327, 3:328fcrazing 1:546 f

INDEX 605

basalts (continued)lava tubes 3:327pipes 1:546fsubaerial lava 3:325,

3:325f, 3:326funderwater flows 3:326, 3:327f

temperature 3:323Venus 3:232fviscosity 3:323

mafic sills 1:136fmagnetization process 4:148-149mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:335-343

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:383

definition 3:335geochemical analysis 3:339global distribution 3:206flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:318,

3:318fmelting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211fPalaeocene 5:461-462palaeoterranes 5:457petrological analysis 3:339plate tectonics 1:424, 4:348plume formation dynamics 3:341,

3:341fpropagating rifts 5:398, 5:399fseamounts 4:477seismic images

D" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338transition zone 3:338, 3:338fupper mantle 3:337, 3:337f

surface expression 3:335, 3:336fmetabasalts 3:405northern Cordillera 4:36-47oceanic basalts 1:397ocean island basalts 3:339physical properties 1:483tseamounts 4:475Siberian Traps

Devonian 4:198-199end Permian extinctions 3:319, 3:322flood basalts 3.-315/J 3:316?, 3:328Permian 4:215f, 4:227Permian-Triassic boundary 4:220,

4:222Triassic 3:348

sills l:136fsulphide minerals 3:642ftitanomagnetite 4:148-149See also olivine

basement 4:453, 4:455Bashiorian stage 4:201f, 4:202Bashkirian anticline 2:51, 2:90Bashkirian stage 5:511/", 5:517fBasidiomycetes 2:437-438, 2:440-441Basin and Range Province, United States

2:100, 4:48, 4:60, 5:476-477, 5:480

bassanite 3:572Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286, 3:287f,

3:289fbastnasite 3:221,3:22IfBath, England 3:113*, 3:113f9 3:114batholiths

alkali-lime index 3:235fassociated rock types 3:237tBega Batholith, Australia 3:243fCoastal Batholith, Peru 3:237?, 3:239Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes 3:246emplacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238fIdaho Batholith, United States 3:237?,

4:216Moruya Batholith, Australia 3:238fNew Zealand 4:4f, 4:6Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt 2:46Patagonian Batholith, Chile 3:237?Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United

States 3:237tplate tectonics theory 1:440fSierra Nevada Batholith, United States

3:237?, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:S5fSouth Mountain Batholith, Canada

3:240-241tectonic setting 3:237?

Bathonian stage 3:352?, 4:100Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) S:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99f

Batophora 2:432Batrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fbats 2:539baultite 3:593?bauxite

classification 5:26?Fiji 4:120formation processes 3:488-489, 3:489f,

5:33fmining techniques 1:434occurrence 5:32texture 5:33fworld production rates 1:43 8t

bayldonite 3:508tBay of Biscay 2:80, 2:97, 2:101f,

2:105-108,3:650,4:95Bay of Islands ophiolite 4:82f9 4:84fbeaches

barred coastline beaches 4:575, 4:576fbeach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f,

3:605fcarbonate shorelines and shelves 3:524f,

4:502f, 5:135caves 4:579fcliffs 4:579flakes 4:552, 4:554f, 5:135raised beaches 4:579frudaceous rocks 5:133, 5:136£ S:137f,

5:138fseasonal beach profiles 4:572ftransgressive beaches 4:533f

wave processes 4:570, 4:571f, 4:572fBeacon Supergroup, Antarctica 1:132-135Beagle voyage 2:160, 2:184, 3:182Bean, A. 5:266?Beardmore Glacier 3:129, 3:137fBeardmore Shelf 3:128-129, 3:134fBear Seamount 4:95bearthite 5:122Beason Supergrooup 1:135beaudanite 3:508fBeaver Lake Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fBecke, Friedrich 2:250-251, 3:187Becquerel, Henri 1:81-82, 3:604-605bedform climb 4:543, 4:543fbedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597aqueous bedforms 4:594bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595/", 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15, 5:15fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599fhummocky cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599flongitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15fmud waves 5:15occurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599funidirectional aqueous flow 5:554wave-current interactions 4:599wave processes 4:572-573, 4:573fwave ripples 4:598, 4:598/, 4:599f

bediasites 5:444, 5:445f, 5:446fBeecher, Charles E. 2:196beer 3:78-81

brewing processBelgium 3:81Brown Beers 3:81Czech Republic 3:80-81Denmark 3:80Europe 3:80fermentation 3:78, 3:79general discussion 3:79Germany 3:80Ireland 3:80lager 3:80-81Lambic beers 3:81malting 3:79modern techniques 3:81Netherlands 3:80-81pils 3:80-81Red Beers 3:81Stowts 3:80

606 INDEX

beer (continued]United Kingdom 3:79water composition 3:79, 3:80t

characteristics 3:78-79porter 3:80stout 3:80

bees 2:297f, 2:300tbeetles (Coleoptera) 2:297f, 2:300t, 5:469Bega Batholith, Australia 3:243fBeja suture 2:80-82, 2:82fBelarus Belt 2:45f, 2:46Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394f, 3:357Belemnopsis 2:393fBelgium 3:79, 3:80-81, 3:361, 4:192-193,

4:194, 5:454, 5:472bellbergite 3:593tBelledonne massif 2:127-129, 2:128fBellinghausen Sea l:133f, 1:139Belomorian terrane 2:39, 2:44fBeloretsk Terrane 2:51belovite 5:123Belt-Purcell Supergroup, northern

Cordillera 4:39-42benches 5:432Benioff, Hugo 3:195Benioff zone l:120f, 1:127, l:15SfBennettitales 2:453f, 2:453Bennett, S. C. 2:513benthic foraminifera

Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BFE)5:462, 5:468, 5:470

end-Permian extinctions 4:220oxygen isotope ratios 5:487t, 5:489-490Palaeocene 5:462shorelines and shelves 4:506

benthos environments 4:158, 4:499fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fbentonite 1:366-367, 1:369, 5:65, 5:572tBenton Uplift 4:62f, 4:64f, 4:65Bepi Colombo 5:242Beqa4:118beraunite 5:124-125Berdyankian faunachron 3:345fBergman, Torbern 3:172, 3:178, 3:500Beringer, Johann 2:169-170Bering Strait 4:38, 5:461, 5:466, 5:471,

5:476, 5:490, 5:491Berkey, Charles 1:445-446, 3:192Berkshire massif 3:157fberlinite 5:121-122bermanite 5:124-125Bermuda Rise 3:315f, 3:316tBerriasella jacobi 3:361Berriasian stage

Atlantic Margin 4:104fbolide impact craters 3:363?Brazil j(:322^1;325/'chronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378f

marine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369f, 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3:363-364, 3:370f, 3:383f

berthierine 1:360, l:361t, 3:542-548, 5:99Bertrand, Marcel 2:238beryllium (Be)

carbonatites 3:223tpartitioning behaviour 3:639?soil concentrations 2:22ttoxicity 2:22?

beryllonite 5:121-122Berzelius, Jons Jacob 3:178, 3:500-501betpakdalite

(MgCa2[Mo8As2Fe3036(OH)](H20)23) 3:551-552, 3:552t

Beyrich, Ernst 2:234, 5:472Biblical geology 1:253-258

Christian viewpoints 1:257Creation science 1:258Flood Geology 1:254, 3:176geological research (1780-1835) 3:176graphic granite 1:256, 1:256fHebrew Scriptures

Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua)1:256

earthquakes 1:256Exodus

Moses Strikes the Stone to ProduceWater 1:256

Plagues 1:255Red Sea crossing 1:255Tablets of Stone 1:256

general discussion 1:253Genesis

Angel with the Flaming Sword 1:253background information 1:253Flood 1:254, 3:170Sodom and Gomorrah 1:255

scientific revolution 1:257See also creationism

Bigadic mining district, TurkeySee ore bodies, borates

Big Obsidian Flow, Newberry Crater,Oregon, United States 3:270, 3:271f

bikitaite 3:593tBilbilian stage 4:167fBillings, Marland 3:188billitonites 5:446-447bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563fbiodiversity 1:259-265

biodiversity curvesgeneral discussion 1:264mass extinction events 1:264fshape significance 1:264tetrapod evolution 1:264f

causes 1:265faunal ecological structure l:262tfish 2:464fgeneral discussion 1:259insects 1:263, 1:263 fmeasurement methods

ancient species 1:260, 1:260f

disparity 1:259diversity 1:259marine fauna 1:260, 1:260fmodern species 1:260types 1:259

Phanerozoicgeneral discussion 1:262marine change l:260f,

1:262, 1:264 fterrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f

Precambrian 1:261biofilms 1:283, 1:283 fbioherms 3:109biokarst 4:679, 4:681fbiosediments 1:279-294

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

biofilms 1:283, 1:283 fbiomarkers 1:292, 1:293 fbiosignatures 1:285, l:285tchemical fossils 1:293filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f,

4:368geographic distribution 1:280f, 1:282glossary information 1:294microbial effects

precipitation processes 1:284, l:284tstromatolites

Archaean stromatolites 1:287,I:289t9 1:291 f

biosignatures l:285ttrapping and binding 1:285

microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,4:223-224, 4:377

microfossilsfossilization process 1:288interpretive processes 1:288, 1:292foldest microfossils 1:291, l:292f

significance 1:282stromatolites

Archaean stromatolitesattributes l:286f, l:289tcolumnar stromatolites 1:291 fconical stromatolites 1:291 fdomical stromatolites 1:291 fgeneral discussion 1:285, 4:367geographic distribution 1:280fphotograph 4:367fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

formation processes I:287f9 1:28 8t9

3:109interpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556physical properties l:286f

tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124, 4:125fbiosphere

biogeochemical cycles 1:431early biosphere

biogeochemistry 4:366evolution 4:3 64fstromatolites 4:367

Earth 1:422earth system science 1:430, 1:43IfGaia hypothesis 1:432

INDEX 607

biosphere (continued)short-term carbon cycle 1:337f

biostratigraphyapplications 1:84, l:86fbiozones

biochronozones 1:304biostratigraphic principles 5:301,

5:301f, 5:302fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434Eocene S:467fmultivariate biostratigraphic analyses

l:304fOrdovician4:176, 4:182Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:3 73 f

Jurassic 3:353methodology 1:84Oligocene 5:472Ordovician 4:182Pleistocene 5:495

biotitechemical composition 3:549-550granites 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:241f,

3:550hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632metamorphic facies 3:399f, 3:400f,

3:401f,4:411f,4:412tpressure-temperature diagram 3:243fvine nourishment 3:88

bioturbationcontourites 4:524f, 4:525f, 4:525-526,

4:526fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15endobenthic tiering 5:529facies analysis 4:486ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:53Iftrace fossils 5:520-521Vendian 4:378Walther, Johannes 2:243-244

biozones 1:294-305biochronozones 1:304, l:304fbiostratigraphic principles 5:301, 5:301f,

5:302fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434chronostratigraphical relationships

l:296fdating techniques 1:295-296Eocene 5:467fglossary information 1:305historical background 1:294Maastrichtian-Danian boundary 3:373fmultivariate biostratigraphic analyses

l:304fOppel, Albert 1:295Ordovician 4:176, 4:182Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Smith, William 1:294zone types

acme zone 1:302, 1:303fassemblage zone 1:301, 1:301 fconcurrent range zone 1:297, 1:298ffirst appearance/last appearance

1:296, l:297fgeneral discussion 1:296

interval zone 1:302, l:303flineage zone 1:300, l:300fmiscellaneous zones 1:304Oppel zone 1:299, 1:299frange zones 1:296taxon range zone 1:297, 1:298f

birds (Aves) 2:497-502Archaeopteryx 2:497Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172Confuciusornis 2:498fCretaceous 3:368, 3:369fdinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:495, 2:508,

3:358-359Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f9

2:500tEocene 5:469evolutionary history 2:497Jeholornis 2:497Jurassic 3:358-359Mesozoic relationships 2:498fMiocene 5:483Neornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501forigins 2:495Ornithuromorpha 2:498f, 2:499,

2:501fradiation patterns 2:499, 2:501fRahonavis 2:497Sphenisciformes 2:507Zhenzhoraptor 2:497

Birkenia 2:464fBirkhill Shale Formation 4:185bischoffite (MgCl2) 5:94bismuth (Bi)

mineral classification systems 3:501?,3:502t

natural occurrences 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsoil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

bismuthinite (Bi2S3)3:575?, 3:582f

Bithynian stage 3:345fbituminous coal 4:28, 4:30fbivalves (Bivalvia) 2:369-378

adaptive radiation 2:377black shales 4:497, 4:498fbrachiopods 2:301-310

affinities 2:303black shales 4:497Cambrian 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification 2:303, 2:304?, 2:305fCraniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304?,

2.-306/Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367fDevonian 4:194ecological structures 1:2621ecology 2:303end-Permian extinctions 4:220extinction events 2:309, 2:309fgeographic distribution 2:305Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182Jurassic 3:356life styles 2:307f

Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304?,2:306f

modern brachiopods 2:310morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2.-302/,

2:304?, 2:30SfOrdovician 4:179origins 2:303palaeocommunities 2:307fPermian 4:216phylogenetic relationships 2:306fradiation patterns 2:309Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302,

2:302f, 2:304?, 2:306/, 2:309fshell structure 2:302, 2:303fSilurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:185-186South-east Asia l:173f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306f,

2:309, 2:309fstratigraphic ranges 2:304?trace fossils 4:158, 4:158fTnassic 3:349f, 3:350

classificationAnomalodesmata 2:376?Cryptodonts 2:376?general discussion 2:376Heterodonta 2:376?Palaeoheterodonta 2:376?Palaeotaxodonta 2:376?Pteriomorphia 2:376?subclasses 2:376?

ecologyattachment processes 2:373, 2:375fboring bivalves 2:375, 2:375fburrowing bivalves 2:372, 2:374fbyssate attachment 2:373-374cemented attachment 2:375ecological structures l:262tfree living bivalves 2:375, 2:375fgeneral discussion 2:372swimming bivalves 2:373-374,

2:377-378evolutionary history 2:377, 2:377ffamily diversity 2:377ffossil assemblages 4:497, 4:498fgeneral discussion 2:369Inoceramus 4:3 84fJurassic 3:356-357life habits 4:141fmorphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375fpalaeoautecology 4:140, 4:141fpalaeosynecology 4:146f,

4:146-147paper pectens 4:497phylogenetic relationships 2:376predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161fshell morphology

dentition 2:37'4 fgeneral discussion 2:370growth bands 2:370f, 2:37Ifhinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376?internal structure 2:373fmicrostructures 2:372fmusculature 2:371, 2:3 73/", 2:376?

soft part anatomy 2:371, 2:373fTriassic 3:349

608 INDEX

blackband ironstonesdiagenesis 5:102ferruginization process 5:103, 5:104fgeneral description 5:99occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

Blackett,Paul3:194Black Forest, Germany 2:126f9 2:75, 2:81fBlack Hills, South Dakota, United States

4:21Black Sea

Alps 2:125anoxic environments 4:495, 4:496fBiblical geology 1:254calcareous algae 2:431as European border 3:648-649Holocene 2:151-152oceanic crust 3:650erogenic events 4:471Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:648black shales

anoxic environments 4:193, 4:496-497bedded cherts 5:54fossils 4:497, 4:498fGondwana 3:129large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fNorth Africa 1:21, l:22fNorth American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPhosphoria Formation, United States

4:500Silurian 4:193

black smokerschlorinity 5:37ItEast Pacific Rise 5:366f, 5:388, 5:388fecology 3:105growth stages 5:392f, 5:393fmineral deposits 3:491, 3:628, 5:388occurrence 3:115, 5:365structure 5:39Of

Black Warrior Basin 4:61, 4:62f, 4:67Blackwelder, Eliot 5:542-543Blake Outer Ridge 4:104-105, 4:93, 4:93fBlake Plateau 4:101f, 4:103, 4:105, 4:63,

4:93, 4:93f, 4:96f, 4:98-100Blake Ridge 4:106fblastomylonite 3:388tblended whiskies 3:82block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571fblossite (Cu2(V2O7)) 3:589tBlountian stage 4:75fBlue Mountains, United States 4:53,

4:55-56, 4:72Blue Ridge Mountains, United States

3:157/",4:12,4:76/"blueschist facies

composition 3:404definition 3:388tmineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400fpressure-temperature conditions 3:403fregional metamorphism 3:396/", 4:409f,

4:409-410

subduction zones 3:404fTasman Orogenic Belt l:246ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412fvolatile components 3:407f

Boborema Plateau, Brazil 1:309Bode's law 5:221body waves 5:333boggsite 3:593tBohemia 4:178-179, 4:193, 4:202fBohemian Massif

Mps2:126fAnisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk

palaeogeography 2:11 OfAptian-Albian palaeogeography 2:116fBajocian-Bathonian palaeogeography

2:112fBerriasian-Valanginian palaeogeography

2:115 fCretaceous 2:113dykes 2:117Eocene 2:120-124Jurassic 2:106f, 2:113, 2:114fKimmeridgian-Tithonian

palaeogeography 2:114-fOligocene 2:121f, 2:122fPalaeocene 2:117Permian 2:107fPermo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96fRhaetian-Hettangian palaeogeography

2:lllfScythian-Bundsandstein

palaeogeography 2:109 fSenonian-Danian palaeogeography

2:11 8 fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:538, 5:539Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:78, 2:80volcanic centres 2:120

bokite((Al,Fe)1.4(V,Fe)8O2o-74H2O)3:589t

Bokkeveld Group 3:129, 3:137fbolide impact craters 3:363;, 3:383, 4:95,

4:98fBolivia 4:208fBolivian orocline 1:126Bol'shezemel'skaya Zone 2:52, 2:52f, 2:53f,

2:54fBolsovian subdivision 4:202fBoltwood, Bernard 3:186bombs 4:387t, 4:390;, 5:572tBonaparte Basin 3:129, 3:139Bonarelli Event 4:497-499Bona vista platform 4:100, 4:96 fboninites 1:2-3Book Cliffs, Utah, United States 4:575,

4:576fbook gills 2:277book lice 2:300;bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, S:404fboracite (Mg3B7O13Cl) 3:512*, 3:S12fborax anhydrous (B2O3) 3:519tborax decahydrate (Na2B4O7-10H2O)

3:519;borax (Na2B4O7-10H2O) 3:510,

3:511-512, 3:512^ 3:513;, 3:514

borax pentahydrate (Na2B4O7-5H2O)3:519;

Borborema Plateau, Brazil 1:3 09f, 1:312fBorborema strike-slip system 1:307f,

l:315f, 1:323Borch, Ole 2:226-227Boreal Basin 4:461Boreosphenida 2:528fBorneo 4:209, 5:446-447Bornetella 2:433Bornholm Island 2:98bornite (Cu5FeS4) 3:582f, 3:585t, 3:630;,

5:394;boron (B)

boratesArgentine borate deposits 3:513;chemistry 3:514commercial borate minerals 3:512;commercial refined borate products

3:519;definition 3:511depositional environment

formation processes 3:516, 3:516fmagmatic sources 3:517marine evaporites 3:517non-marine basins 3:517occurrences 3:515playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517

exploration techniquew 3:518geological environment 3:511, 3:512fglobal distribution 3:51 Ifhistorical background 3:510life estimates 3:521;mineralogy 3:511, 3:512;mining operations 3:519origins 3:512fprocessing techniques 3:519reserve deposits 3:521;Turkish borate deposits 3:513;uses 3:511, 3:520, 3:520fworld production rates 3:52If

boric acid (H3BO3) 3:519;, 3:519-520hydrothermal fluids 3:629;mineral classification systems 3:501;,

3:502;oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114;soil concentrations 2:22;toxicity 2:22;

Boron mining district, United StatesSee ore bodies, borates

Boscovich, R. 1:98Bosumtwi Crater 5:445fBos well, Percy 3:188Bothnian Basin 2:40, 2:149-150Bothriocidaris 2:352-353, 2:353fBothriolepis 2:466Botoman stage 4:167fBotswana 3:7;Boue, Ami 2:183, 3:178Bouguer gravity anomaly 1:1 OOf, 1:105f,

2:92-94, 2:93f, 4:67, 4:68fBouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fBoundary Mountain Terrane 4:83-84boundary stratotypes 5:504, 5:506f

f

INDEX 609

boundstone 3:527/", 5:109 f, 5:110, S:lllfBournon, Jacques-Louis, comte de 3:61Bowe Basin 3:129Bowen Basin 1:242, 1:250Bowen, Norman 3:187, 3:187fBowie, William 3:183, 3:194Bowring, S. 4:219Boyd, George W. 2:195Boyle, Robert 1:257brachinites 5:23Itbrachiopods 2:301-310

affinities 2:303black shales 4:497Cambrian 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification 2:303, 2:304?, 2:305fCraniiformea 2:301, 2.-302/", 2:304?,

2:306fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fDevonian 4:194ecological structures l:262tecology 2:303end-Permian extinctions 4:220extinction events 2:309, 2:309fgeographic distribution 2:305Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182Jurassic 3:356life styles 2:307fLinguliformea 2:301, 2:302/", 2:304?,

2:306fmodern brachiopods 2:310morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,

2:304?, 2:305fOrdovician 4:179origins 2:303palaeocommunities 2:307fPermian 4:216phylogenetic relationships 2:306fpreservation 4:157, 4:158fradiation patterns 2:309Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302, 2.-302/",

2:304?, 2:306f, 2:309fshell structure 2:302, 2:303fSilurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:158, 4:158f,

4:185-186South-east Asia 1:173 f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306/~, 2:309,

2:309fstratigraphic ranges 2:304?Triassic 3:349f, 3:350

Brachiosaurus 2:493fBrachiosaurus brancai 2:169Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fbrackebuschite

(Pb2(Mn,Fe,Zn)(VO4)2(OH,H2O))3.-5S9?

Bragg Law 1:62Bragg, W.H. 3:501Bragg, W. L. 3:501Brahmaputra River 4:65It, 5:19tbraided river systems 4:656f, 4:657f,

4:659/", 4:676, 5:137, 5:138,5:139f

braid-plains 4:541f, 4:542Branchian stage 4:169f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fbrandtite 3:508fBrasiliano-Pan-African orogeny 1:307-308,a

Brasilia orogenic belt I:310f9 l:314f,1:320

braunite 3:512fBrazil 1:306-328, 3:11, 3:llf

cratonsAmazon craton 1:311, l:311f, l:312fgeneral discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields 1:238f, l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, l:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:310 f9

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312

flying reptiles 2:509-510, 2:512f9

2:512-513, 2:514, 2:5'14fgemstones 3:7t9 3:12glossary information 1:328large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363tNeoproterozoic orogenic domains

Aracuai orogenic event 1:313f, 1:315Araguaia orogenic belt l:314f, 1:319Borborema strike-slip system 1:307f,

1:315 f, 1:323Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318general discussion 1:314Mantiqueira orogenic system 1:307'f,

l:313f, 1:315Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318suture zones 1:312fTocantins orogenic system 1:307f,

l:314f, 1:319palaeogeographic reconstruction 1:323fPhanerozoic sedimentary basins

Amazonas basin I:316f9 1:317fBarreirinhas basin l:326fCampos basin 1:321 f9 l:322fCeara basin 1:325fcontinental margin basins 1:316f9

1:325eastern Brazilian margin basins 1:321 f9

l:322f, 1:325equatorial margin basins I:324f9

1:325f, 1:326, l:326fEspirito Santo basin l:321f, l:322fgeneral discussion 1:306, 1:324geographic distribution l:306finterior rifts l:316f, 1:327, 1:327fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:319fPalaeozoic sag basins I:316f9 I:317f9

l:318f, 1:324Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin 1:314, l:316f, l:317f,

l:318f,l:319f,l:320f, 1:324Parnaiba basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318fPotiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f, 1:327fReconcavo basin 1:327fSantos basin l:321f, l:322fSergipe-Alagoas basin l:322f

Solimoes basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318fstratigraphy 1:317f

tectonic processes 1:306, l:306f, l:307f,1:308 f

thermotectonic events l:308ttopography 1:309, l:309fzeolites 3:598

brazilianite 5:124-125Brazilian strength test 1:573-575breccia 3:388t, 5:129, 5:268breithauptite (NiSb) 3:575?Brent Crater, Ontario, Canada 3:279fBrevard fault zone, Appalachians

4:78-79brewsterite 3:593tBrianconnais swell 2:125-126, 2:133f,

2:133-135brickearth 1:555-556, 1:5 57fbricks 1:367Bridge River terrane 4:40f9 4:46-47Brigantian subdivision 4:202fbrines 3:519Bringewood Formation 4:186f9 4:189bristletails 2:300?Bristol Hot Springs, England 3:114britholite 3:221British Columbia, Canada

Global Standard Stratotype Sections andPoints (GSSPs) 5:506f

granitic rocks 3:236Jurassic 3:352tmarine reptiles 2:503-504northern Cordillera 4:38Oligocene 5:476-477Precambrian continental nucleus 4:8Triassic 3:345-346zeolites 3:598

British Empire 1:370British Geological Survey 3:67brittle failure

See fracturesbroadband reflective multispectral sensors

4:434?, 4:436Broken Bow Uplift 4:62f, 4:64f, 4:65, 4:68fBroken Ridge 3:315f, 3:316tBromidechinus 2:353f, 2:355bromine (Br) 3:501 f, 3:502?, 3:629?Brongniart, Alexandre 1:295, 2:181, 3:175,

3:352Bronn, Heinrich Georg 1:295Brooks Range 4:44-45Broome Head Metamorphic Complex

l:246fBrown, Arthur I. 1:384Brown Beers 3:81Brown, Walter T. 1:385brucite (Mg(OH)2) 3:396-397, 3:397/",

3:559, 5:394?Bruckmann, U. F. B. 3:268Bruckner, Edouard 3:181Brunhes, Bernard 3:194Brunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal

5:506fbrushite 5:126Bryan, William Jennings 1:384

610 INDEX

bryozoans (Bryozoa) 2:310-320anatomy 2:310, 2:311 fbryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fCarboniferous 4:212chalk 5:44,

5:45'f, 5:46fclassification

Cheilostomes l:274f, 2:315, 2:315*,2:316f, 2:319f

Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,2:319f

Ctenostomes 2:315, 2:315*, 2:319fCyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,

2:319 fCystoporates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,

2:319 fFenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,

2:319 fgeneral discussion 2:314Gymnolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*Phylactolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*,

2:319 fprimary groups 2:315*Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,

2:319 fTrepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,

2:319 fcolonial variations 2:313colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f9

2:313 fcompetition 4:144-145Cretaceous 1:272f, 1:274 f, 1:274-276,

3:367, 3:367fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379ecological structures 1:262*end-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469evolution 1:274 ffeeding habits 2:310geological range 2:315*Jurassic 1:2 74 f,

1:274-276, 3:356morphology 2:315*nervous system 2:312occurrence 2:318Ordovician4:179Palaeocene 5:462palaeoecology 2:320Permian 4:216polymorphism 2:313punctuated equilibrium 1:268-269,

l:271fradiations 1:2 72 freproduction 2:312skeletons 2:314Triassic 3:349f, 3:350

Buch, Leopold von 2:237, 3:171, 3:174,3:268

Buckland, William 2:177, 2:183, 2:206,2:224-225, 2:401, 3:176-177

Buettneria perfecta 2:518fBuffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de

3:171bugs 2:297/i 2:300*

building materialsaggregates 1:41building stones 1:328-333

characteristics 1:329*, 1:330geological controls 1:330, 1:330*historical use 1:328,1:329*modern use 1:329*petrographic studies 1:333recovery planning and permitting

process 1:332*, 1:333source location tasks 1:331*, 1:333stone masonry 1:33It, 1:333

clays 1:367concrete

aggregates 1:42military geology 3:478non-destructive testing 1:497*physical properties 1:453*

earthquakes 5:322, 5:325fforensic geology 2:263,

2:265*, 2:266^limestones 5:112military geology 3:478, 3:484fmineral deposits 1:437quarrying 4:399-405travertine 3:116-117, 3:117fweathering 5:588See also made ground

Buildwas Formation 4:186f, 4:188-189buliminids 3:45OfBullen, Keith 3:195Bunsen, Robert 3:184Bunter formation, Germany 3:344burbankite 3:221, 3:221*Burdigalian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479/i5:506/",5:517/"Burgess Shale

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general discussion 3:310*insects 2:296obrution 3:311 fOpabinia3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

Burma 3:7*, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12,4:192-193

Burnet, Thomas 3:170Burrellian stage 4:183 fBury, Richard de 1:430Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa

3:491-492bustamite 3:569butane (C4H10) 4:258, 4:259fbutterflies (Lepidoptera) 2:297f, 2:298f,

2:300*, 5:469buttgenbachite 3:556*bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:585fByrd Subglacial Basin 1:133fByrd Subglacial Mountains 3:147, 3:151f9

3:152fbytownite 3:534/i 3:535

C4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482, 5:483,5:484, 5:491

Cache Creek terrane 4:40 f, 4:46-47, 4:54Cacops 2:477fcacoxenite 5:124-125caddisflies 2:297f, 2:300*cadmium (Cd)

hydrothermal fluids 3:629*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*natural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*soil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

Cadomian Orogeny 2:75-78, 3:133f9

3:648, 4:352Cadwallader terrane 4:40/", 4:46caecilians 2:521f9 2:522, 2:525cahnite (Ca2AsBO6-2H2O) 3:512*, 3:513*Cailleux, Andre 2:244Calabrian Trench 5:430*, 5:430fCalamopityales 2:447calaverite (AuTe2) 3:119*, 3:630*calcareous algae 2:428-436

Archaeolithophyllum 2:435fbackground information 2:428calcified cyanobacteria 2:434, 2:435fcarbonate sedimentation 3:524f, 3:529Cayeuxia 2:435fchlorophyta (green algae)

charophyceae 2:433, 2:434fcyclocriniteae 2:433dasycladales 2:432, 2:433fHalimeda 2:432, 2:432fhalimedales 2:432

coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:43Ifextraction methods 3:471, 3:472fgymnocodiaceae 2:434haptophyta 2:430, 2:431 fLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383fPalaeocene 2:433 f, 5:462Phanerozoic 2:428, 2:428fphylloid algae 2:434, 2:435freef environments 2:243, 2:244, 2:428,

2:429frhodophyta (red algae)

corallinales 2:428, 2:429fLithothamnion 2:429fpeyssonneliaceae 2:430, 2:430fPolystrata 2:430fsolenoporaceae 2:429, 2:43 O/"Solenoporella 2:430f

shorelines and shelves 4:506stratigraphic range 2:428f

calcareous nannoplankton 3:366, 3:366/i3:373/", 5:462, 5:467/", 5:468

calcareous oozes 4:642 f, 4:648, 5:70, 5:71 f,5:74, 5:74f, 5:75*

calcification 5:194f, 5:196f9 5:200Calcifolium 2:434calcite (CaCO3)

amphiboles 3:505

c

INDEX 611

calcite (CaCO3) (continued)bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372fcarbonatites 3:220, 3:221*cementation 5:143, 5:143tchemical diagenesis 1:394depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:145fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,

5:394*ironstones 5:99limestones 5:108tmetamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:401foccurrence 3:523-524, 5:108tVendian 4:372

calcite compensation depth (CCD) 3:528,5:73, S:73f

calcium arsenate hydrate 3:509*calcium (Ca)

apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 3:312, 3:312f,5:120-128

carbonatites 3:221*, 3:221-222kimberlites 3:254soft tissue mineralisation 3:312,

3:312fvine nourishment 3:88

aragonite (CaCO3)bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372fchemical diagenesis 1:394gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383fhydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*ironstones 5:99lacustrine deposits 4:558limestones 5:108, 5:108tnon-marine environments 3:530-531occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108toolitic sands 4:510-511ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533/brewing process 3:79, 3:80*calcite (CaCO3)

chemical diagenesis 1:394depth effects 5:63fironstones 5:99limestones 5:107, 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:108t

calcrete 3:365, 5:588carbonatites 3:223*crustal composition 1:406*, 5:174*geothermal systems 3:113*glauconite 3:542*hydrothermal fluids 3:629*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*kimberlites 3:248*mineral analysis 1:108*obsidian 3:269*oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*Venus 5:247*See also carbonates; evaporites

calcrete 1:562, 3:365, 4:134, 4:138-139,5:588

calcurmolite(Ca(U02)3(Mo04)3(OH)rllH20)3:552*

calderas 1:123 f, 1:126, 5:566, 5:567f

CaledonidesAltai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fBritish Isles 2:56-63

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:57ftectonic evolution

Devonian 2:62Ordovician 2:61palaeogeographic reconstruction

2:S7fSilurian 2:61, 2:62

terranesConnemara terrane 2:60Grampian terrane 2:59Hebridean terrane 2:59Lake District terrane 2:60Midlands terrane 2:61Midland Valley terrane 2:60Monian terrane 2:60Northern Highland terrane 2:59Southern Uplands terrane 2:60Welsh Basin terrane 2:60

China 1:349 f, 1:351granitic rocks 3:237*Greenland

eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69fgranitic rocks 3:239

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:56,2:S7f

Scandinavia 2:64-74Arctic Caledonides 2:71/~, 2:72fbackground information 2:64Baltica continental margin 2:65f, 2:67,

3:648Barents Shelf 2:50/i 2:64, 2:64f, 2:70eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 2:71fgeographic location 2:35fKoli Nappe Complex 2:65/j 2:67Laurentian continental margin 2:65/,

2:67Lower Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66Middle Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66Nordaustlandet Terrane 2:70-71Norwegian Caledonides

5:536/; 5:537Scandian collision 2:68Seve Nappe Complex 2:65'/", 2:67Silurian 4:191Svalbard 2:70, 2:70 f, 2:71ftectonic evolution 2:73, 2:73ftectonic features 2:72fTertiary 2:64fthrust sheets 2:64, 2:65fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:536/i 5:537Upper Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67Uppermost Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67western Scandinavia 2:64, 2:65fWest Ny Friesland Terrane 2:71-72

Suess, Eduard 2:238tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:58f

calendars, astronomical 1:77, 1:78/", 1:81*California

Cretaceous 3:364Franciscan Complex 1:243-244gemstones 3:11

Glass Mountain, California, UnitedStates 3:270, 3:274f

gold mining 3:125fGold Rush 3:122, 3:123, 3:126liquefaction l:530f, l:532f, 1:533fLong Valley rhyolites 3:246marine biota 5:482-483Miocene fault systems 5:479-480Mono Craters, California, United States

3:270, 3:272f, 3:273fOligocene 5:476-477Triassic 4:55-56wine geology 3:85-87, 3:88-89zeolites 3:599See also Cordillera

Callcott, Maria, Lady 3:61Callisto 5:284*, 5:285Callistophytales 2:449Callixylon newberryi 2:439fCallovian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354, 3:354/",

3:355Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99^

Calymmian System 5:51 If, 5:517fCambalong Metamorphic Complex

1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246fCambodia 3:8, 3:9f, 3:10f, 5:448Cambrian 4:163-175

acritarchs4:169/"Antarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:76Arabia l:142f, 1:144fArgentina l:156farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:276Australia

Cambrian, early 1:225, 1:225fCambrian, early-middle 1:225f, 1:226Cambrian, late 1:225 f, 1:227Stratigraphic correlation 4:167f

Avalonia4:169/"Baltica l:173f, 4:164, 4:170fBaltic Shield 4:169fbiodiversity 1.-260/", 1:262*brachiopods 2.-306/", 4:171Brazil 1:317f, 1:318 fBurgess Shale

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general description 3:310*insects 2:296obrution3:311/"Opabinia3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

calcareous algae 2:428fCambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380carbon cycle 1:204-206carbon dioxide concentrations l:206f

612 INDEX

Cambrian (continued)cephalopods 2:389fChengjiang lagerstatten 2:455,

3:312-313, 3:313fChina 1:347f, 4:167'f, 5:511fchronostratigraphy

boundaries 4:164radiometric dating 4:164sequence stratigraphy 4:25fstratigraphical sequences 4:164,

4:167f,4:169f,4:170fstratigraphic correlation 4:167f

clay occurrences 1:364climate 4:165conodonts 3:441, 3:447corals 2:325f,2:327fcrinoids 2:347fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38/,

4:458-459echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336f, 4:171environmental conditions

carbon isotopic ratios 4:165-166,4:171 fclimate 4:165-166evaporites 4:165general discussion 4:165length of year 4:167-170sea water chemistry 4:165strontium isotopic ratios

4:165, 4:171fterrestrial conditions 4:167

evolutionary radiations 2:165-166fish 2:462, 2:463fFurongian series 5:511f9 5:517fgastropods 2:386, 2:386fglacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

general discussion 3:128, 4:164geological evolution 1:178palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:133 f,4:170ftectonic processes 3:132fterranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f, 2:365fHox gene development 2:166Hydroconozoa 2:321lapetus Ocean 4:81, 4:83f, 4:17OfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fjawless fish 2:454, 2:460fKazakhstan 1:173 fLagerstatten 3:31 OtLaurentia 1:173f, 2:56, 4:164, 4:169f,

4:170fmolluscs 2:367Morocco 4:169fNewfoundland 4:164nineteenth century stratigraphic

correlations 2:219fNorth Africa I:14f9 1:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19 fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f

Northern Appalachiansarc magmatism 4:85general discussion 4:81palaeogeography 4:83ftectonic evolution 4:89tectonostratigraphical zones

Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,4:90f

Exploits subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87fGander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,

4:87fHumber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f, 4:84f,

4:85, 4:87ftectonostratigraphic relationships

4:84fnorthern Cordillera 4:39, 4:44Nova Scotia 4:164ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460fOuachita Mountains 4:62, 4:64foxygen concentrations 1:206fPaibian stage 5:511f95:517fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 4:83f,

4:164, 4:170fPanthalassic Ocean 4:17OfPechora Basin 2:53fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417, 4:171Precambrian-Cambrian boundary

2:165-166radiation patterns

brachiopods 4:171echinoderms 4:171faunal provinces 4:172, 4:173ffish 2:463flife forms 4:171, 4:172fNeoproterozoic 4:171Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Biotic

Transition 4:172porifera (Porifera) 4:171trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f,

4:174freef environments 4:565sea-level changes 4:2 6fSedgwick, Adam 2:211Siberia l:173f, 4:164, 4:170fSiberian craton 4:167f, 4:461South-east Asia

geological evolution 1:178stratigraphic correlation I:183f9

1:185 fsouthern Cordillera 4:50species radiations 1:278Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTreptichnus pedum 4:164trilobites (Trilobita)

biogeographical distribution 4:173fbiostratigraphy 2:294fexoskeletons 2:292ffirst appearance 4:164, 4:171occurrence 2:291Xystridura templetonensis 4:174f

Wales 4:163, 4:164Cambridge University 3:197

Cam Clay 5:185, 5:192Cameroon Line 4:479caminite 5:394tCampanian-Maastrichtian

black shales l:22fboundary stratotypes 3:372extinction events 3:383marine invertebrates 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:381fNorth Africa 1:23, 1:24, l:24fterrestrial invertebrates 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:382fvegetation 3:383f

Campanian stageanoxic events 3:363Atlantic Margin 4:104fbolide impact craters 3:363tKrazi\l:322f,l:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fenvironmental zones 3:365fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367fmarine vertebrates 3:368fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369fvegetation 3:37Of

Campos basin l:321f, 1:322fCampylognathoides 2:513-514Campylognathoididae 2:513-514Canada

bolide impact craters 3:363tCarboniferous 4:211flying reptiles 2:515gemstones 3:7tGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511fjawless fish 2:458-459Jurassic 3:352tsharks 2:462Triassic 3:344See also specific provinces

Canadian Council of ProfessionalGeoscientists 3:75, 3:77*, 3:78

Canadian Shield 4:22fbasement gneisses 4:10fcarbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 4:23fkimberlites 4:8-9, 4:llfphysiographic provinces 4:22fPrecambrian continental nucleus 4:21structural provinces 5:175, 5:176ftectonic map 4:23fSee also Slave craton

Canadian subdivision 4:176, 4:177Canary Islands 3:315f, 3:316tCanning Basin 3:129Cannonball Sea 5:460-461Cantabrian subdivision 4:202f

INDEX 613

Cape Cod, Massachusetts, United States4:88-89,4:192-193

Cape Fear slide 4:94f, 4:94-95Cape Hatteras, Massachusetts, United

States 4:93-94, 4:106fCapeller, Moritz Anton 3:171Cape Verde Rise 3:315f, 3:316tCapitanian stage 4:215'?, 4:219f, 4:221 f,

5:511 f,5:517fCapitan Reef Complex, New Mexico,

United States 4:566, 4:566f, 5:135capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477/", 2:518,

2:519 fCapricorn Orogeny l:209f, 1:209-210,

l:211f,l:212f,l:239fcaptorhinids 2:481, 2:481fCaradocian subdivision

Appalachians 4:76-77, 4:83-84, 4:84f,4:87f

biodiversity 4:180fextinction events 4:179general discussion 4:175-176, 4:178mountain-building processes 4:182-184palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:179-180terrane migration 4:182f

carats 3:118carbonate reservoirs

characterization 4:235, 4:313karst landscapes 4:235, 4:237fpermeability 4:316f, 4:317fporosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 4:317fSee also petroleum geology

carbonates 3:522-532ankerite (Ca(MgFe)(CO3)2)

ironstones 5:99limestones 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:108t

Arabia 1:145aragonite (CaCO3)

bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372fchemical diagenesis 1:394gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383fhydrothermal vents 5:394tironstones 5:99lacustrine deposits 4:558limestones 5:108, 5:108tnon-marine environments 3:530-531occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108toolitic sands 4:510-511ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fAtlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103fbrewing process 3:80, 3:80tcalcite (CaCO3)

amphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:220, 3:221?cementation 5:143, 5:143tdiagenetic processes 5:145fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,

5:394?ironstones 5:99occurrence 3:523-524Vendian 4:372

calcrete 3:365, 5:588

carbonatites 3:220, 3:221tcomponents

allochems 3:525, 3:526fbioclasts 3:525, 3:526fclassification 3:526Dunham's classification system 3:527f,

3:527-528fecal pellets 3:525Folk's classification system 3:527flithoclasts 3:525, 3:526fmicrite 3:525-526, 3:527f

constituent minerals 3:523Dana classification system 3:502tdepositional environment

caves (endokarst) 3:523fgeneral discussion 3:522hot springs 3:523flakes 3:523f, 4:556, 4:557, 4:558flimestones 5:110, 5:110f9 5:lllfreefs and mounds 3:523fshorelines and shelves 3:524f, 4:102,

4:103f, 4:501-513, 5:110,5:111 f

diagenesis 3:531dissolution processes 1:550, l:550fdolomite 5:79-94

amphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:220, 3:221tcementation 5:143chemical diagenesis 1:394classification 5:26tcomposition 5:79diagenetic processes 5:145fdolomitization

anhydrite replacement 5:84fcarbonate diagenesis 3:531dolostone development 3:526f,

5:85fenvironmental settings 5:88hypersaline environments 5:90hyposaline environments 5:89limestone dolomitization 5:86fmass balance constraints 5:80matrix replacement 5:83fmicrobial/organogenic models 5:88mixing zone model 5:89molds 5:84fpenecontemporaneous dolomites

5:88reflux model 5:90sabkha model 5:90-91sea water dolomitization 5:91subsurface environments 5:91textural evolution 5:82vugs 5:83f

formation processes 5:79general discussion 5:79geochemistry

general discussion 5:84isotope studies 5:85, 5:89 frecrystallization 5:86-87, 5:89f

grain analysis 5:30, 5:3 Ifhydrothermal activity 5:87-88, 5:90fironstones 5:99kinetic constraints 5:80

limestones 5:107-108mass balance constraints 5:80North Africa 1:24occurrence 3:524-525permeability 5:83, 5:88fpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235,

4:23 6fpore size classification 5:81, 5:82fporosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 5:83, 5:88fsaddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f, 5:87f,

5:87-88secular distribution 5:93textural classification 5:81, 5:81fthermodynamic constraints 5:80ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fVendian 4:372

geological proxies 4:132f, 4:133geotechnical properties 1:549, l:549t,

1:5 50fgeothermal systems 3:113tgrain analysis 5:30, 5:31Hey's chemical classification system

3:501thydrothermal fluids 3:629?hydrothermal vents 5:394?lacustrine deposits 4:556,

4:557, 4:558fLagerstatten 3:313limestones 5:107-113

aggregates 1:35Mps2:131fbrewing process 3:80bryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fchemical diagenesis 1:394classification 4:454, 5:110, 5:26?comparison with sandstones 5:107densities 5:321fdepositional environment 5:110,

5:110f95:lllfdiagenesis 5:112dissolution processes 1:550, 1:550fdolomitization 5:107-108, 5:112economic importance 5:112encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fgeotechnical properties 1:549, Jf:549?,

l:550f,3:102tgrain analysis 5:107, 5:108, 5:109 f,

5:30, 5:30fground subsidence 2:10karst landscapes 1:550-551, l:551f,

4:679matrix composition 5:110mineralogy 5:108, 5:108tnomenclature 5:110Ordovician4:lS2/"petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235porosity l:549t, 4:234/", 4:236/",

5:107-108Proterozoic 4:351shorelines and shelves 4:505-506,

5:110, 5:lllfstromatolites 1:430, l:431f

long-term carbon cycle 1:339fmarine environments

614 INDEX

carbonates (continued)attached rimmed carbonate ramps

3:528attached rimmed carbonate shelves

3:528beaches 3:524fcomposition 3:528depositional systems 3:528, 3:528fdistribution 3:528intertidal flats 3:524flagoons 3:S24flong-term carbon cycle 1:339freefs and mounds 3:523/, 3:529sedimentary processes 3:530

metamorphic rocks 3:396,3:396f, 3:399,3:400f

mineral deposits 3:495non-marine environments 3:530porosity 1:549trelative abundance 4:504fshorelines and shelves 4:501-513

Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 OfAtlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103fattached rimmed carbonate ramp,

temperate environment 3:528,4:511, 4:511f,4:512f

attached rimmed carbonate ramp,tropical environment 3:528,4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of

attached rimmed carbonate shelf3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f

beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135carbonate rock abundances 4:504fcarbonate sands 4.-506/", 4:508f,

4:509f, 4:51 Ofcomposition 4:501Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:505,

4:505f, 4:506f, 4:93fglobal distribution 4:503fGreat Bahama Bank 4:503 f, 4:505f,

4:507, 4:508flimestones 4:505-506, 5:110, 5:lllfmorphology 4:502-504, 4:504fnorth-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:511,

4:511f,4:512foolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:51 Ofreef environments 4:562-570

acritarchs 3:427fatolls 4:481, 4:564background information 4:562bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:563fbarrier reefs 4:564bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:563fCambrian 4:565carbonate sedimentation 1:343f,

3:523f, 3:529Carboniferous 4:565-566Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,

3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565examples 4:502fextinction events 4:565-566,

4:566-567

floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,4:564f

Florida-Bahamas shelf region4:506f, 4:507

framestone 3:527f, 4:562f,4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569f

fringing reefs 4:564, 4:568fJurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567/lagoons 4:564Miocene 4:568f, 4:569fmodern reef formation 4:562morphology 4:562, 4:568fpatch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564Permian 4:565-566, 4:566frudists 4:567f, 4:567-568rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:564fSilurian 4:565stromatolites 3:524f, 4:565Tertiary 4:568-569Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567Walther, Johannes 2:244zonation 4:562

sediment accumulation 4:502seismic profile 4:503fsequence stratigraphy 5:166unattached rimmed carbonate shelf

4:507, 4:508fsiderite (FeCO3) 5:31Strunz classification system 3:502tVendian 4:372weathering processes 5:583, 5:588

carbonatites 3:217-233age determination 3:220characteristics 3:217classification 3:218teconomic deposits 3:221, 3:22Itextraterrestrial planets 3:232fgeochemical analysis

chemical composition 3:221, 3:223tgeneral discussion 3:222lead isotope ratios 3:225f, 3:226frare earth element plots 3:224fstable isotope studies 3:222, 3:226f,

3:227f, 3:228f, 3:229ftrace element ratios 3:224f, 3:224t

global distribution 3:218, 3:218flava/lava flows 3:218tmagmatic ores 3:640mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:228, 3:232fmantle sources 3:227, 3:227f, 3:231 f,

3:232fmetasomatism 3:229, 3:232fmineral deposits 3:492mineralogy 3:220, 3:221toccurrence 3:218, 3:259Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220?, 3:220-221,

3:224f, 3:225, 3:230forigins 3:227peridotites 3:23Ifphase equilibrium studies 3:231, 3:232frift valleys 5:438-439rock associations 3:220tschematic diagram 3:219fvolcanism 5:569-571

carbon (C)allotropes 3:554carbon cycle 1:335-345

anthropogenic carbon dioxide sources1:343, 1:343 f, 1:344 f, 1:345 f

basic principles 1:335, l:336fCambrian 1:204-206Carboniferous 1:204-206geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,

l:342fglacial/interglacial periods 1:341,

l:342f, 1:343 flong-term carbon cycle I:336f9 1:338,

1:338 f, 1:339 fOrdovician 1:204-206Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204,

l:205f, 1:206, l:206fshort-term carbon cycle 1:335,1:336f,

1:337fcarbon dioxide (CO2)

atmospheric concentrationsabundances 1:197'tanthropogenic sources 1:343f,

l:344f, 1:345 fchanges l:206fend-Permian extinctions 4:223,

4:223fgeneral discussion 1:206geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,

1:342 fglacial/interglacial periods 1:342f,

1:343 fVenus 5:246?

C4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482,5:483, 5:484, 5:491

carbonatites 3:223?carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f, l:337f,

1:338Carboniferous 4:207Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383Devonian concentrations 4:196, 4:196fhydrothermal fluids 3:629?kimberlites 3:245?landfills 2:14, 2:15fmetamorphic facies 3:407Miocene concentrations 5:482natural gas content 4:259?, 4:260Oligocene 5:475Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204, 1:206,

l:206fterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

l:200tweathering effects 5:589

carbon monoxide (CO) l:197t, l:200t,5:246?

diamondsAustralia l:218f, 1:221Canadian Shield 4:11 f, 4:8-9carbonatites 3:222geochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f,

3:24fgeographic distribution 3:7?kimberlites 3:247-260, 3:255, 3:492,

4:8-9, 4:11 f

INDEX 615

carbon (C) (continued)lamproites 3:257, 3:259/natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554placer deposits 3:489-490, 3:490fprospecting methods 3:256Russia 4:473shock metamorphic effects 5:183tSouth-east Asia 1:17Sf, 1:196ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533/", 5:534/", 5:536-537uncut diamond 3:258f

graphitenatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554shock metamorphic effects 5:183tultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fisotopes

Cambrian 4:165-166, 4:171fcarbonatites 3:222, 3:229fCarbon Isotope Excursion (CIE)

5:466, 5:467f, 5:470, 5:470fchemical fossils 1:293chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f, 1:87chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:439dendrochronology 1:391diagenetic quantification 5:146,

S:148fdolomite formation 5:85, 5:89fgeoarchaeology 3:18, 3:19fironstones 5:103landfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18fnatural gas 4:258, 4:259forigin of life 4:366Palaeocene 5:460, 5:464Vendian 4:379

natural occurrences 3:554petroleum system

hydrogen index 4:279fkerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277/", 4:278forganic matter determination 4:272,

4:272fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,

4:2 77fsource rock quality 4:272f

radiocarbon (14C) 3:20total organic carbon (TOC)

hydrogen index 4:279fkerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277/", 4:278forganic matter determination 4:272,

4:27 2fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,

4:2 77fsource rock quality 4:272f

See also carbonatesCarboniferous 4:200-213

acritarchs 3:418-428algae 4:212amphibians 2:519-520, 2:520fAngaran flora 4:206fangiosperms 2:422f, 2:423Antarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:78Arabia l:144fArchaeolithophyllum 2:435farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277

atmospheric composition 4:205, 4:207fAtokian stage 4:209fAustralia l:226f, l:227f, 1:234Bashiorian stage 4:201 f, 4:202biodiversity 1:262-263, l:263fbrachiopods 2:306f, 4:212Krsizill:317f,l:318f,l:320fbryozoans 4:212calcareous algae 2:428fcarbon cycle 1:204-206carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fcephalopods 2:389fChesterian stage 4:209fChina 1:347fclimate 4:207, 4:208 f, 4:209f, 4:210fconodonts 4:212continent formation 4:204, 4:205fcorals 2:325/", 4:212crinoids 2:346, 2:347f, 4:212Desmoinian stage 4:209fDinantian division 4:201dolostones 5:91East European Craton

2:36, 2:38f, 4:460echinoderms 2:336/j 2:337echinoids 2:355environmental settings 4:203fire effects 4:209fish 2:463f, 4:212fossil fungi 2:440gastropods 2:386f, 2:387glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglaciation l:226f, 1:234, 4:131, 4:207,

4:208f, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

continent formation 4:204general discussion 3:139geological evolution 1:178, l:181tglaciation 4:208fNamurian stage 3:139, 3:141fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

I:182f9 l:184f, 3:140f, 3:141fParana basin 1:319f, 1:320fPermo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:101fterranes3:230/"

goniatites 4:212Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland 3:441,

3:442fgraptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358fgymnosperms

biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCalamopityales 2:447Callistophytales 2:449Cordaitales 2:449Cycadales 2:448, 2:449fgeneral discussion 2:446Hydraspermales 2:447Lyginopteridales 2:448Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fVoltziales 2:449

Gzhelian stage 4:201f, 4:202historical setting 4:201

insects 1:204-206, 2:296-298, 2:299f,2:300?, 4:210-211

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

ironstones 5:106, 5:97-98jawless fish 2:460fKasimovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202Kazakhstan l:182f, I:184f9 4:201Lagerstatten 3:310tLaurasia 4:204, 4:212Laurentia l:182f,l:184flithology 4:203, 4:204fmarine biota 4:212mass extinctions 4:212Mazon Creek 2:274-275Mississippian

Angaran flora 4:206fAppalachians 4:79, 4:80fchronostratigraphy 4:201, 4:25fclimatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fglaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fMississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201Namurian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209fnomenclature 4:201 fOuachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fpalynological zonations 3:468fPangaea 4:226fsea-level changes 4:26fTournaisan stage 4:202f, 4:208ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Visean stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f

Missourian stage 4:209fmolluscs 2:367Moscovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202Namurian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209fNeuropteris heterophylla 2:447fNew Caledonia 4:116North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21North American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fNorthern Appalachians 4:81, 4:87f,

4:88, 4:90fnorthern Cordillera 4:44ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461Ouachita Mountains 4:61oxygen concentrations 1:206fpalaeobiogeography 4:204, 4:206fpalaeoclimate 4:227palynological zonations 3:468fPangaea 4:204, 4:212, 4:225, 4:226/Pennsylvanian

Angaran flora 4:206fchronostratigraphy 4:201, 4:25/climatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fglaciation 4:208fMississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201

616 INDEX

Carboniferous (continued]nomenclature 4:201 fOuachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fPangaea 4:226fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417sea-level changes 4:26fsouthern Cordillera 4:50Stephanian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,

4:209ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Westphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,

4:209fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:653North German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,

2:WlfOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,

2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

phylloid algae 2:434plankton 4:212polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417, 4:212reef environments 4:565-566Serpukhovian stage 4:201f, 4:202sharks 2:463-465Siberia 1:182f, 1:184fSiberian craton 4:461-462Silesian division 4:201South-east Asia

geological evolution 1:178, 1:18It,I:182f9l:184f

stratigraphic correlation l:183f,1:185-f

Stephanian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209fstratigraphy

absolute ages 4:202f, 4:203biostratigraphy 4:203Carboniferous-Permian boundary

4:201, 4:206fchronostratigraphy 4:202fDevonian-Carboniferous boundary

4:201general discussion 4:201Mississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201nomenclature 4:201 fsubdivisions 4:202

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251terrestrial biota

invertebrates 4:210vegetation 4:209, 4:209f

vertebrates 4:211tetrapods

adelogyrinids 2:475aistopods 2:473f, 2:475amniotes 2:468, 2:473f, 4:211-212amphibians 2:468anthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474/", 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fChroniosuchians 2:520colosteids

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:475skeletal material 2:474f

dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476flepospondyls 2:475lissamphibians 2:468localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473'f, 4:211nectrideans 2:473/, 2:475physical appearance 2:472radiation patterns 4:211Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473ftemnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fphysical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211Thabanchuia oomie 2:520f

time-scale scaling concepts 5:51 6fTournaisan stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 4:202f,

4:208fTrigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:294unconformities 5:544Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89fUral Mountains 4:201vegetation 4:206f, 4:209, 4:209fvegetational change 4:209fVirgilian stage 4:209fVisean stage 4:201f, 4:202, 4:202f,

4:208f, 4:209fWalchia piniformis 2:447fweathering effects 5:589-590Westphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209fSee also Mississippian; Pennsylvanian

Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:460,5:466, 5:467f, 5:470, 5:470f

Carcharocles megalodon 2:465Carey, Warren 3:193-194Caribbean Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316tcarminite 3:508tcarnallite 5:94-95Carnarvon Basin 3:129, 3:139, 3:142-147,

3:146fCarnegie Ridge l:119f, 1:131, 3:315f,

3:316t, 4:477-479Carnian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517f

Carnivora 2:539carnotite (K2(UO2)2(VO4)2-3H2O) 3:495,

3:495f, 3:589t, 3:589-590Carolina

Appalachians 4:72, 4:73f, 4:83fCarolina platform 4:100Carolina terrane 4:74 f, 4:7Sf, 4:78Carolina trough 4:96/", 4:98-100, 4:101 f,

4:102f,4:W5,4:106fCaroline terrane 3:133'fGreat Dyke 4:95Silurian 4:191-192

Caroline Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tCarpathians 2:35f, 2:75, 2:136, 2:137f,

2:138f, 2:139f, 2:235-237, 2:237fCarr, Ezra 2:195carrollite (CuCo2S4) 3:575*, 3:577*Cars well, Canada 3:363*Carthage-Colton shear zone 3:158f,

3:162-163Cascade Range 4:48, 5:476-477, 5:480,

5:481,5:488Cascadia Trench 4:60, 5:430*, 5:430fCaseidae 2:485, 2:486fCasineria 2:473fCasineria kiddi 2:473f, 2:473-474Caspian Sea 1:164, 3:648-649, 4:550cassedanneite (Pb5(CrO4)(VO4)2-H2O)

3:533*Cassiar terrane 4:40/, 4:45-46cassiterite (SnO2) 3:489-490, 3:585*,

3:630*Castelloarina fascifer 4:158fcataclasite 3:388tcatastrophic floods 4:628-641

causal mechanismscontrolling factors 4:629fdam failures 4:629, 4:631fdrainage area 4:63 Ofgeneral discussion 4:628glacial melt 4:628-629, 4:631fjokulhlaups

cycle 4:633fdefinition 4:632flood deposits 4:640fflood flow 4:634fgeomorphic impacts 4:638foutwash plain 4:637frip-up clast deposits 4:636ftunnel inlet 4:634f

landslides 4:632rainfall 4:628snow dams 4:629snowfall 4:628spatial/temporal factors 4:63 Ofvegetative debris 4:629

characteristics 4:633, 4:634fdefinition 4:628geomorphic impacts

backwater effects 4:637fchannel morphology 4:63 6ferosion surfaces 4:635fflood deposits 4:639f, 4:640fgeneral discussion 4:637ice blocks 4:638f

INDEX 617

catastrophic floods (continued]kettle holes 4:638frip-up clast deposits 4:636fstream power 4:635f

hydrographs 4:634fimpact controls 4:640sediment transport 4:633turbulent flows 4:634f

catastrophism 1:257, 2:177, 2:182, 2:217,2:224, 3:176, 5:297

Cathaymyrus 2:455Cathaysia

See ChinaCathaysian flora 4:217Catoctin formation, Appalachians 4:74Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:77cattierite (CoS2) 3:575t, 3:577tCaucasus 2:35, 4:456, 4:471Caudipteryx 2:495Cautleyan stage 4:183fcaves (coastlines) 4:579fcaves (endokarst)

carbonate sedimentation 3:523fcave features 4:684fcave minerals 3:555, 3:556tgeneral discussion 4:684nitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556tparagenetic canyons 4:684f, 4:684-685,

4:685fPleistocene 5:497scallops 4:685, 4:686fspeleothems 4:686, 4:686fvadose canyons 4:684f, 4:68Sf

Cayeuxia 2:435fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fCeara basin 1:325fCearadactylus 2:514Ceara Rise 3:315f,3:316tcechite (Pb(Fe,Mn)VO4(OH)) 3:589tCedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah 4:547fceladonite 3:542-548Celtedens ibericus 2:521 fcement

clays 1:367limestones 5:112sandstones 5:143, 5:143t

Cenoceras 2:39IfCenomanian stage 3:147-154, 3:153f

anoxic events 3:363Australia, Phanerozoic 1:229f, 1:236bolide impact craters 3:363tBrazil l:322f, 1:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana 3:147International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381foceanic anoxic events 4:497-499palaeogeography 3:362fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364f

terrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:370f, 3:383f

Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 1:22f,1:326, 3:360, 3:370, 3:383, 4:104f,4:567-568

Ceno-Tethys Ocean 1:170f, 1:170-171,1:175 f

Cenozoicacritarchs 3:418-428amphibians 2:523-526

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525, 2:526fAndrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,

2:525fassemblages 2:523caecilians 2:525Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

2:523frogs 2:524, 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525fLatonia gigantea 2:524Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fPiceoerpeton 2:524-525Pleistocene glaciations 2:526Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525fsalamanders 2:524, 2:525f

angiosperms 2:422f, 2:424Argentina l:156fAtlantic Margin 4:104f, 4:95Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fbiodiversity 1:260-261bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:377fbrachiopods 2:306fcalcareous algae 2:428fcarbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fcorals 2:325fdolostones 5:91Eocene 5:466-472

amphibians 2:523-524, 2:524-525Andes Mountains 1:127, 1:128, 1:130Antarctica 1:139-140Arabia l:142f, l:144fAustralia, Phanerozoic I:230f9 1:236background information 5:466Bartonian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469,5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart(ICS) 5:517f

biotaBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction

(BFE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470marine environments 5:468terrestrial biota 5:469

biozones 5:467fchronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468fclay occurrences 1:364climate 5:470Coccolithophoridae 2:43IfEarly Eocene Climatic Optimum

(EECO) 5:467f, 5:470Europe 2:117geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332f

Global Standard Stratotype Sectionsand Points (GSSPs) 5:S06f

Gondwana3:231/", 5:468Grube Messel, Germany 3:310tgymnosperms 2:45 I fimpact craters 5:468impact structures 4:95, 4:98finsects 2:299f, 2:300t, 5:469International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten3:310£Lutetian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Charta

Mammalian Dispersal Event (MDE)5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471

marine environments 5:468, 5:470New Caledonia 4:116North Africa 1:24, l:24fPalaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum

5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470Pangaea 3:;m/~Papua New Guinea 4:110plate tectonics 5:466Priabonian stage l:322f, 1:325 'f,

5:466, 5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469,5:470, 5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart(ICS) 5:51 7f

radiation patterns 5:468Solomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia l:181t, l:188f, l:190fsouthern Cordillera 4:58tektites 5:444, 5:452terrestrial environments 5:469, 5:471time-scale scaling concepts 5:51 6fTonga 4: 120Ypresian stage l:322f, 1:325 f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470,5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart(ICS)5:517f

European Rift System 2:120, 3:653fish 2:463ffossil lichens 2:442geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglacial/interglacial periods 3:347fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

geological evolution 1:187palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:154terrainesl:172f,3:131f

Holocene. See HoloceneInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fKyrgyzstan 1:167Miocene 5:478-485

Agenian mammalian age 5:479famphibians

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525assemblages 2:523-524

61S INDEX

Cenozoic (continued)frogs 2:525fRana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525/

Andes Mountains 1:126, 1:128, 1:130Antarctica 1:140Aquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325"/",

5:478, 5:479f, 5:506f, 5:517fArabia l:142f, l:144fArikareean stage 5:478, 5:479fAstaracian mammalian age 5:479fAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:23O/", 1:236background information 5:478Barstovian stage 5:478, 5:479fBurdigalian stage l:322f, 1:325f,

5:478, 5:479f, 5:506f, 5:517fChasicoan stage 5:479, 5:479fchronostratigraphy 4:2 5fClarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479fclimate

atmospheric carbon dioxide 5:482sea-level 5:482seasonality 5:482temperature 5:482

Colhehuapian stage 5:479, 5:479fColloncuran stage 5:479, 5:479fEurope 2:120Friasian stage 5:479, 5:479fgeochronology 5:478, 5:479fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fglossary information 5:484Gondwana 3:13IfHemingfordian stage 5:478, 5:479fHemphillian stage 5:478, 5:479fHuayquerian stage 5:479, 5:479fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLanghian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517flateritic palaeosols 5:203fLau Islands 4:120Laventan stage 5:479, 5:479fmarine life 5:482Mayoan stage 5:479, 5:479fMessinian stage 1.-322/J 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f, 5:506f,5:517fmid-Miocene Climatic Optimum

5:482, 5:483Montehermosan stage 5:479, 5:479fNew Caledonia 4:117New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f, 4:7North Africa 1:17, 1:24oceanic circulation 5:478, 5:479,

5:481Orleanian mammalian age 5:479fPangaea 3:131fPapua New Guinea 4:112predation 4:145fPrunum coniforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:269freef environments 4:5 68f, 4:569fSantacrucian stage 5:479, 5:479fSerravallian stage I:322f9 1:325f,

5:478, 5:479f, 5.-506/", 5:517f

shorelines and shelves 4:507Solomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia l:181t, l:192f, l:193fsouthern Cordillera 4:58Stratigraphic boundaries 5:478tectonic processes

Africa 5:481Andes Mountains 5:481Basin and Range 4:60, 5:480Cascade Range 5:481Central America 5:481Columbia River Flood Basalts

5:480continental positions 5:479, 5:480fEast Pacific Rise 5:479Eurasia 5:481Himalayan Mountains 5:481Isthmus of Panama 5:481Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25,

5:481North America 5:479Rocky Mountains 5:480Sierra Nevada Range 5:481South America 5:481Tibetan Plateau 5:481

tektites 5:444terrestrial life

Africa 5:484animals 5:483Australia 5:484Eurasia 5:484general discussion 5:483North America 5:483plants 5:483South America 5:484

time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTonga 4:120Tortonian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fTurolian mammalian age 5:479fVallesian mammalian age 5:479fVanuatu 4:116

NeogeneAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130China 1:347fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic

Chart (ICS) 5:517fJapan 3:302, 3:303fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f

Oligocene 5:472-478amphibians

Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,2:525f

assemblages 2:523-524Latonia gigantea 2:524Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fAntarctica 1:139-140biostratigraphical correlations 5:472,

5:473^biota

algae 5:476Coccolithophoridae 5:476

diatoms 5:476foraminifera 5:473, 5:476general discussion 5:475plankton 5:476

boundaries 5:472-473carbon dioxide (CO2) 5:475Chattian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclay occurrences 1:364Europe 2:120extinction events 5:473, 5:476glaciation 5:473-474, 5:475,

5:476-477Global Standard Stratotype

Sections and Points (GSSPs)5:506f

global warming/cooling 5:473historical background 5:472impact structures 5:473insects 2:299/", 2:300?International Stratigraphic Chart

(ICS) 5:517fLagerstatten3:310?mountain-building processes 5:477New Zealand 4:1, 4:3/North Africa 1:17oxygen isotope ratios 5:473, 5:474fpalaeoclimate 5:473palaeogeography 5:476palaeosols 5:475Papua New Guinea 4:110plate tectonics 5:474precipitation 5:475Rupelian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517fshorelines and shelves 4:507Solomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia l:181t, l:191f, l:193fsouthern Cordillera 4:58Stratigraphic subdivisions 5:473temperature variations 5:475time-scale scaling

concepts 5:516fvegetation 5:475volcanism 5:474, 5:477

oxygen concentrations 1:206fPalaeocene 5:459-465

amphibians 2:524-525Andes Mountains 1:130Antarctica 1:139-140Arabia l:142f, 1:144fbackground information 5:459biota

biozones 5:460fgeneral discussion 5:462marine environments 5:462, 5:464terrestrial biota 5:463

chalk facies 5:460, 5:461fchronostratigraphy 4:25/", 5:460fclimate 5:464environmental settings

carbon isotopic ratios 5:460, 5:464marine environments 5:464oxygen isotope ratios 5:464

INDEX 619

Cenozoic (continued)terrestrial environments 5:463,

5:464faunal assemblages 5:460, 5:461fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) S:506fgymnosperms 2:452finsects 2:299fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLatest Palaeocene Thermal Maximum

(LPTM) dissociation hypothesisl:342f

Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470

Papua New Guinea 4:110plate tectonics 5:460tetrapod radiations l:273ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

PalaeogeneAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130China 1:347fDanian boundary 3:372, 3:373fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fKazakhstan l:166fNew Zealand 4:6North Africa 1:24northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:43-44ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460fUzbekistan 1:167

Pangaea3:I31/"placental mammals 2:537fPleistocene 5:493-499

amphibians 2:526Anglian stage 5:496farchaeological sites 5:496fAustralia, Phanerozoic I:230f9 1:236Aveley interglacial stage 5:496fbackground information 5:493biodiversity 1:260-261biostratigraphy 5:495biota 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498fcaves (endokarst) 5:497Cromerian complex 5:496fDevensian stage 5:496fextinction events 5:497-498Flandrian stage 5:496fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglacial stages 5:496fglaciation 2:526, 4:131, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGunz stage 5:493historical research 5:493, 5:496fHoxnian stage 5:496fhuman activity 5:495, 5:496fIce Age 5:493interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fIpswichian stage 5:496fKyrgyzstan 1:167

mammoths 5:498, 5:498fmarine oxygen isotope record 5:496fMindel stage 5:493palaeoclimate 5:495palaeogeography 5:496fPurfleet interglacial stage 5:496freef environments 4:506fRiss stage 5:493tektites 5:444Wurm stage 5:493

Pliocene 5:486-493amphibians 2:524, 2:525, 2:526fAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130Antarctica 1:140Arabia l:142f, l:144fAtlantic ocean currents 5:488fbackground information 5:486biotic events

American terrestrial bioticinterchange 5:487t, 5:490

marine biotic interchange 5:487t,5:491

marine trans-Arctic interchange5:487t, 5:491

climategeneral discussion 5:487t, 5:489glaciation 5:487t, 5:489mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t,

5:489geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fGlobal Standard Stratotype

Sections and Points (GSSPs)5:506f

Hominin diversification 5:487t, 5:491,5:491t,5:492f

insects 2:299fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLau Islands 4:120New Zealand 4:2f, 4:7orbital forcing 5:487tpalaeomagnetism 5:487tpredations 4:145fPrunum coniforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:269fSouth-east Asia 1:193 fstages

Gelasian (upper Pliocene) 5:487,a

Mediterranean region 5:486Piacenzian (middle Pliocene) 5:486,

5:487t,5:506f,5:517fZanclean (lower Pliocene) 5:486,

5:487t,5:506f,5:517ftectonic processes 5:487, 5:487ttime-scale scaling concepts 5:516fVanuatu 4:116vegetation 5:489, 5:491

polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417sedimentary basins 2:122fSouth-east Asia I:181t9 1:187southern Cordillera 4:58, 4:60Tadzhikistan 1:168Tertiary. See Tertiary

Turkmenistan 1:166Uralide orogeny 2:87fweathering effects 5:589-590See also Quaternary

Central American tectonics 5:481Central Appalachians 4:72-81

Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Carolina terrane 4:74f9 4:75f9 4:78Cat Square terrane 4.-74/J 4:75f9 4:77Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80figneous processes 4:73, 4:75fmagnetostratigraphy 4:76fNeoacadian orogeny 4:78occurrence 4:72origins 4:72passive margin development 4:76, 4:76fphysiographic provinces 4:73fPine Mountain terrane 4:77sedimentary depositional

processes 4:73superterranes 4:74/j 4:75fSuwannee terrane 4:72, 4:80Taconic orogeny 4:77tectonic evolution 4:74 f9 4:75fTugaloo terrane 4:78volcanism 4:73, 4:75f

Central Arabian Arch 3:140fCentral Armorican Basin 2:96Central Asia 1:164-169

geologic history 1:168Kazakhstan

borate deposits 3:517Cambrian 1:173 fCarboniferous 4:201geology 1:164Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) S:SllfKokchetav Massif 5:533, 5:535-536,

5:536f, 5:537Ordovician 1:173 fPermian 5:511fSilurian l:173f, 4:191-192tektites 5:451terranes3:130/'Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165'fTriassic 3:344Uralide orogeny 2:86

Kyrgyzstan 1:167Tadzhikistan 1:168, 1:518fterrains l:165fTien Shan Mountains 1:164, I:165f9

1:167Turkmenistan 1:166Uzbekistan 1:167

Central Atlantic Magmatic Province3:315f,3:316t

Central Basin Platform 4:62fCentral Brazil Shield l:306fCentralian Superbasin 3:129-139Central Iberian Zone 2:80-82, 2:96/", 2:98Central Mobile Belt 4:83Central Sahara Ghost Craton 1:10Central Stable Region 4:21Central Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f

620 INDEX

Central Victorian Magmatic Provincel:247f, 1:250

Cephalaspis utahensis 2:458fcephalopods 2:389-396

background information 2:389classification

background information 2:390Coleoidea

Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394fDecabrachia 2:394, 2:395fdescription 2:392Octobrachia 2:394, 2:395f

NautiloideaActinoceratids 2:391f, 2:392description 2:391Endoceratids 2:392morphology 2:39IfNautiloids 2:392, 2:396Orthoceratids 2:392

Devonian 4:194ecological structures 1:262tJurassic 2:389f, 3:357morphology 2:389, 2:390fSilurian 4:191stratigraphic ranges 2:389f

Ceratolithus acutus 5:486Cerig Formation 4:186f, 4:188cerium (Ce)

carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*, 3:224fcrustal composition 5:174tgranitic rocks 3:242fkomatiites 3:264flava/lava flows 3:224fmineral analysis l:108t

Cernan, Eugene 5:266*, 5:2 70fcerotungstite-(Ce) (CeW2O6(OH)3)

3:557*cerussite (PbCO3) 3:630*cesium (Cs)

carbonatites 3:223*lava/lava flows 3:224flithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639partitioning behaviour 3:639*soil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

Cetiosaurus 3:359fchabazite 3:593, 3:593*, 3:594fChaco-Parana basin, Argentina 1:159,

4:208fChad 5:49?*Chadian subdivision 4:202fChadronian land mammal age 5:472,

5:473fChagos-Laccadive Ridge 3:315f, 3:316*chalcanthite 5:394*chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51, 5:52fchalcocite (Cu2S) 3:575*, 3:630*chalcoeite 3:582fchalcophile elements 3:638f, 3:639*, 3:641,

3:642fchalcopyrite (CuFeS2) 3:575*, 3:577*,

3:577f, 3:582f, 3:585t, 3:630*,5:394*

Chalicotheridae 5:485

chalk 5:42-50brewing process 3:80tchalk sea

cyclic sedimentation 5:48, 5:48forbital forcing 5:48palaeogeography 5:43f, 5:46

Coccolithophoridae 4:556, 5:42, 5:43f,5:44, 5:45f, 5:112

cognac 3:85composition 5:42Cretaceous 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367,

5:42, 5:43f, 5:45f, 5:46depositional environment 5:110facies analysis 5:44, 5:45 f, 5:46fgeotechnical properties 1:549*,

1:551-552,3:102*ground transitions 5:44, 5:48fgroundwater aquifers 5:48hydrocarbon reservoirs 5:48ichnofabric 5:44, 5:46/", 5:47flacustrine deposits 4:556mining techniques 1:434North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPalaeocene 5:461fpelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f,

5:47fpermeability 5:48-49, 5:49fphysical properties l:483tporosity 1:549*, 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49fresedimentation 5:44-46wine geology 3:87

Challenger Deep 5:428, 5:430*, 5:430f,5:435

Chalmers, Thomas 1:383Chamberlin, Rollin 3:189Chamberlin, Thomas 3:184chamosite 3:542-548, 5:99Chandler Wobble 1:422Changxingian stage 4:214, 4:215*,

4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221 f, 5:511/",5:517f

Channel Tunnel 1:479, l:480fCharacodictyon 4:376charged coupled device

across-track multispectral scanners4:433, 4:433f

along-track push-broom scanner 4:435,4:435f

digital cameras 4:435hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438fpassive sensors 4:432, 4:432f

Charniodiscus 4:374, 4:374fCharon 5:293*, 5:294Chasicoan stage 5:479, 5:479fChassignite meteorites 3:560-561,

5:234-235, 5:280Chassigny, France 5:280Chattahoochee-Holland Mountain fault

zone 4:79Chattian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517fcheilostomes

See bryozoans(Bryozoa)Cheirolepis 2:466-467

chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f,1:87,3:353

chemosymbiosis 4:379Cheneyan stage 4:183 fChengjiang lagerstatten 2:455, 2:462,

3:310*, 3:312-313, 3:313fcheniers 4:571f, 4:577cheremnykhite (Pb3Zn3O2(TeO4)(VO4)2)

3:589tchert 5:51-62

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

Archaean 4:351, 4:368banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:38classification 4:454, 5:26*composition

chalcedony 5:51, 5:52fmegaquartz 5:51, 5:52fmicrocrystalline quartz 5:51, 5:52fopal 5:51precipitation 5:51silica solubility 5:51textures 5:52

eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361 fGunflint Chert, Canada 4:3 67f 9

4:367-368nodules 4:385North American continental interior

4:29, 4:30foccurrence

bedded cherts 5:53, 5:54fdiatomaceous ooze accumulation

5:54, 5:54fgeneral discussion 5:51geysers 5:59hot springs 5:59hydrothermal origins 5:59, 5:60flakes 5:58nodular cherts 5:55, 5:57/", 5:58fPrecambrian 5:55, 5:56fradiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsedimentary environments 5:35-36silcrete 5:61siliceous ooze accumulation 5:53,

5:55fsilicified wood 5:61Tertiary bedded chert 5:54

prokaryotes 4:368Rhynie chert

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275,2:277

fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310*general discussion 3:310*hydrothermal activity 5:59-60,

5:61flichens 2:441-442Old Red Sandstone 5:59-60

silica sourcesbiogenic silica 5:52hydrothermal activity 5:53lacustrine deposits 5:53siliceous sediments 5:53

INDEX 621

chert (continued)volcanism 5:53, 5:54

terminology 3:570chervetite (Pb2(V2O7)) 3:589tChesapeake Bay, United States 4:95,

4:98f, 5:444, 5:445f, 5:448, 5:467f,5:468

Chesterian stage 4:209fChewings Orogeny l:212f, 1:215chiavennite 3:593?Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, 1.-105/,

3:283, 3:363?, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,5:453-454

Chigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fchildrenite 5:122Chile 3:122, 3:237?, 3:598Chilenia, Argentina 1:160/", 1:163Chile Ridge 1:119fChile triple junction l:124f, l:12Sf, 1:128,

1:130-131Chilhowee Group, Appalachians 4:74-76Chilliwack terrane 4:40 f, 4:46Chilodictyon 4:376chiluite (Bi6(TeO4)2(MoO4)2O5) 3:552?China 1:345-358

background information 1:345Cambrian 1:347f, 4:167f, S:SllfCarboniferous 4:204Cathaysiana 1:348, 1:350-351Dabie Shan 5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536fearthquakes l:556fEmeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:215 f,

4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222,4:227

gemstones 3:7?, 3:11geological evolution

accretional crustal consumption zonesl:346f, 1:346-347, 1:349 f

Archaean-Neoproterozoiccontinental nuclei 1:348, 1:349fJinningian Orogeny 1:350Luliangian Orogeny 1:348platforms 1:350protoplatforms 1:348

convergen crustal consumption zonesl:346f, 1:346-347, 1:349 f

crustal evolution 1:346, l:346f, 1:349fgeneral discussion 1:356geological history 1:347fHercynian Orogeny 1:352Indosinian Orogeny 1.-346/", 1:348,

l:349f, 1:352Jinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348,

1:349 f, 1:350Luliangian Orogeny 1:348Neoproterozoic-Triassic

Caledonian stage l:349f, 1:351faunal assemblages 1:351Hercynian Orogeny 1:352Indosinian Orogeny 1:352Laurasia 1:352palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:352fpost-Indosinian

basin formation 1:353

Gondwana-affiliated massifs 1:353Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 1:353tectonic processes 1:353tectono-magmatism 1:353

tectonic megastages 1:347ftectonic units 1:346, l:346f, 1:349f

Global Standard Stratotype Sections andPoints (GSSPs) 5:506f

liquefaction 1:556fMeishan, China 3:344, 3:345, 4:219,

4:224-225, 5:506fOrdovician 4:178-179, 4:180-181,

4:181-182, 5:SllfPagoda Limestone 4:178-179palaeoclimate 1:347fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 1:352fPermian 4:214Permian-Triassic boundary 4:221-222sea-level changes 1:347fSilurian 4:192-193Sino-Korea craton 1:346, l:346fTarim craton 1:346, l:346ftektites 5:443, 5:444f, 5:446-447terranes 5:455, 5:457fTriassic 3:344, 3:350, 5:S06fvegetation 1:353Yangtze craton 1:346, 1:346f

china claySee kaolin

Chinese criteria 1:528chitin 2:274-275chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:428-440

applicationsbiostratigraphy 3:434palaeobiogeography 3:439palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439f

biological affinity 3:432carbon isotopic ratios 3:439classification

Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f, 3:435fDesmochitinidae 3:430,

3:431 f, 3:435fLagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,

3:435fOperculatifera 3:430Ordovician 3:430Prosomatifera 3:430

evolutionary trends 3:434extraction methods 3:473intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:430fMargachitina 3:434morphology 3:428, 3:429/", 3:435f,

3:436fpalynology 3:468Pterochitina 3:434Silurian 4:191structure 3:428vesicle linkages 3:43 Of

Chiungchussuan stage 4:167fChladni, E. 5:229chlorapatite 5:123chlorine (Cl)

atmospheric concentrations 1:1971brewing process 3:80, 3:50?carbonatites 3:223?, 3:225

geothermal systems 3:113?halite (NaCl)

Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80carbonatites 3:221?classification 5:26?densities 5:32Ifevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610, 4:610fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102?ground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559fpetroleum geology 4:229-230phase diagram 5:37Ifporosity 1:552?

hydrochloric acid (HC1) 1:200?hydrothermal fluids 3:629?mineral classification systems 3:501?,

3:502?natural occurrences 3:553?soil concentrations 2:22?terrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200?toxicity 2:22?Venus 5:247?

chloritecation exchange capacity 1:360?cementation 5:143characteristics 3:564chemical variations 5:69?claystones 5:30crystal structure 3:564fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65/i 5:69formation processes 1:363, 1:363fglauconite 3:542hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632iron/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratio 3:565flayer type 1:361?, 1:362metamorphic rocks 3:397/", 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401foptical properties 3:565fsandstones 5:69serpentine 3:566f, 3:566structure l:360f

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 1:207chlorophyta (green algae)

charophyceae 2:433, 2:434fcyclocriniteae 2:433dasycladales 2:432, 2:433^Halimeda 2:432, 2:432fhalimedales 2:432

Choiyoi Province, Argentina 1:161Chokierian subdivision 4:202fChon Aike Province, Argentina 1:161,

3:147, 3:151 fChondrites 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47fchondrites

achondrites 5:231?, 5:234fcarbonaceous chondrites 1:427, 1:429,

5:231?chondrule cross-section 5:23 OfCocklebiddy chondrite 5:23OfEarth origins 1:398

622 INDEX

chondrites (continued)enstatite chondrites 5:23It

Chopawamsic 4:74chordates

cladogram 3:445fconodonts 3:441, 3:445early chordates 2:455

chromatite (CaCrO4) 3:533*chromium (Cr)

carbonatites 3:223*chromates 3:532-533

crocoite (PbCrO4) 3:533, 3:533*general discussion 3:532, 3:533*geographical distribution 3:532

chromitemagmatic ore deposits 3:640spectral data 1:111 fworld production rates 1:43 8t

crustal composition 5:174*mineral analysis l:108tmineral classification systems 3:501*,

3:502*natural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tpartitioning behaviour 3:639*soil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

Chroniosuchians 2:520chrysoberyl 3:7*chrysotile

general discussion 3:566metamorphic alteration products

3:396-397, 3:397f, 3:496f, 3:559structure 3:566ftextures 3:496, 3:566f

Chuaria 4:357, 4:358, 4:359fChugach terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47Chuiella 1:178, l:182fChukchi Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fChytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fCidaris 2:353fCimmeria 3:130f, 3:144f, 4:215f,

4:215-216cinnabar (HgS) 3:575*, 3.-5S5*, 3:630*CIPW normative classification 3:186Circum-Antarctic current 5:474, 5:476Circum-Pacific orogenic

collages 4:468cirques 4:670, 4:672fCisuralian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f9

5:511 f,5:517fcities, geoscience applications 5:557-563Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559*civil engineering 3:39Cladotheria 2:528fClaraia 3:350, 4:223-224Clarazia 2:504Clarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479fClarke, Frank 3:187-188Clarke, John M. 2:196Classopollis 2:450clastic reservoirs 4:313, 4:314f, 4:315fClaudiosaurus 2:502

clays 1:358-365allophane 1:561angiosperms 2:418, 2:422background information 1:358ball clay 1:366-367bentonite 1:366-367, 1:369, 4:29, 4:29f,

5:65, 5:572*berthierine 1:360,1:361*, 3:542-548,5:99cation exchange capacity 1:360*, 3:88chlorite

cation exchange capacity 1:360*cementation 5:143characteristics 3:564chemical variations 5:69*claystones 5:30crystal structure 3:564fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65f, 5:69formation processes 1:363, l:363fglauconite 3:542hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632iron/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratio 3:565flayer type 1:361*, 1:362metamorphic rocks 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401 foptical properties 3:565fsandstones 5:69serpentine 3:566f, 3:566structure l:360f

classification 1:359, 1:361*claystones 5:26*, 5:28, 5:34common clay 1:366-367densities 5:321fdiagenesis 5:62-70

authigenesis 5:62background information 5:62depth effects 5:63fmudrocks

bentonite illitization 5:65chlorite 5:65, 5:65fgeothermometry 5:64-65illite crystallinity 5:65kaolinite 5:65, 5:66fsharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64/

porosity 1:394sandstones

chlorite 5:69glauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fkaolinite 5:66, 5:66fpotassium-argon (K-Ar) dating 5:69smectites 5:67

water/rock ratios 5:62, 5:65-66, 5:67dickite 1:363, 3:631-632economic aspects 1:366-370

applications 1:367fbuilding materials 1:367ceramics industry 1:368historical applications 1:366waste disposal 1:368

background information 1:366civil engineering aspects 1:367definition 1:366

physicochemical properties 1:368terminology 1:366-367

expansive clays 1:557, 1:559ffire clay 1:366-367formation processes 1:362Fuller's earth 1:366-367geotechnical properties 3:102*, 3:104*glauconite 1:364, 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69halloysite 1:360*, 1:363, l:363f,

3:631-632hectorite 1:369illite

bentonite illitization 5:65cation exchange capacity 1:360*cementation 5:143, 5:143*claystones 5:30crystallinity 5:65deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:145f, 5:67,

5:67f, 5:68fferric illite 3:548formation processes 1:363hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*layer type 1:361, 1:361*potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating 5:69sandstones 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fsharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f, 5:65fsolonization 5:200structure l:360fvine nourishment 3:88

interstratification 1:363 f, 1:363-364kaolin

claystones 5:30definition 1:366-367layer type 1:360, 1:361*world production rates 1:43 8t

kaoliniteAtterberg Limits 5:157*cation exchange capacity 1:360*cementation 5:143, 5:143*ceramics industry 1:368classification 5:26*deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76definition 1:366-367depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes

mudrocks 5:65, 5:66fsandstones 5:66, 5:66fsedimentary rocks 5:145fvermicules 5:66f

formation processes 1:363, 1:363/,5:33f

humid tropical zone soils 1:561hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632layer type 1:360, 1:361*occurrence 5:32physicochemical properties 1:368-369

Lagerstatten 3:313lava/lava flows 1:545-546marine environments 1:364montmorillonite

cation exchange capacity 1:360*claystones 5:30

INDEX 623

clays (continued)hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632physicochemical properties 1:369

nacrite 1:363nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/", 4:646tnonmarine environments 1:364nontronite 1:369, 5:394?occurrence 1:358odinite 1:360, 1:361?, 1:364, 3:542Oxford Clay, United Kingdom

3:310-311palaeoclimate 4:134palygorskite 1:361?, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369physical properties 1:359, l:483tpyrophyllite 1:360, 1:361?, 3:631-632quick clays 1:562, 1:563 f, 4:690red clays 4:642/i 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,

5:74f, 5:75?, 5:76sandstone mineralogy 5:143tsaponite 1:369sepiolite 1:361?, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369serpentine 1:360, l:361tsmectites

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76formation processes 1:363, l:363fglauconite 3:542humid tropical zone soils 1:561hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tlayer type 1:361, l:361tphysicochemical properties 1:369sandstones 5:67smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64fsolonization 5:200structure l:360fvine nourishment 3:88

soil mechanics 3:104?, 5:184, 5:184fstratigraphy 1:364structure 1:359 f, 1:359, l:360ftalc 1:360, 1:361?, l:438t, 3:496, 5:394?varved clays 1:562, 1:563fvermiculite

cation exchange capacity 1:3 60tformation processes 1:363, l:363flayer type 1:361, l:361tstructure 1:3 60 fworld production rates 1:43 8t

Vimy Ridge, France 3:482fweathering processes 5:583

claystone ironstonesdiagenesis 5:102, 5:102fferruginization process 5:103, 5:104fgeneral description 5:100photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

Clear Lake mining district, United StatesSee ore bodies, borates

cleavage, definition of 3:390?Cleaveland, Parker 3:268Clementine 5:266?, 5:266-267, 5:271Clerk, John, Jr. 2:202-203Clerk, John, Sr. 2:202Clifford's Tower mound, England 1:536,

1:537?, 1:53 7/"cliffs 4:579/Climacograptus 2:361 f, 2:365-366

climatebiogeochemical cycles 1:431dendroclimatology

micro-anatomical variations 1:390precipitation data l:390freconstruction models 1:388-389ring width studies 1:388, l:390f

Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:505,4:505f, 4:506f

Holocene 2:147, 2:148f9 2:159?large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321frift valleys 5:439sediment fluxes 5:18weathering processes 5:585, 5:586fSee also palaeoclimate

Climatic OptimumHolocene 2:148, 2:148fMedieval climatic optimum 2:148f,

2:159?Miocene 5:482Roman climatic optimum 2:148, 2:148f.,

2:159?Climatius 2:465climbing dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fclinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326fclinobisvanite (BiVO4) 3:588-589, 3:589?clinoclase 3:508?clinoenstatite 5:533fclinomimetite 3:508fclinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593?, 3:593-594,

3:594fclinopyroxenes 3:567-569

characteristics 3:567granites 3:235?, 3:242kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404nomenclature 3:568fspectral data 1:11 Ifultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535^clinozoisite 3:398f, 3:404clints 4:680, 4:682fClipperton Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?Cloos, Hans 2:247-248Cloudina 4:373Cloudina riemkeae 4:362fCloudinidae 4:373, 4:379Clydagnathus 3:442fClyde Plateau 2:96fCnidarians

anatomy 2:321, 2:321fAnthozoa

anatomy 2:324fclassification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

classificationAnthozoa 2:321Ceriantipatharia 2:323-324Hydroconozoa 2:321Hydrozoa 2:321, 2:321fOctocorallia 2:323-324Scyphozoa 2:321Zoantharia 2:323-324

corals 2:321-334

anatomy 2:324f, 2:326fclassification 2:324, 2:325fcomparative features 2:332?Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fecology 2:329, 2:331fEocene 5:469Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:506f,

4:507glossary information 2:332Jurassic 3:356life cycle 2:322fMiocene 5:482north-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:512f9

4:512-513Ordovician4:179Palaeocene 5:462palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331fPhanerozoic 2:323reef environments 4:562Rugosa

anatomy 2:326fcomparative features 2:332?ecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:328fstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

Scleractiniaanatomy 2:326fCambrian corals 2:327fcomparative features 2:332?ecology 2:329, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324Jurassic 3:356reef environments 4:562reef-forming corals 2:331 frepresentative corals 2:33Ofstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

structure 2:327Tabulata

comparative features 2:332?ecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:329fstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

taxonomy 2:327Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

Hydrozoaanatomy 2:321 fclassification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:322

Precambrian 2:321, 2:323fScyphozoa

classification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

coalclassification 4:454, 5:26?coal measures 3:147colliery spoils 1:538deltaic sediments 4:537, 4:538fgeotechnical properties 1:553, 3:102?kerogenous sediments 5:33

624 INDEX

coal (continued)North American continental interior

4:28, 4:30f, 4:33palaeoclimate 4:134palynological research 3:468-469Pennsylvanian Coal Measures 4:204,

4:210Permian 3:142, 3:145fSouth-east Asian deposits 1:195sulphide minerals 3:585-586world production rates 1:43 8t

Coalbrookdale Mudstone Formation4:186f, 4:188-189

Coastal Batholith, Peru 3:237*, 3:239Coast Plutonic Complex, British Columbia,

Canada 3:236Coats Land 3:151 fcobaltarthurite 3:508fcobalt (Co)

carbonatites 3:223*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsoil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

cobaltite (Co,FeOAsS) 3:575*, 3:630*Cobb-Eikelberg seamount chain 4:479Cobequid-Chedabucto fault 4:82fCoccolithophoridae

chalk 4:556, 5:112, 5:42, 5:43/i 5:44,S:4Sf

Cretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378,3:37^deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f9 5:74,

5:74f, 5:75*Eocene 2:431fgeneral discussion 2:430Jurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476

Cocklebiddy chondrite 5:23 Ofcockroaches 2:297/", 2:300*Cocos Plate 4:9-11, 5:479-480, 5:480fCocos Ridge 1.-119/", 3:315f9 3:316*,

4:477-479, 5:397-398coelacanths 1:274f, 1:276-278, 2:466coelenterata 5:462, 5:469Coelophysis 3:351fCoelosphaeridium 2:433coesite

occurrence 3:569-570, 3:571phase diagram 3:570fshock metamorphism 3:282, 5:183ttektites 5:447ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 3:405, 5:533, 5:533, 5:533f9

5:534fcognac 3:85Coldfoot terrane 4:40/", 4:42, 4:45-46colemanite (Ca2B6On-5H2O)

Argentine borate deposits 3:513*commercial production 3:511-512,

3:512*composition 3:512*

geochemical cycle 3:512fgeology 3:511mineralogy 3:511mineral processing 3:519Turkish borate deposits 3:513*uses 3:514

Coleoidea 2:392Coleoptera

See insectsColhehuapian stage 5:479, 5:479fColima, Mexico 5:575collapsible soils 1:555, 1.-556/", 1:557*,

1:5 57fcolliery spoils 1:538Collin, Alexandre 3:39Collini, C. 2:509collinsite 5:122Collins,]. 5:266*Colloncuran stage 5:479, 5:479fcolluvial fans l:528t, 4:492Coloborhynchus 2:514fColombia 1:311, 3:7*, 3:12Colombian Andes 1:121/", 1:123colonial surveys 1:370-373

air photographs 1:372British Empire 1:370Directorate of Colonial Geological

Surveys 1:370, 1:371Directorate of Overseas Geological

Surveys 1:373geological maps 1:372Geological Survey of Great Britain

1:370, 1:373historical background 1:370Imperial Institute 1:370Mineral Resources Department 1:370,

1:371overseas geology 1:370

Colorado basin, Argentina 1:159Colorado Plateau 4:48, 4:58Colorado River 4:65ItColorados formation 3:147, 3:150fColorado, United States 2:457/", 3:122,

3:246, 4:35-36, 4:48-50, 5:476-477,5:506f

colosteids 2:473/", 2:47 4f9 2:475Colosteus 2:475Columbia River 5:19*Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315f,

3:316*, 5:480Columella, Lucius 3:85-87columnar jointing 3:327, 3:328fcomets

characteristics 5:223Comet Hale-Bopp I:200f9 5:224f9

5:225-226, 5:226*Comet Hyakutake 1:200/", 5:226*, 5:226fgeneral discussion 5:223Halley's Comet I:200f9 5:224, 5:225*,

5:225/~, 5:226fhydrogen concentrations 1:200flife theories 5:226meteor showers 5:224nomenclature 5:224notable comets 5:225, 5:225*, 5:226*

orbits 5:224origins 5:224

Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN)1:448, 1:454

Commission on New Minerals and MineralNames (CNMMN) 3:499

common clay 1:366-367Comores Archipelago 3.-315/", 3:316*Conchidium 4:189-190conchoidal fractures 4:382, 4:384fconcrete

aggregates 1:42military geology 3:478non-destructive testing 1:497*physical properties 1:453*

condensate 4:248, 4:252-255condensed deposit 5:106cone-in-cone structures 4:383, 4:385fcone karst 4:682-683cone sheets 3:215*, 3:219fConfuciusornis 2:498fconglomerates

classification 5:26*general discussion 5:26rudaceous rocks 5:129, 5:139f9 5:26,

5:26*unconformities 5:544

CongoCongo Basin 3:142Congo Craton 1:310-311,1:312f9 3:128,

3:132fCongo River 4:651*, 5:19*Nyiragongo volcano 3:329orogenic belts 3:164f

Coniacian stageanoxic events 3:363Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil 1.-322/", 1:325 fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506^International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:S17fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/, 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:370f9 3:383f

Coniasaurus 2:504-505Conical Seamount 4:480conichalcite 3:508fConiferales 2:450, 2:450/r, 2:451fconifers 3:351, 4:206f9 4:209fConnemara terrane 2:60Connors-Auburn belt 1:242conodonts 3:440-448

anatomy 3:441, 3:441 f9 3:442fapparatus functions 3:446, 3:447farchitecture 3:443f9 3:446biological affinity 3:445, 3:445fbiostratigraphy 3:447

INDEX 625

conodonts (continued)Carboniferous 4:212characteristics 2:455cladogram 3:445fclassification

Belodellida 3:446Ozarkodinida 3:442-443, 3:446Panderodontida 3:443, 3:446Paraconodonta 3:447Prioniodinida 3:446Prioniodontida 3:442-443, 3:446Proconodontida 3:446Protopanderodontida 3:446

Clydagnathus 3:442fevolution 3:447extraction methods 3:472Hindeodus parvus 4:219internal structure 3:443, 3:443fmorphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,

3:444fOrdovician index fossils 4:175-184preservation 3:441Promissum 3:44IfSilurian 4:185-186, 4:191soft tissue preservation 3:308South-east Asia 1:184fas thermal maturation index 3:448

Conrad, C. 5:266tConrad discontinuity 1:406Conrad Rise 3:315f, 3:316tConrad, Timothy A. 2:195conservation

See geological conservationConsilio Nazionale dei Geologi 3:78Constonian substage 4:183 fconstruction sites, site classification of 2:4t,

2:6tcontact metamorphism 3:393, 3:406,

3:414, 3:415fcontinental drift theory 3:204

See also plate tectonicscontinental flood basalts

Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315f,3:316*, 5:480

end-Permian extinctions 4:222large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315,

3:318,3:322mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339

contourites 4:513-527background information 4:513deep-water bottom currents 4:514,

4:514f, 4:515, 4:517fdeep-water sediments 4:645-646facies analysis

grain analysis 4:523, 4:524f, 4:525f,4:526f

palaeoclimate 4:513-514petroleum exploration 4:513-514seismic characteristics 4:523slope stability studies 4:513-514

facies continuum 4:526geographic distribution 4:516fhistorical background 4:514sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f, 4:520f,

4:521 f, 4:523 f, 4:525f, 4:648

seismic characteristicsfacies analysis 4:523identification process 4:522fsediment body 4:522, 4:523funits 4:522

terminology 4:515, 4:517tconulariids 4:374-375convergent plate boundaries

accretionary wedges 5:307-317controlling factors 5:317tcritical taper 5:309fdecollement 5:309, 5:309f, 5:310f,

5:311f95:315f,5:316ffluid flow 5:312, 5:313ffluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f,

5:311f, 5:315, 5:316fformation processes 5:307, 5:308f,

5:309, 5:310f9 5:311 fmethane hydrates 5:312, 5:314fobduction 5:315oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316foccurrences 5:307ocean trenches 5:430t, 5:431-432,

5:435fsediment thickness 5:311, 5:312fseeps and vents 5:312stability 5:3 09fsubcretion 5:309f, 5:314tectonic erosion

background information 5:313basement topography 5:314, 5:315ffluid pressure effects 5:315, 5:316f

turbidites5:310f,5:311fdescription 4:343 fgeneral discussion 4:344geographic distribution 5:430, 5:430focean trenches

accretionary wedges 5:307-317,5:430t, 5:431-432, 5:435f

chemosynthetic communities5:433-434

critical taper 5:433depth control factors 5:435empty trenches 5:434faulting 5:435f,5:436ffilled trenches 5:432outer rise 5:434sediment transport 5:432subduction erosion 5:431-432, 5:434,

5:435fsubduction zones 4:343/", 4:344,

4:345f, 5:429f, 5:429-430water volume 5:433

southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:53, 4:60Conybeare, W. D. 3:360-361Cooma Metamorphic Complex 1:240-242,

1:242-243, l:246fCoombs, Douglas 3:187Cooper Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fcooperite 3:582fCope, Edward Drinker 3:180-181Copernicus, Nicolas 1:257Copperbelt, Zambia 3:494-495copper (Cu)

carbonatites 3:223t

hydrothermal fluids 3:629thydrothermal ore deposits 3:630t, 5:394tmineral analysis 1:108tnatural occurrences 3:553, 3:553toceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tophiolites 5:388partitioning behaviour 3:639tsoil concentrations 2:22ttoxicity 2:22tworld production rates 1:43 8t

Coquand, Henri 3:184, 3:85corals (Cnidarians) 2:321-334

anatomy 2:324f, 2:326fCarboniferous 4:212classification 2:324, 2:325fcomparative features 2:332£Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367^Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fDevonian 4:198ecology 2:329, 2:331fend-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:506f,

4:507glossary information 2:332Jurassic 3:356life cycle 2:322fMiocene 5:482nodular cherts 5:58fnorth-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:512f,

4:512-513Ordovician 4:179Palaeocene 5:462palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331fpalaeoterranes 5:457-458Permian 4:216Phanerozoic 2:323reef environments 4:562Rugosa

anatomy 2:326fcomparative features 2:332tecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:328fstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

Scleractiniaanatomy 2:326fCambrian corals 2:327fcomparative features 2:332tecology 2:329,2:33^general discussion 2:324Jurassic 3:356reef environments 4:562reef-forming corals 2:33Ifrepresentative corals 2:33Ofstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

structure 2:327symbioses 4:146Tabulata

comparative features 2:332tecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:329f

626 INDEX

corals (Cnidarians) (continued)stratigraphic ranges 2:325f

taxonomy 2:327Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

Cordaitales 2:449Cordaites 4:206f, 4:209fCordevolian stage 3:34Sfcordierite 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241f,

3:400f, 3:563Cordier, Louis 3:174, 3:476Cordillera

northern Cordillera 4:36-47bedrock features

accretion terranes 4:40 f, 4:41 f, 4:42,4:46

arc terranes 4:46autochthonous rocks 4:39back-arc basin terranes 4:46continental margin terranes 4:40/i

4:45general discussion 4:39mountain-building processes 4:43parautochthonous rocks 4:39

boundaries 4:36Cretaceous 3:364crustal thickness 4:38, 4:39feconomic deposits 4:44evolution 4:44neotectonics 4:37f, 4:38physiography 4:37, 4:37f, 4:44

southern Cordillera 4:48-61accreted terranes 4:53Archaean 4:48Cambrian 4:50Cenozoic 4:58, 4:60convergent plate boundaries 4:48,

4:53, 4:60Cretaceous 3:364, 4:52, 4:55, 4:5Sfcrustal thickness 4:48definition 4:48Devonian 4:50Eocene 4:58faunal assemblages 4:54Guerrero superterrane 4:54Jurassic 4:52, 4:54Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:S7fLaurentia 4:48magmatic arcs 4:53magmatism 4:55, 4:58, 4:59fMedicine Bow orogeny 4:48-50Mesoproterozoic 4:48Miocene 4:58miogeocline 4:50, 4:52Neoproterozoic 4:48, 4:50Nevadan orogeny 4:54Oligocene 4:58ophiolites 4:53-54orogenic events 4:48, 4:50Palaeoproterozoic 4:48Pennsylvanian 4:50Permian 4:50physiographic provinces 4:48, 4:49fPrecambrian basement 4:12Precambrian craton 4:48Proterozoic 4:48

Rodinia 4:48, 4:50seismicity 4:60Sevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55/", 4:56strike-slip fault systems 4:52tectonic evolution 4:58, 4:59f, 4:60tectonic map 4:5IfTriassic 4:52volcanism 4:58, 4:59fWasatch line 4:50

Triassic 3:344Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes 3:246Cordillera Principal belt 1:158Cordubian stage 4:167'fCormohipparion 5:484Cornubian batholith, England 3:492-493cornwallite 3:508fCornwall, United Kingdom 3:238fcoronal mass ejections 5:212, 5:213f, 5:219Corosaurus 2:506Corsica 2:75, 3:237?, 3:655f, 3:656,

5:466-468corundum 3:254, 3:256?, 3:401 f, 4:411 f,

4:412tcorvusite ((Na,KCa,Mg)2(V8O20)-6-

104H2O) 3:589tCorylorhynchus 2:485-486, 2:486fCorystospermales 2:452Costa Rica Rift 5:416fCotta, Bernhard von 3:184cousinite

(Mg(U02)2(Mo04)2(OH)2.5H20(?))3:552?

covellite (CuS) 3:575?, 3:576f, 3:577?,3:582f, 3:630?, 5:394?

cowiestie 3:593?Cox, Allan 3:200, 3:202crandallite 3:508f, 5:122, 5:124-125Crassigyrinus scoticus 2:47'4f, 2:475craters, lunar

important craters 5:2 70?Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27'IfMare Orientale 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,

5:270-271Plato crater 5:267, 5:268fsurface features 5:267

cratons 5:173-178Amazon craton

background information 1:307banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 3:128general discussion 1:311schematic map 1:31 Ifsuture zones 1:312ftectonic map l:307f, 3:132f

Arabian-Nubian Shieldgeneral description 1:140Gondwana 1:23 8fPan-African orogeny 1:2, l:2f, 1:3/,

l:4f, 1:5 fstructural elements 1:148, 1:15Oftectonic map 1:149f

Archaean 4:9f9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23fArgentina 1:160fAustralia

Curnamona Craton 1:217-218

Gawler Craton l:209f, l:210f, 1:215,1:239 f

Kimberley Craton l:210f, 1:212,1:239 f

Lucas Craton l:210f, 1:213North Australia Craton 1:208, l:209f,

1:211, 1:211 f, 3:128, 3:132fPilbara craton

banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39geological map 1:239fmicroorganisms l:280forigin of life 4:123origins 1:429orogenic events 1:208, l:210fPrecambrian outcrops 1:209f

South Australian Craton 1:208,1:209 f, 1:211 f, 1:215

West Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209f,l:210f

Yilgarn craton 1:208, l:209f, l:210f,1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39

Baltic Shieldbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 4:169fcrustal segments 2:41 fcrustal thickness 3:649f, 3:656,

3:657f, 3:658East European Craton 4:456geographic location 2:35fstructural features 3:650, 3:651fSuess, Eduard 2:238tectonic evolution 3:648Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:652fbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Brazil

Amazon craton 1:311, l:311f, l:312fgeneral discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields 1:238f, l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, 1:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, l:310f,

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312suture zones 1:312f

Canadian Shieldbasement gneisses 4:10fcarbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 4:23fkimberlites 4 : l l f 9 4:8-9physiographic provinces 4:22fPrecambrian continental nucleus 4:21structural provinces 5:175, 5:176ftectonic map 4:23 f

ChinaSino-Korea craton 1:346, 1:346fTarim craton 1:346, l:346fYangtze craton 1:346, l:346f

Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fcratonization 5:175, 5:175fcrustal composition 5:174, 5:174?crustal provinces 4:23f, 5:175, 5:176fDharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,

3:287f, 3:288t, 3:288fEastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, l:238f

INDEX 627

cratons (continued)East European Craton 2:34-49

accretionary wedge terranes 4:459fArchaean crust 2:38, 2:42f, 2:43f,

2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47fbackground information 2:34craton assembly 2:47, 2:48fcrustal provinces 4:459fcrustal segments

Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41 f,2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 2:48f

general discussion 2:38Sarmatia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f,

2:48fVolgo-Uralia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:46,

2:47/", 2:48fcrustal thickness 2:3Sf9 2:36, 3:656,

3:657f, 3:658geographic location 2:35fgravity fields 2:36Kola Peninsula 2:44flithologies 2:39fmagnetic anomalies 2:36, 2:37fmargins 2:34morphology 2:36Mylonite Zone 2:43f, 2:44erogenic events 2:40, 2:48fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

2:47Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48fPrecambrian 2:34Proterozoic 2:43f, 2:48frift systems 2:105, 2:36, 2:41f, 2:48fRussia 4:456, 4:457f, 4:458fRussian Platform 2.-35/J 2:36, 2:38f,

2:41fsedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457f,

4:458f, 4:460fsedimentary cover 2:35f, 2:36, 2:38f,

2:39f, 2:40f, 2:41fstructural features 3:650, 3:651ftectonic evolution 3:648Timanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50,

2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464topography 2:36Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651,3:652f

Uralide orogeny 2:34-35, 3:648Variscides Orogeny 3:648, 3:651volcanism 2:40, 2:48f

Fennoscandian Shieldcarbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 2:42f^ 2:43fevolution 2:48fgeneral description 2:38Neoproterozoic 2:41 fSuess, Eduard2:238Triassic 2:108

global distribution 5:173 fGondwana 1:238f, l:306fHearne craton 4:16, 4:17fHyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f,

4:468Indian Shield 1:238f, 3:285, 3:286f

Indian Sub-ContinentAravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:287f,

3:288, 3:291t, 3:291fBastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286,

3:287f, 3:289fDharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f,

3:288t, 3:288fEastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f,

3:289Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f,

3:290f,3:291tSouthern Granulite Terrain 3:287f,

3:288, 3:288fKaapvaal craton, South Africa

1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39kimberlites 3:252flamproites 3:257, 3:259fNorth American continental interior

4:22, 4:8-21Pan-African orogeny 1:1, l:2f, l:3fPangaea 5:177-178, 5:17^platforms 5:173Precambrian craton 4:48Rae craton 4:16Sask craton 4:16sedimentary deposits 5:177seismic characteristics 5:173, 5:174fshields l:306f, l:307f, 5:173Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167f,

4:456, 4:457f, 4:462f, 4:463,4:463f

Slave cratonkimberlites 3:23, 3:23fPrecambrian continental nucleus

4:10f, 4:llf9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,

4:18 fsupercontinents 4:12, 4:14f, 5:177,

5:178fsupercratons 4:14f, 4:16, 4:17Superior craton 4:llf, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,

4:17f, 4:19fterranes 5:175, 5:176fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:53 6fWyoming craton 4:12, 4:16Zimbabwe craton 1:132-135

creaming curves 4:331-332, 4:333fcreationism 1:381-386

Creation science 1:258, 1:385Cuvier, Georges 1:382, 2:182definitions 1:381fake fossils 2:172Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,

2:182,2:224-225Fundamentalism 1:383gap theory 1:383radiometric dating 1:386Scriptural Geology 1:383Seventh Day Adventists 1:384static versus dynamic theories 1:382See also Biblical geology

creepaeolian systems 4:612-614, 4:613flandslides 4:691, 4:691fmade ground 1:541, 1:541 f

particle-driven subaqueous gravityprocesses 5:2

creodonts 5:475-476, 5:485crescentic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f,

4:620f, 4:621fcrescentic gouges 4:668-669, 4:670fCressagian stage 4:183 fCretaceous 3:360-372

Alps 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:132-133ammonites 2:400-401, 2:401famphibians

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary2:523

fossil assemblages 2:516Lissamphibia

albanerpetontids 2:521 /", 2:523Celtedens ibericus 2:521ffrogs 2:521f9 2:522salamanders 2:522Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fValdotriton gracilis 2:522f

Andes Mountains 1:128angiosperms

Acer trilobatum 2:419fArchaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,

2:423-424diversification 2:424, 2:426forigins 2:420-422, 2:422fpalaeolatitudes 2:426fPalmoxylon 2:420fpollen 2:426fpollen-feeding insects 2:426, 2:427fQuercus 2:420fwater lily 2:425f

anoxic environments 1:23, 3:363,3:370-371, 4:497-499

Antarctica l:134f, 1:137Arabia l:142f, l:144farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277Atlantic Margin evolution 4:104fatmosphere 3:360background information 3:360Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fbiodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263f, l:264fbiota

marine biotaarthropods (Arthropoda) 3:367,

3:367fbrachiopods 3:367, 3:367/bryozoans (Bryozoa) 3:367, 3:367fcalcareous nannoplankton 3:366,

3:366fCoccolithophoridae 3:366, 3:366fcorals 3:367, 3:367fdiatoms 3:366, 3:366fdinoflagellates 3:366, 3:366fechinoderms 3:367, 3:367ffish 3:368, 3:368fforaminifera 3:366, 3:366fgastropods (Gastropoda) 3:367,

3:367finvertebrates 3:367marine reptiles 3:368, 3:368fmolluscs 3:367, 3:367fprotists 3:366

628 INDEX

Cretaceous (continued]radiolarians 3:366fvertebrates 3:368

terrestrial biotaamphibians 3:368, 3:369farthropods (Arthropoda) 3:368,

3:369fbirds (Aves) 3:368, 3:369fdinosaurs (Dinosauria) 3:368,

3:369ffreshwater fish 3:368, 3:369finsects 3:368, 3:369finvertebrates 3:368, 3:369fmammals 3:368, 3:369fmolluscs 3:368, 3:369fplants 3:370, 3:370freptiles (Reptilia) 3:368, 3:369fvertebrates 3:368

birds (Aves)Enantiornithes 2:498f, 2:500tOrnithuromorpha 2:498f, 2:499,

2:501fradiation patterns 2:499, 2:501f

bolide impact craters 3:363t, 3:383brachiopods 2:3 06fKmzi\l:317f,l:318f,l:320fbryozoans (Bryozoa) 1:271-273, l:272f,

1:274 fcalcareous algae 2:428f, 2:434fcarbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fCenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:360,

3:371, 4:497-499, 4:567-568cephalopods 2:389fchalk 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367, 5:42,

5:43f, 5:45f, 5:46China 1:347fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclay occurrences 1:364corals 2:325fCordillera 3:364Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:372-385amphibians 2:523background information 3:372causal mechanisms

bolide impact craters 3:383large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383multiple events 3:384sea-level changes 3:383

impact structures 3:277, 3:283Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375fbackground information 3:372biostratigraphy 3:374Elvis taxa 3:377-378fossil record 3:374, 3:377fhistorical background 3:373Lazarus taxa 3:377-378marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378, 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381fpseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377,

3:377fstratigraphy 3:373f

terrestrial invertebrates 3:381,3:381f

terrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382fvegetation 3:382, 3:383f

Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501fstratigraphy 3:373ftektites 5:453

crinoids 2:347f, 2:347-348dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490dolostones 5:91East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 4:461Enantiornithes 2:497-499end-Cretaceous extinction 2:355environmental zones 3:365fEurope 2:113extinction events 3:360, 3:370fish 2:463fgastropods 2::386f, 2:387geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

background information 3:360geological evolution 1:181t, 1:187mid-Cretaceous 3:147palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:188f,3:153f,3:362ftectonic processes 3:362terranes l:170f, l:172f, 1:175f

gymnospermsBennettitales 2:453f, 2:453biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fCzekanowskiales 2:451general discussion 2:446Pentoxylales 2:452

Ichthyosauria 2:503insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:368, 3:369finterior rifts l:316f, 1:327, 1:327fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106Japan 3:302, 3:303f, 3:304fLagerstatten3:3iO?large igneous province eruptions 3:363tLaurasia 3:360, 3:362, 3:362, 3:362f,

3:365mammalian diversification 2:532mammals 2:538New Caledonia 4:116New Zealand 4:1, 4:2f, 4:3f, 4:5f, 4:6North Africa l:14f, 1:15 f, 1:19 f, l:22f,

1:23, 1:23 f, l:24fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fnorthern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40f, 4:41 foceanic anoxic events 1:23, 4:497-499ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461,

3:462foxygen concentrations 1:206 fpalaeoclimate 3:360, 3:365, 3:365fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 3:362,

3:362f

Pangaea 3:360, 3:362, 3:362fPapua New Guinea 4:110Parana basin l:320fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417predation 4:145-146pycnodont fish 3:314freef environments 3:365, 3:367-368,

3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568reptiles (Reptilia) 2:508sea floor spreading 3:362-363sea-level 3:360, 3:363, 3:364fsea-level changes 4:25fseamounts 4:480sedimentation patterns 3:363Selandian epoch 3:372-373Siberian craton 4:462South-east Asia

geological evolution 1:1 Sit, 1:187,l:188f

Stratigraphic correlation l:183f,1:185 f

southern Cordillera 4:52, 4:55, 4:55/stratigraphy

biostratigraphy 3:361boundary stratotypes 3:361chronostratigraphy 3:361stages 3:361f

tectonic processes 3:362tetrapod radiations 1:273ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:5^ 6fTurkmenistan 1:166Uralide orogeny 2:87fUzbekistan 1:167volcanism 3:360, 3:657See also Mesozoic

Crete 5:228-229crickets 2:297f, 2:300tCrimea 2:35crinoids (Crinoidea) 2:342-350

anatomy 2:342anoxic environments 2:349Carboniferous 4:212ecological structures l:262tecology 2:348encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fend-Permian extinctions 4:220evolution 2:345-346, 2:347ffeeding position 2:348fJurassic 3:358morphology

Aethocrinus moorei2:346, 2:346f

arms 2:343f, 2:344, 2:345fcalyx 2:343f, 2:344columnal articulations 2:342-344,

2:343fgeneral discussion 2:342Pentacrinites fossilis 2:345f

phylogenetic relationships 2:347fpseudoplanktonic crinoids 2:349Stratigraphic distribution 2:347ftaphonomy 2:348taxonomy

Aethocrinea 2:344-345, 2:347f

INDEX 629

crinoids (Crinoidea) (continued)Articulata 2:344-345Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347fCladida 2:344-345, 2:347fDisparida 2:344-345, 2:347fEchinodermata 2:335, 2:336fFlexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347fgeneral discussion 2:342

Triassic 3:348f9 3:349f, 3:350cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

3:571critical taper 5:309 f, 5:433crocodiles 2:485Crocodylus porosus 2:504crocoite (PbCrO4) 3:533, 3:533?Crocuta crocuta 5:497fCroghan Hill 2:96fCroll, James 3:181, 4:131Cromerian complex 5:496fCronstedt, A. F. 3:500Cross, Charles Whitman 3:186-187Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua) 1:256Crozet Plateau 3:315f, 3:316tcrude oil

See oilcrust

See Earth, crustcrustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f, 1:278,

3:357Cryogenian Period 4:360, 5:511 fcryokarst 4:679cryoturbation 5:201cryptobioturbation 5:520-521Ctenospondylus 2:488-489cubanite (CuFe2S3) 3:575?Cuillin Mountains 3:99Cumberland-Allegheny Plateau 4:72, 4:73fcummingtonite 3:504-505cuprite (CuO2) 3:630tcuproadamite 3:508tcuproauride 3:119tcuprotungstite (Cu3(WO4)2(OH)2) 3:587tCurie, Marie 3:604-605curienite (Pb(UO2)2(VO4)2-5H2O) 3:589tCurie, Pierre 3:186, 3:604-605Curnamona Craton, Australia 1:218-219Currie, Philip J. 2:170-171Cuvier, Georges 2:179-184

achievements 2:180Agassiz, Louis 2:174biographical background 2:179biozones 1:295catastrophism 1:257, 3:176, 5:297creationism 1:382,2:182death 2:175gastropod classification 2:383-384geomythology 3:97legacy 2:182origin of life 4:123palaeoecology 3:175palaeontological reconstructions 3:176Pterodactylus 2:509research methods 2:180stratigraphic classification 2:181

Cuvier (Wallaby) Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t

Cuyania, Argentina l:160f, 1:161Cyamodus 2:506cyanobacteria 2:441-442, 4:365f,

4:365-366, 4:367fCycadales 2:448, 2:449fCycadeoidea microphylla 2:453fcycadophytes 3:351cyclic resistance ratio 1:528cyclic shear stress ratio 1:528Cyclocrinites 2:433Cyclocyrillium simplex 4:3 59fcyclones 1:516, 1:517tcyclothems 4:30, 4:31f, 4:487, 4:488fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fCylindroteuthis 2:394fcymrite 5:533fcynodonts 2:527, 2:528fCyprideis torosa 3:463cyrilovite 5:124-125cytosine 2:161, 2:162fCzech Republic

beer brewing process 3:79, 3:#0?,3:80-81

boundary stratotypes 5:511fCarboniferous 4:211Devonian 4:194gemstones 3:7tHolocene2:148meteorites 5:233-234Silurian 4:184-185, 4:189, 4:192-193tektites 5:443, 5:446f

Czekanowskiales 2:451Czerkas, Stephen 2:170-171

Dabie Shan, China 5:533, 5:535-536,5:536f, 5:537

dachiardite 3:593?dacites

Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:123f, 1:126Andes Mountains 1:128, 1:157explosive eruption

characteristics 4:387'tlava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:325f,

3:327-328Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Pyrenees 2:99sulphide minerals 3:493tridymite 3:571

Dacosuarus maximums 1:3 77fDahomeyan Belt 1:9-10Daiichi-Kashima Guyot 4:482Daisyworld model 3:3, 3:3fDakosaurus 2:504Dale Dyke dam, England 1:536, 2:537*,

1:537fDalrymple, Brent 3:202Daly, Reginald 2:191, 3:62, 3:192DamaraBelt l:2f, 1:7dam failures 4:629, 4:631fdamselflies 2:300?Dana, James D. 2:198, 2:237-238, 3:62,

3:182, 3:183fdanburite (CaB2Si2A8) 3:512?

Danian stagebackground information 3:372,

5:459-460biostratigraphy 3:373fbiozones 5:460fBrazil 2:322/", 1:325 fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:36S/", 3:381fprotist families 3:366fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3.-370/, 3:383fSee also Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

Daniels, Edward 2:197-198Danish Straits 2:150-151Danjon Scale 5:272?Danopolonian orogeny 2:44Danube River 2:125, 2:152, 4:652?, 5:29?Daonella 3:350darapskite (Na3(NO3)(SO4-H2O)) 3:556?Darcy's law 5:367Darriwillian stage 4:176-177, 5:52 If,

5:517fDarton, Nelson H. 2:196Darwin, Charles 2:184-187

background information 2:184Beagle voyage 2:161, 2:184, 3:182earthquake origins 2:237-238evolutionary studies 1:78, 1:257, 2:186,

3:180,4:123evolution theory 2:160geological publications 2:185igneous rocks 3:184Lyell, Charles 2:185, 2:209, 5:298natural selection 2:160, 2:161palaeontological reconstructions 3:176Parallel Roads of Glen Roy 2:186portrait 2:2 84fSedgwick, Adam 2:184-185tektites 5:443, 5:444fWollaston Medals 3:62

Dashwoods 4:83f, 4:83-84, 4:84f, 4:87f,4:89

datolite (Ca2B2Si2O9-H2O) 3:511-512,3:522?, 3:512f, 3:514

Daubree, Gabriel August 3:184David, T. W. Edgeworth 2:190Davis, William 3:181-182, 3:189Davy, Humphry 2:211, 3:60, 3:178Dawkins, Richard 3:2Dawsonoceras 2:391f, 2:392DawsonPeak3:252/"Dead Sea Rift 1:26-34

Arabia 1:148, 2:249/", l:150farchaeology 1:33background information 1:26climate 1:33earthquakes 1:33fault zones l:32fhydrology 1:32

D

630 INDEX

Dead Sea Rift (continued)laminated beds 1:33'fpetroleum reserves 5:441^ 5:442plate tectonics 1:26, 1:27friver systems 1:32, l:32fsatellite images l:26f, 1:27fsedimentation 1:33structure 1:31topography 1:31

deanesmithite (Hg5S2O2(CrO4)) 3:533tdeath mask hypothesis 4:374Death Valley, United States 4:52, 4:559f,

4:650f, 5:442, 5:442f, 5:584fDe Beers Consolidated Mines 2:191debris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573,

5:576*, 5:576fdebris flows 4:689, 4:690f, 5:2, 5:3fDecabrachia 2:394, 2:395fdecade volcanoes 5:575decavanadates 3:589tDeccan Traps

Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:291fBastar-Bhandara Craton 3:289fDevonian 4:198-199Dharwar Craton 3:288fgeological map 3:287flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f,

3:316*, 3:317,3:363*, 3:383lava/lava flows 3:328mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:317,

3:335-336mass extinctions 3:383, 4:198-199Palaeocene 5:462zeolites 3:598

declination (magnetic) 3:334decollement 5:309f, 5:310f, 5:31 If, 5:313f,

5:315f,5:316fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:70-78

biogenic sedimentation rates 5:77calcite compensation depth (CCD)

3:528, 5:73, 5:73fcomposition 5:70deep water processes 4:648distribution controls 5:73, 5:73fgeographic distribution 4:642f, 4:643f,

5:71fhistorical research 5:70lysocline 5:73, 5:73fsediment types

calcareous oozes 4.-642/J 4:648, 5:70,5:71f, 5:74, 5:74/~, 5:75*

carbonates 3:528continental margin sediments 4:642fdiatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54, 5:54fferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:76, 5:77/", 5:119general discussion 5:73glacial deposits 4:642fmud 4:642fnomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,

4:646tpelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f9

5:47fred clays 4:642/", 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,

5:74f, 5:75*, 5:76

siliceous oozes 4:642f, 5:53, 5:55/~,5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*

silicoflagellates 5:75sources 4:642/", 5:72f

Deep Sea Drilling Project 5:72-73, 5:406fdeep water processes 4:641-649

channel systems 4:648continental slopes 4:642f, 4:646deep continental margins 4:648deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:648oozes 4:648Quaternary sediment accumulations

4:641-642, 4:642fseafloor morphology 4:641, 4:642fsediment drifts 4:648sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645'f,

4:646tsediment sources 4:642, 4:642fsubmarine canyons 4:646transport processes

atmospheric circulation 4:644biota 4:645gravity-driven processes 4:644ocean currents 4:643submarine landslides 4:644-645turbidity currents 4:644volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645wind blown sediment 4:644

See also deep-ocean pelagic depositsdefence settings, site classification of 2:4*,

2:6*Deimos 5:280Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 fDe Kay, James 2:195De la Beche, H. T. 2:218, 3:62, 3:69, 3:179,

3:476, 5:298Delamerian Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240,

1:240*, 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248fDelaware Basin 4:33f, 4:62fDelaware, United States 5:444Del Cano Rise 3:315f, 3:316tdeloryite (Cu4UO2(MoO4)2(OH)6) 3:552*delrioite (CaSr(V2O6)(OH)2-3H2O) 3:559*Del Sur mountains 4:48deltas 4:528-539

abandonment 4:531, 4:533f, 4:534fAtchafalaya River delta 4:531, 4:532fbackground information 4:528classification 4:529fcontrolling factors 4:528deformation processes

collapse depressions 4:534/", 4:535,4:535f

growth faults 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536fhangingwall anticlines 4:535linear gullies 4:534/", 4:535, 4:535fliquefaction l:528tmud diapirs 4:534f, 4:535, 4:53 7fmudflows 4:534f, 4:535, 4:53Sf,

4:537frotational slides 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535^shale ridges 4:534f, 4:535syn-sedimentary deformation 4:532,

4:534fdistributaries 4:531 f

economic aspects 4:536/", 4:537, 4:538fformation processes 4:528importance 4:528levees 4:534flife cycle 4:531, 4:532f, 4:533flobe complexes 4:532/", 4:533fMississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532fpetroleum reservoirs 4:2351, 4:23 6fpetroleum traps 4:537plume formation dynamics 4:529-530,

4.-530/; 4:53If, 5:20f, 5:21friver mouth processes 4:529, 4:530fsedimentary growth faults 4:608, 4:609fsediment suspension processes

4:593-594sequence stratigraphy 5:161fshelf-edge deltas 4:534f, 4:537submerged delta plain 4:534fSundarban Delta 3:296tidal sand-banks 5:21ftransgressive barrier islands 4:534ftransgressive beaches 4:533fWax River delta 4:531, 4:532f

Deluc, Jean-Andre 2:182Dempster-Shafer analytical method 4:429dendrites 4:382, 4:383fdendrochronology 1:387-392

absolute dating techniques !:##*, 1:91background information 1:387dendroclimatology

micro-anatomical variations 1:390precipitation data l:390freconstruction models 1:388-389ring width studies 1:388, l:390f

environmental reconstructions 1:388Holocene 2:147stable isotope studies 1:390X-ray densitometry 1:390-391

Denmark 3:79, 3:80, 3:372, 5:461fDenning, W.R 5:238Densignathus 2:472, 2:472fDenticulopsis kamtschatica 5:487Denver Basin 4:33fdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161, 2:162fdepositional sedimentary structures

4:593-602basic principles

bedding 4:593bedload transport 4:593fine-grained sediments 4:594lamination 4:594plane bed transport 4:597-598suspension processes 4:593upper flow regime transport 4:597,

4:598fbedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596f

INDEX 631

depositional sedimentary structures(continued)heterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599fhummocky cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:578f, 4:S99foccurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fdecelerating flow structures 4:600flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601flamination

aeolian systems 4:599aqueous bedforms 4:594Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601 fcross-lamination 4:594, 4:595ffine-grained sediments 4:594heterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599f

pebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601 fstructureless features 4:600

Dermochelys 2:505fDescartes, Rene 2:227, 2:232, 3:73, 3:169descloizite (Pb(Zn,Cu)VO4(OH)) 3:589tDeseadan land mammal age 5:473fdesert pavement (reg) 4:626deserts 4:539-549

aeolian systemsaccumulation 4:543, 4:543fbedform climb 4:543, 4:543fbedforms 4:599bounding surfaces 4:543, 4:544fbypass supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545fcross-bedding 4:600deflationary supersurfaces 4:545,

4:545fdesert pavement (reg) 4:626dry aeolian systems 4:544interdune migration surfaces 4:543,

4:544f, 4:546fpreservation 4:543reactivation surfaces 4:543, 4:544fsand sea construction 4:543subcritical climbing 4:543superimposition surfaces 4:543,

4:544fsupersurfaces 4:545, 4:545fwet aeolian systems 4:544wind blown sediment 5:21zircon occurrences 3:604

alluvial fans 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:542ancient aeolian systems

depositional models 4:547, 4:548fdry aeolian systems 4:545dune-interdune interactions 4:547finterdune migration surfaces 4:546f

stabilization 4:546wet aeolian systems 4:546

Atacama Desert 3:555borate deposits 3:516f, 3:516-517braid-plains 4:541f9 4:542dunes l:528t, 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:599ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f9 4:542fluvial systems 4:541 f, 4:542geographic distribution 4:540fgeomorphic features 4:541finterdunes 4:541, 4:541fKara Kum Desert 1:166karst landscapes 4:683Kyzyl Kum Desert 1:167playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517radar mapping 4:417sabkhas

Arabia 1:146Arabian Gulf 4:509f, 4:5lOf, 4:511carbonates 5:110-112dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91evaporites 5:31, 5:32fgeneral discussion 4:542liquefaction l:528toccurrence 1:561

sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,4:622f

sandsheets 4:542soils 1:561Thar Desert 3:296Walther, Johannes 2:244zircon 3:604

Deshayes, Gerard-Paul 1:295, 2:183,2:208-209, 2:234

Desmarest, Nicholas 3:60, 3:174Desmoinian stage 4:70, 4:209fDesnoyers, Jules 2:183De Solido Intra Solidum Naturaliter

Contento Dissertationis Prodromus(Steno) 2:227

Desor, Edouard 2:175deuterium

See hydrogen (H)Deuterostoma 2:335Devensian stage 5:496fDevils River Uplift 4:62f, 4:65-67Devil's Tower, Wyoming 3:99Devonian 4:194-200

acritarchs 3:418-428Agassiz, Louis 2:175Antarctica I:134f9 1:135Appalachians 4:78Arabia l:142f, l:144fArchaeopteris hibernica 2:445, 2:445fArmorica 2:78, 2:79arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:276-277Australia l:226f, 1:230Avalonia 2:78, 2:79background information 4:194Baltica 2:78, 2:79biodiversity

end-Devonian biodiversity crisis 4:197late Devonian biodiversity crisis 4:198,

4:199 fmarine environments 4:196, 4:197f

mass extinction events l:264f, 4:196,4:197, 4:197f, 4:198

volcanism 4:198brachiopods 2:306fBrazil 1:317f, 1:318f, l:320fcalcareous algae 2:428fcalcified cyanobacteria 2:435Caledonian Orogeny 2:62, 2:64carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fcephalopods 2:389fChina 1:347fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430, 3:435f,

3:436f, 3:438, 3:438fchronostratigraphy 4:25fcorals 2:325fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fdolostones 5:91East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f7 4:459echinoids 2:355Eifelian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:196, 4:199fcarbon dioxide concentrations 4:196extinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) S:511fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

Elkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446fEmsian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:199fextinction events 4:196, 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

aamarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

Errivaspis waynensis 2:458fextinction events l:264f, 4:194, 4:196,

4:197, 4:197f, 4:198Famennian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:196, 4:199fchronostratigraphy 4:202fextinction events 4:197, 4:197f9 4:198fish 4:196glaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

fish 2:462, 2:463f, 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196fossil fungi 2:437, 2:438ffossil lichens 2:441Frasnian/Famennian (F/F) mass

extinction 4:197, 4:197f

632 INDEX

Devonian (continued)Frasnian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:199fextinction events 4:196, 4:197f, 4:198fish 4:196Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

gastropods 2:386f, 2:387Givetian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fextinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511fimpact events 4:199-200International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196, 4:19 6fvegetation 4:195

glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglaciation 4:197, 4:199f, 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

black shales 3:129Devonian, early 3:129Devonian, late 3:129geological evolution 1:178, 1:18Itpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:182f, 2:78, 2:79, 3:137f,3:138f

terranes l:170f, 1:171, l:172f, l:175f,3:130f

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,2:365f, 4:142, 4:143f

gymnospermsCalamopityales 2:447general discussion 2:445Hydraspermales 2:447

Hangenberg bioevent 4:197, 4:197fheterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459lapetus Ocean 2:78, 2:79impact structures 4:199, 4:199finsects 2:296-298, 2:299/", 2:300*,

4:195-196International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106jawless fish 2:460fKazakhstan l:182fKellwasser bioevent 4:197, 4:197fLagerstatten 3:310*, 3:312-313Laurasia 2:79, 3:438Laurentia l:182f, 2:78, 2:79Lochkovian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fcarbon dioxide concentrations 4:196

extinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:194-195

marine environments 4:194molluscs 2:367, 4:141-142North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,

1:21, l:22fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fNorthern Appalachians 4:81, 4:87f,

4:88, 4:90fnorthern Cordillera 4:44ostracoderms 2:457, 2:458fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460fOuachita Mountains 4:64foxygen concentrations 1:206fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77fpalynological zonations 3:468fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPechora Basin 2:53fplacoderms 2:465polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Pragian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fextinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 finsects 4:195-196International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

reef environments 4:565Rheic Ocean 2:79Rhynie chert

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275,2:277

fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310thydrothermal activity 5:59-60, 5:61flichens 2:441-442Old Red Sandstone 5:59-60

Russia 4:463fsarcopterygians 2:467sea-level changes 4:26fsharks 2:463-465Siberia 1:182fSiberian craton 4:461South-east Asia

geological evolution 1:178, 1:18It,1:182f

Stratigraphic correlation I:183f9

1:185 fsouthern Cordillera 4:50Stratigraphic controversy 5:504Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251

tektites 5:454terrestrial environments

animals 4:195plants 4:194, 4:195f

tetrapodsevolutionary process 2:165, 2:165fglobal distribution 2:472flimbs 2:471flobe-finned vertebrates 2:469, 2:470fphysical appearance 2:469skeletal material 2:471ftetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:470f

thelodonts 2:459, 2:459fThelodus macintosh! 2:459ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Tuberculaspis elyensis 2:458fUralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89fVariscides Orogeny 2:78, 2:79vertebrates

evolution 2:468, 2:470ffish 4:194, 4:196

weathering effects 5:589-590Xenotheca devonica 2:446f

Devonshire, United Kingdom 4:194Dewey, John Frederick 3:62deyerite (BiVO4) 3:589tDhahran Sabkha, Saudi Arabia 4:542Dharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,3:287f,

3:288t, 3:288fDiadectes 2:477f, 2:477-478diadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478diagenesis 1:393-395

biogeochemical cycles 1:433fboundaries 1:393, l:393fcarbonates 3:531clays 5:62-70

authigenesis 5:62background information 5:62depth effects 5:63fmudrocks

bentonite illitization 5:65chlorite 5:65, 5:65fgeothermometry 5:64-65illite crystallinity 5:65kaolinite 5:65, 5:66fsharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f

porosity 1:394sandstones

chlorite 5:69glauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fkaolinite 5:66, 5:66fpotassium-argon (K-Ar) dating

5:69smectites 5:67

water/rock ratios 5:62, 5:65-66, 5:67fossils 4:157historical background 1:393overview 1:393-395processes

cementation 1:394, I:394f9 5:143,5:144f

chemical diagenesis 1:394

INDEX 633

diagenesis (continued)compaction 1:393-394, l:394ffractures 1:394, l:394fpermeability 1:394, l:394fphysical diagenesis 1:393porosity 1:393, l:394fsequence 5:144, S:14Sf

sedimentary rockschemical diagenesis 1:394diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146, 5:1477fironstones 5:102fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148flimestones 5:112petroleum emplacement 5:145,5:145f,

5:148, 5:149fphysical diagenesis 1:393, l:394fquantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:69, 5:146, 5:147fsandstones 1:394, 5:143, S:144f

tuffaceous deposits 3:597, 3:597fSee also metamorphism

diamictites 1:139-140, 1:172-174, l:178f,3:129,4:50,4:180,4:675

diamondsAustralia 1:218 f, 1:221Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:11 fcarbonatites 3:222geochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f9

3:24fgeographic distribution 3:7tkimberlites 3:247-260, 3:492, 4:8-9,

4:11 f, 4:473lamproites 3:257, 3:2S9fnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554placer deposits 3:489-490, 3:490fprospecting methods 3:256Russia 4:473shock metamorphic effects 5:183tSouth-east Asia l:178f, 1:196ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

S:533f, 5:534f, 5:536-537uncut diamond 3:258f

diapirsSee mud diapirs; salt deposits

diapsidsAraeoscelis 2:482-483definition 3:351dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:495general discussion 2:482Lepidosauromorpha 2:483mosasaurs 2:483Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482fpterosaurs 2:513snakes 2:483Sphenodon 2:483Spinoaequalis 2:482-483Squamata 2:483Younginiforms 2:483

diatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54, 5:54fdiatomite 1:30, l:438tdiatoms

Antarctica 1:139-140biogenic silica 4:500, 4:556, 5:52

Cretaceous 3:366, 3:366fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75textraction methods 3:473forensic geology 2:270-271, 2:272flacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476Pliocene 1:139-140siliceous sediments 5:35

diatremesSee kimberlites

Dicellograptus 4:178dichromates 3:533?Dickinsonia costata 4:362fdickite 1:363, 3:631-632, 5:67Dicranograptus 4:182Dicroidium 1:136, 3:349, 3:349fDictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f, 2:364fDictyosphaera delicate 4:356f, 4:358Dicynodon 1:182, l:184f, 1:352Didymograptus 4:178Dienerian stage 3:345, 3:345fdietzeite (Ca2(CrO4)(lO4)2-H2O) 3:533?Dietz, Robert 3:195, 3:198, 3:199digenite (Cu9S5) 3:575?, 3:582f, 5:394tdigital cameras 4:435Dillinger terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46diluvialism 3:170Dimetrodon 2:488f, 2:488-489, 2:538,

4:217Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511, 2:513-514Dimorphosiphon 2:432Dinantian division 4:201Dinarides 2:126f, 2:135-146Dinilysia 2:483dinoflagellates

Cretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fextraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:462

Dinogalerix 2:538dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496

Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,

3:358-359Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiagnostic characteristics 2:490, 2:491 f,

2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490geomythology 3:98growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495Jurassic 3:358, 3:359forigins 2:492Ornithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493

Thyreophora 2:493palaeopathology 4:162, 4:162fphysiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Reptilia 2:490Saurischia

general discussion 2:492f, 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:351f

Triassic 2:492, 2:493/", 3:350, 3:3Slfdiogenites 5:23ItDione 5:287t, 5:288diopside 3:221?, 3:397f, 3:400f, 3:567diorites 3:237?, 3:550Diplocaulus 2:477f, 2:478Diplocraterion 4:224Diplograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366Diptera

See insectsDipterus 2:464fDirectorate of Colonial Geological Surveys

1:370, 1:371Directorate of Overseas Geological Surveys

1:373disarticulation 4:157disaster equation 1:516fDiscoaster pentaradiatus 5:486-487Discoaster surculus 5:487Discovery Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tdisease 5:328dispersive soils 1:558, l:559f, l:560fdissorophoids 2:475, 2:476/", 2:477fDitrupa 4:512f, 4:512-513divergent plate boundaries 4:342, 4:343f9

4:344f, 5:374f, 5:429-430Dixey, Frank 1:371djurieite 3:575tD" layer 3:338DNA-RNA proteins 4:125Dnieper Basin 2:35f, 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f,

3:650-651, 4:460-461Doell, Richard 3:202Dog Bay-Liberty-Orrington Line 4:82fDolichosaurus 2:504-505dolines 4:682f, 4:684fDoliodus problematicus 2:463Dollfus, A. 5:238, 5:271Dolomieu, Deodat de 2:182, 3:171, 3:476,

3:476/", 5:79dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 5:79-94

A\ps2:131famphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:220, 3:221tcementation 5:143chemical diagenesis 1:394classification 4:454, 5:26?composition 5:79densities 5:321fdiagenetic processes 5:145fdolomitization

anhydrite replacement 5:84fcarbonate diagenesis 3:531dolostone development 5:85fenvironmental settings 5:88hypersaline environments 5:90

634 INDEX

dolomite (CaMg(003)2) (continued)hyposaline environments 5:89limestone dolomitization 5:86fmass balance constraints 5:80matrix replacement 5:83fmicrobial/organogenic models 5:88mixing zone model 5:89molds 5:84fpenecontemporaneous dolomites 5:88reflux model 5:90sabkha model 5:90-91seawater dolomitization 5:91subsurface environments 5:91textural evolution 5:82vugs 5:83f

formation processes 5:79general discussion 5:79geochemistry

general discussion 5:84isotope studies 5:85, 5:89frecrystallization 5:86-87, 5:89f

grain analysis 5:30, 5:3Ifhydrothermal activity 5:87-88, 5:90fironstones 5:99karst landscapes 4:679kinetic constraints 5:80limestones 5:107-108, 5:108t, 5:112mass balance constraints 5:80metamorphic facies 3.-400/", 3:40IfNorth Africa 1:24occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108tpermeability 5:83, 5:88fpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235,

4:23 6fpore size classification 5:81, 5:82fporosity 4:234 f, 4:236f, 5:83, S:88fsaddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f9 5:87f,

5:87-88secular distribution 5:93textural classification 5:81, 5:8Ifthermodynamic constraints 5:80ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fdolomitization

See dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)dolostone

See dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)dolphins 5:482-483Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:313 f,

1:318Don Braulio formation, South America

3:129Donets Basin 2:35f, 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f,

3:650-651, 4:471Doppler radar 4:415Dorashamian stage 4:214, 4:215tdore 3:124-125Dorry abrasion tests 1:568Dorypterus 4:498fDoughty, Charles 1:140Doushantuo Formation, China 3:310t,

4:360, 4:361f, 4:362fDoyle, Sir Arthur Conan 2:261dragonflies 2:297/i 2:300*dragonflies (Odonata) 5:469

Drake Passage l:133f, 1:138-139, 5:468,5:490

Dronning Maud Land 3:151fdrumlins 4:676Drummond Basin 3:139, 3:140fDubrajpur formation 3:147, 3:150fDuchesnean land mammal age 5:472Duckmantian subdivision 4:202fdufrenite 5:122duftite 3:508fduhamelite(Pb2Cu4Bi(VO4)4(OH)3-8H2O)

3:589tDuke, C. 5:266*Dunbarella 4:498fdunes

aeolian placers 3:604barchan dunes 4:600, 4:618-620,

4:619f, 4:620fclimbing dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fcrescentic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f,

4:620f, 4:621fdune processes 4:620falling dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fglobal distribution 4:541 flamination 4:599linear dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f,

4:621flinear trends 4:622fliquefaction l:528tlunettes 4:618-620, 4:619fmorphology 4:619fnebkhas 4:618-620, 4:619fparabolic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fpetroleum reservoirs 4:235trelict dune systems 4:625fsand seas 4:540sedimentary structures 4.-621/", 4:622sediment characteristics 4:622seif dunes 4:600star dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620fwind variability 4:620fzibars 4:542, 4:618-620, 4:619f

dunite 3:253-254, 3:257fSee also olivine

Dunnage zone 4:82f, 4:84, 4:87fDupuy, Victor 3:476durability

See rock propertiesduricrusts 5:588Durocher, Joseph 3:184dust storms 4:616, 4:616f, 4:617f, 5:21,

5:273, 5:274fDu Toit, Alexander 2:188-194

ancestry 2:188career

De Beers Consolidated Mines 2:191Department of Irrigation 2:190DwykaTillite2:189Geological Commission of Cape

Province 2:189Geological Survey of the Union of

South Africa 2:190South African geology 2:189

field mapping equipment 2:189fhonours 2:193

plate tectonics theory 2:188, 2:190,2:192f9 2:252, 3:193-194

portrait 2:188fpublications 2:191

Dutton, C. E. 3:181-182, 3:183, 3:184DwykaTillite 2:189, 4:216dykes

Bohemian Massif 2:117carbonatites 3:218t, 3:219fgemstones 3:10granitic rocks 3:236-239,3:237*, 3:238 f,

3:240*, 3:244kimberlites 3:249, 3:492Palaeocene2:n9/"Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:96f, 2:97,

2:98, 2:99Russia 4:463fScotland 2:97-98

Dyrosaurus 2:504dysprosium (Dy) 3:223*, 3:224/i 3:242fDzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215*

Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO)5:467/i 5:470

Early Holocene Shield Trap Cave,Montana, United States 3:308

Earthage determination 1:78, l:82t, 3:183,

3:186asteroid bombardment 4:363-365,

5:220-221asthenosphere 3:411 f, 3:656, 4:340,

4:343/atmosphere 1:197-207

asteroid bombardment 1:199carbon dioxide concentrations

abundances l:197tanthropogenic sources 1:343f,

l:344f, 1:345 fchanges l:206fend-Permian extinctions 4:223,

4:223fgeneral discussion 1:206geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,

l:342fglacial/interglacial periods 1:342f,

1:343 fchemical composition 1:1971condensation 1:199evolution

anoxic environments 1:201living organisms 1:202, 1:203mass-independent fractionation

1:201-202metabolic energy 1:202oxygen concentrations 1:202, 1:203planetary formation effects 1:197snowball Earth events 1:204sulphur isotopes 1:201

nuclide binding energy 1:198, l:198foutgassing 1:199Phanerozoic atmosphere

atmospheric changes 1:204

E

INDEX 635

Earth (continued)carbon dioxide concentrations

1:206, l:206foxygen concentrations 1:206,

l:206ftemperature history l:205f

primary atmosphere 1:198secondary atmosphere 1:200solar luminosity I:197f9 1:197-198temperature-pressure profile 1:201 fterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200*biosphere 1:422core

accretion models 1:400finternal structure 1:423, 1:423fmagnetic field 1:425fproperties l:424t

cratons 5:173-178Amazon craton

background information 1:307banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 3:128general discussion 1:311schematic map 1:31 Ifsuture zones 1:312ftectonic map l:307f, 3:132f

Arabian-Nubian Shieldgeneral description 1:140Gondwana l:238fPan-African orogeny 1:2, l:2f, l:3f,

l:4f,l:5fstructural elements 1:148, 1:15Oftectonic map 1:149f

Archaean 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23fArgentina l:160fAustralia

Curnamona Craton 1:217-218Gawler Craton 1.-209/", 1:210f,

1:215, l:239fKimberley Craton 1:210/j 1:212,

1:239 fLucas Craton l:210f, 1:213North Australia Craton 1:208,

I:209f9 1:211, 1:211 f, 3:128,3:132f

Pilbara craton. See Pilbara craton,Australia

South Australian Craton 1:208,l:209f, 1:211 f, 1:215

West Australian Craton 1:208,1.-209/", l:210f

Yilgarn craton 1:208, 1:209 f9

l:210/;i:239/; 3:491-492,5:39

Baltic Shieldbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Cambrian 4:169fcrustal segments 2:4Ifcrustal thickness 3.-649/J 3:656,

3:657/", 3:658East European Craton 4:456geographic location 2:35fstructural features 3:650, 3:651fSuess, Eduard 2:238

tectonic evolution 3:648Trans-European Suture Zone

(TESZ) 3:652fbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Brazil

Amazon craton 1:311, 1:311 f,l:312f

general discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields 1:238f, l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, 1:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, I:310f9

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312suture zones 1:312f

Canadian Shieldbasement gneisses 4:10fcarbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 4:23fkimberlites 4:8-9, 4:11 fphysiographic provinces 4:22fPrecambrian continental nucleus

4:21structural provinces 5:175, 5:176ftectonic map 4:23 f

ChinaSino-Korea craton 1:346, l:346fTarim craton 1:346, 1:346fYangtze craton 1:346, 1:346f

Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone4:19 f

cratonization 5:175, 5:175fcrustal composition 5:174, 5:174tcrustal provinces 4:23 f9 5:175, 5:176fDharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,

3:287f9 3:288t, 3:288fEastern Antarctic Shield 1:132,

l:238fEast European Craton. See East

European CratonFennoscandian Shield

carbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 2:42f9 2:43fevolution 2:48fgeneral description 2:38Neoproterozoic 2:41 fSuess, Eduard 2:238Triassic 2:108

global distribution S:173fGondwana l:238fHearne craton 4:16, 4:17fHyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457/",

4:468Indian Shield I:238f9 3:285, 3:286fIndian Sub-Continent

Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton3:287f9 3:288, 3:291*, 3:291f

Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286,3:287f9 3:289f

Dharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f9

3:288t, 3:288fEastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f,

3:289Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f9

3:290f,3:291t

Southern Granulite Terrain 3:287f,3:288, 3:288f

Kaapvaal craton, South Africa1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39

kimberlites 3:252flamproites 3:257, 3:2S9fNorth American continental interior

4:8-21, 4:22Pan-African orogeny 1:1, I:2f9 l:3fPangaea 5:177-178, S:178fplatforms 5:173Precambrian craton 4:48Rae craton 4:16Sask craton 4:16sedimentary deposits 5:177seismic characteristics 5:173, 5:174fshields 1:148, I:306f9 l:307f, 3:285,

5:173Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167% 4:456,

4:4S7f, 4:462f, 4:463, 4:463fSlave craton

kimberlites 3:23, 3:23fPrecambrian continental nucleus

4:10/j 4:llf9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,4:18 f

supercontinents 4:12, 4:14/, 5:177,5:178f

supercratons 4:14f, 4:16, 4:17Superior craton 4:llft 4:12, 4:13f9

4:1694:17f94:19fterranes 5:175, 5:176fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:53 6fWyoming craton 4:12, 4:16Zimbabwe craton 1:132-135

crust 1:403-409chemical composition determination

chemical analyses 1:406, 5:174,5:174*

continental crust 1:406tdeep-sourced xenoliths 1:406general discussion 1:406oceanic crust 1:406, 1:406*partial melting 1:407seismic wave velocities 1:406

Conrad discontinuity 1:406continental crust 3:233-247

chemical compositiondetermination l:406t

heat flux 5:3 63 £metamorphic facies 3:411, 3:412fNew Zealand 4:1, 4:lfplate tectonics theory 1:440fschematic diagram 1:404ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412fthermal gradients 3:41 If

continent-continent collisions 5:539crustal aggregation 4:12, 4:14fcrustal provinces 4:23f9 5:175, 5:176fcrustal stretching 4:100, 4:101 fcrustal structure 3:646crustal thickness

Baltic Shield 3:656, 3:657f, 3:658East European Craton 2:35f9 2:36,

3:656, 3:657f, 3:658

636 INDEX

Earth (continued)European Permo-Carboniferous

basins 3:653gravity measurements l:102f,

1:103, l:103fMohorovicic discontinuity

3:647-648North American continental interior

4:24fnorthern Cordillera 4:38, 4:39fregional metamorphism 3:412,

3:413f, 3:414fsouthern Cordillera 4:48tectonic processes 3:647-648Variscides Orogeny 3:658

deformation processes 1:408, l:408f,l:409f, 4:16, 5:425-428

elemental abundances S:114tgeophysical techniques 3:646, 3:646fglacial isostatic adjustment 2:15Of,

5:427growth estimates 1:407heat flow 1:408, 4:15-16heat flux 5:363tinternal structure 1:423, 1:423fisostasy 1:407, l:407f, 1:408 flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fmajor crustal types 1:404, 1:405fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:647fneotectonics 5:425-428

active tectonics 5:425definition 5:425glacial isostatic adjustment 5:427global perspective 5:428global tectonics 5:426

oceanic crustchemical composition

determination 1:406, l:406theat flux 5:3 63 £mountain-building processes 5:418plate tectonics theory 1:440fschematic diagram 1:404fthermal gradients 3:41 Iftransform faults 5:384, 5:386ftransition zone 4:101 f

primitive crust 1:407properties l:424trecycling processes 1:404, 1:405frock densities 5:321fstructure 1:405terranes 5:175, 5:176f, 5:455thermal gradients 3:411 fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:539vertical movement 2:150f9 2:151 f

density l:92,l:94fearly biosphere

biogeochemistry 4:366evolution 4:3 64fstromatolites 4:367

Gaia hypothesis 3:1-6geological research (1835-1900) 3:183geological research (1900-1962) 3:194geological time-scale 5:274fgravity measurements 1:92

hydrogen concentrations 1:200fimpact structures

Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:98fbolide impact craters 3:363t, 3:383Cretaceous 3:363?, 3:383impact craters 3:195Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,

United States 3:279/i 3:571Oligocene 5:473origin of life 4:128planetary evolution 3:283shock metamorphism 5:179, 5:182f

internal structure 1:423, 1:423 f, 3:194,5:320

lithospherebiogeochemical cycles 1:431description 1:403, 4:340, 4:343fearth system science 1:430, 1:43Ifgravity measurements I:97f9 1:98,

1:98 fheat flux 5:363*, 5:363flithospheric flexure 5:428-437melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211 fmid-ocean ridges 5:383Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:656,

3:657fnorthern Cordillera 4:39focean trenches 5:428-437Permo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:100propagating rifts 5:396-405strength analysis 5:335, 5:336fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:224fthermal gradients 3:411 fthermal metamorphism 5:499, 5:500ftransform plate boundaries 4:343fvolcanism 5:565

magnetic fieldauroras 5:218, 5:219fbasic principles 4:147, 4:148fBrunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal

S:506fEast Coast Magnetic Anomaly

(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99fgeneral discussion 1:423geomagnetic fluctuations 5:218geomagnetic storms 5:217magnetostratigraphy 3:331-335

analytical techniques 3:333apparent polar wander paths 1:85 f^

4:153, 4:153fapplications 1:84, l:86fcycle charts 5:169ffield sampling 3:333gauss 3:333-334general discussion 5:303geomagnetic polarity time-scale

l:81f,l:83f, 3:331, 3:332fhistorical background 1:82-83Jurassic 3:353

large igneous provinces (LIPs)3:321f

magnetic anomalies l:83f, 1:101,l:101f

magnetic field reversals 1 :424f9

3:202magnetostratigraphical correlation

3:333/r, 3:334methodology 1:84normal polarity 3:331polarity-bias superchrons 3:331fremnant magnetization 3:332reversed polarity 3:331secular variation 3:334

movement trends 1 :425fRaff-Mason magnetic

anomaly 5:3 99 fschematic diagram 1:425 fsolar wind 5:217, 5:218fVine-Matthews anomalies 4:346

magnetosphere 5:217, 5:217f, 5:218fmantle 1:397-403

accretion models 1 :400fcarbonatites 3:227, 3:227f, 3:231 f,

3:232fcomposition

convection 1:401-402, 1:402 fgeneral discussion 1:399mineralogy 1:401 fpyrolite hypothesis 1:399, l:401f

convection model 3:142, 3:143f,3:193f, 4:348

discontinuities 3:338gravity measurements l:97f, 1:98internal structure 1:397, l:398f,

1:423, 1:423 fkimberlites 3:255, 3:257f, 4:8-9,

4:11 f, 4:473mantle keel 4:8-9melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211 fmid-ocean ridges 5:376-377, 5:3 78 fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:647fplate tectonics 1:402properties l:424tsampling techniques

chemical-equilibrium studies 1:397,1:398 f9 1:399 f

kimberlites 1:398meteoritic analogies 1:398, l:400foceanic basalts 1:397peridotites 1:397, 1:399seismology 1:397

seismic imagesD" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338, 4:14ftransition zone 3:338, 3:33 8fupper mantle 3:337, 3:33 7f

stable isotope studies 3:228, 3:229fsubducted slabs 1:402

INDEX 637

Earth (continued)tomography 1:402volcanism 5:565

mantle convection 1:424melting processes

conduction heating 3:212decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:209pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

orbital variations 1:410-421amplitude modulation cycles

dynamical ellipticity 1:417, l:418ffrequency analysis 1:417fmodulation terms l:416tsignificance 1:416tidal dissipation 1:417, l:418f

celestial mechanics 1:410, 1:41 Ofchaos 1:417geological record

evolutionary spectrum 1:419fgeneral discussion 1:420magnetic susceptibility l:418f

geological time-scale 5:516historical research 5:494Jurassic 3:354Milankovich cycles l:413f, 4:131orbital frequencies

climatic precession l:413f, 1:414,1:41 St, 1:415f, 1:416t, l:418f

eccentricity 1:412, l:413t, l:413f,l:416t,l:418f

insolation 1:415, 1:416fobliquity l:413f, 1:414, 1:424?,

1:414f, l:416t, l:418forigins 1:411precession 1:411, l:412f, l:413fsolar system 1:411, 1:4111

palaeoclimate 1:206, 4:131, 4:208origins

age determination 3:183atmosphere

anoxic environments 1:201asteroid bombardment 1:199condensation 1:199living organisms 1:202, 1:203mass-independent fractionation

1:201-202metabolic energy 1:202nuclide binding energy 1:198,

1:198 foutgassing 1:199oxygen concentrations 1:202, 1:203Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204planetary formation effects 1:197primary atmosphere 1:198secondary atmosphere 1:200snowball Earth events 1:204solar luminosity l:197f, 1:197-198sulphur isotopes 1:201temperature-pressure profile 1:201 fterrestrial volcanic-gas

compositions l:200tbiospheric evolution 4:364fgeneral discussion 4:363

Oort cloud 1:428fstructure 1:427

ozone layer 1:424, 1:425fplanetary comparisons 1:426, 1:427fplate tectonics 1:424, 1:426fproperties 1:422?, 1:424?, 4:357shape 1:92solar system 1:197, 1:421structure 1:421-429Sun-Earth connection

auroras 5:218, 5:219fdistances 5:209geomagnetic fluctuations 5:218geomagnetic storms 5:217glaciation 5:215global warming 5:215magnetosphere 5:217, 5:217f, 5:218fsolar constant 5:215, 5:216fsolar radiation 5:214, 5:219space weather 5:218terrestrial atmosphere 5:215, 5:217f,

5:219tidal forces 1:422, l:422fview from space 1:421 f

earthflows 4:690earth materials

carbonates. See carbonatescarbonatites. See carbonatitesigneous rocks

aggregates 1:35basalts

Columbia River Flood Basalts3:315f, 3:316?, 5:480

crazing l:546fgeotechnical properties 1:545t,

l:546f,3:102tkomatiites 3:260-267magnetization process 4:148-149northern Cordillera 4:36-47oceanic basalts 1:397physical properties l:483tpipes l:546fseamounts 4:475sulphide minerals 3:642ftitanomagnetite 4:148-149

classification 4:45'3tanomalies 4:454differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452lava flows 4:454

dacites 3:493feldspars 3:536gemstones

extrusive rocks 3:10general discussion 3:10hydrothermal fluids 3:11intrusive rocks 3:10pegmatites 3:11, 3 : l l f

granites 3:233-247alkali-lime index 3:235falumina saturation index 3:235?associated rock types 3:237?background information 3:233

biotite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:550carbonatites 3:218tclassification schemes 3:234composition 3:237?densities 5:321femplacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238f, 3:239, 3:240?formation processes 3:233, 3:234ffractional crystallization 3:242gemstones 3:10geochemical analysis 3:242f, 3:243fgeotechnical properties 1:545?,

3:102?graphic granite 1:256, 1:256fisotope analysis 3:244, 3:244fmagmatism time-scales 3:245,

3:246fmineral deposits 3:492, 3:493fmineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241 fmuscovite 3:550occurrence 3:236, 3:237?origins 4:455oxidation state 3:234-235, 3:235fpetrogenic studies 3:242, 3:242fpetrology 3:238fphysical properties 1:453?plutonic shape 3:236pressure-temperature diagram

3:243fquartz (SiO2) 3:571rare earth element plots 3:242fSouth-east Asia l:187ftextures 3:240zircon crystals 3:245, 3:245f

intrusive igneous rocks3:492, 3:493^

micas 3:550plagioclase 3:538quartz (SiO2) 3:571rhyolites 3:493site classification 2:3?sulphide minerals 3:584zircon 3:602

kimberlites 3:247-260background information 3:247Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:11 fchemical composition 3:245?definition 3:247depth distribution 3:255, 3:257fdiamond exploration 3:22, 3:23/i

3:24f, 3:492diamonds

mineral suites 3:255, 3:256?prospecting methods 3:256provenance 3:255uncut diamond 3:258f

Du Toit, Alexander 2:190geotectonic setting 3:249, 3:252fglobal distribution 3:256, 3:258fintrusion types

diatremes 3:248, 3:249?, 3:249/",3:250f, 3:251f

dykes 3:249interrelationships 3:249, 3:25Ifsills 3:249

63S INDEX

earth materials (continued)kimberlite indicator minerals 3:22,

3:23f, 3:24fmagmatic system 3:25Ifmantle sampling technique 1:398megacrysts 3:255mineralogy 3:256*mining techniques 3:257, 3:258fphlogopite 3:550prospecting methods 3:256radiometric dating 3:250, 3:252/",

3:253fRussia 4:473temperature ranges 3:254-255, 3:255fupper mantle associations 3:255,

3:257fweathering processes 5:588xenoliths 3:252, 3:254f, 3:255f

lamproites 3:257, 3:259fmetamorphic rocks

aggregates 1:35classification 3:386-402, 4:453*

anomalies 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:4S2fgeneral discussion 4:453naming procedures 3:389f, 3:390nomenclature 3:386, 3:387tstructural terminology 3:390*

densities 5:32Iffeldspars 3:537formation processes

duration 3:392fluids 3:392general discussion 3:391geothermal gradient 3:392fGibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393flocal metamorphism 3:393mineral structures 3:394, 3:395fphysicochemical reactions 3:393,

3:393f, 3:394fpressure 3:392pressure-temperature diagram

3:393^regional metamorphism 3:392-393temperature 3:391

gemstonesemeralds 3:12general discussion 3:12rubies 3:12sapphires 3:12

gneissAcasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429,

4:10f,4:13f,4:15f, 4:350definition 3:387, 3:388tgeotechnical properties 1:545*,

3:102*granitic gneiss 3:599Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607/, 3:607-608regional metamorphism 3:396f

mafic rocks 3:394-396, 3:396fmarls 3:396, 3:396fmicas 3:550

mineral assemblagescarbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399,

3:400fmafic rocks 3:397, 3:398fmarls 3:396, 3:396/", 3:401, 3:401 fpelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f,

3:398, 3:400fquartzofeldspathic rocks 3:397,

3:399fultramafic rocks 3:396, 3:397f

mineral deposits 3:496New Zealand 4:4f, 4:6nomenclature

classification 3:386definitions 3:387tmain specific rock name 3:386,

3:387*minor specific rock name 3:386,

3:388tnaming procedures 3:389f, 3:390structural root names 3:387, 3:388tstructural terminology 3:390*

northern Cordillera 4:43pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396fplagioclase 3:538, 3:539fpressure-temperature-time (PTt) paths

3:409-417age determination 3:416anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,

3:416fbackground information 3:409basic principles 3:409, 3:410fclockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,

3:416fcontact metamorphism 3:406,

3:414, 3:41Sfcontrolling factors 3:410crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,

3:414fexhumation rates 3:409-410, 3:413,

3:416, 3:416fgeneral discussion 3:417Gibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393fas interpretative tool 3:416, 3:416fschematic diagram 3:415fstable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f,

3:415 ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412fprotoliths 3:394, 3:396fquartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396,3:396fquartz (SiO2) 3:571schist 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387, 3:388tshock metamorphism 5:179-184

controversies 5:182damage effects 5:182fhydrocode calculations 5:181impact craters 5:179, 5:182fimpact structures 3:280melting 5:180*, 5:183tpeak pressure magnitudes 5:1 SO*,

5:183planar deformation features 5:183*shock metamorphic effects 5:182,

5:183*

shock wave propagation 5:180vaporization 5:180*

silicate minerals 3:561-567site classification 2:3*slate 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387*, 3:396fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533-540Alps 5:536f, 5:537background information 5:533Bohemian Massif 5:535-536,

5:536f, 5:538, 5:539coesite 5:533, 5:533/, 5:534fcontinent-continent

collisions 5:539Dabie Shan, China 5:533,

5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537exsolution effects 5:535f,

5:535-536formation mechanisms 5:538,

5:539fglobal distribution 5:536, 5:536fHimalayan Mountains 5:536 ,

5:538,5:539identification process 5:533Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan

5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536f,5:537, 5:539

metamorphic facies 3:405, 3:406fmineral assemblages 5:533Norwegian Caledonides 5:53 6/",

5:537polyphase aggregates 5:538fpressure-temperature diagram

5:533/; 5:539^Variscides Orogeny 5:538

ultramafic rocks 3:394, 3:396, 3:396/i3:397f

zeolites 3:598zircon 3:602

native elements 3:553-555allotropes 3:553*, 3:554gaseous elements 3:553liquid elements 3:553occurrences 3:553, 3:553*solid metal occurrences 3:553solid non-metal occurrences 3:554

rock classification 4:452-455basement 4:453, 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454figneous rocks 4:453*

anomalies 4:454differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452lava flows 4:454

metamorphic rocks 4:453 *anomalies 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:453

sedimentary rocks 4:453*anomalies 4:454

INDEX 639

earth materials (continued)differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:4S2fgeneral discussion 4:452

sedimentary rocksallochthonous (detrital) sediments

classification 5:26, 5:26tconglomerates 5:26general discussion 5:26sandstones 5:27

anhydriteclassification 5:26tdensities 5:321fgeotechnical properties 1:552hydrothermal vents 3:631-632,

5:391, S:394toccurrence 5:32fporosity 1:5 52t

aragonite (CaCO3)bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371,

2:3 72fchemical diagenesis 1:394gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383fhydrothermal vents 5:394tironstones 5:99lacustrine deposits 4:558limestones 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:108toolitic sands 4:510-511ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 5:533fautochthonous sediments

carbonates 5:30classification 5:26, 5:26tgeneral discussion 5:30

breccia 5:129chalk. See chalkchert

Archaean 4:351, 4:368banded ironstone formations (BIFs)

5:38classification 4:454, 5:26?eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361fGunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f,

4:367-368nodules 4:385North American continental interior

4:29, 4:30foccurrence 5:35-36, 5:53prokaryotes 4:368

classification 4:453 £, 5:25-37allochthonous (detrital) sediments

5:26, 5:26tanomalies 4:454autochthonous sediments 5:26,

5:26tconglomerates 5:26differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452mineralogy 5:25sandstones 5:27, 5:27*

clays. See clays

conglomeratesclassification 5:26tgrain analysis 5:26rudaceous rocks 5:129, 5:139f,

5:26, 5:26tunconformities 5:544

contourites 4:513-527background information 4:513deep-water bottom currents 4:514,

4:514f, 4:515, 4:517fdeep-water sediments 4:645-646facies analysis 4:523, 4:524f,

4:525f, 4:526ffacies continuum 4:526geographic distribution 4:516fhistorical background 4:514palaeoclimate 4:513-514petroleum exploration 4:513-514sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f9

4:520f, 4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f,4:648

seismic characteristics 4:521,4:522f, 4:523f

slope stability studies 4:513-514terminology 4:515, 4:517t

diagenesischemical diagenesis 1:394ironstones 5:102flimestones 5:112physical diagenesis 1:393, l:394fsandstones 1:394

dolomite 5:79-94Mps2:131famphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:220, 3:222£cementation 5:143classification 4:454, 5:26?composition 5:79densities 5:321fdiagenetic processes 5:145fdolomitization 5:80environmental settings 5:88formation processes 5:79general discussion 5:79geochemistry 5:84grain analysis 5:30, 5:3Ifhydrothermal activity 5:87-88,

5:90fhypersaline environments 5:90hyposaline environments 5:89karst landscapes 4:679kinetic constraints 5:80mass balance constraints 5:80metamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:40Ifmicrobial/organogenic models 5:88mixing zone model 5:89North Africa 1:24penecontemporaneous dolomites

5:88permeability 5:83, 5:88fpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235,

4:23 6fpore size classification 5:81, 5:82fporosity 4:234f, 4:236f,

c.oo C.OO/j:oj,j.oo/

reflux model 5:90sabkha model 5:90-91saddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f, 5:87f,

5:87-88sea water dolomitization 5:91secular distribution 5:93subsurface environments 5:91textural classification 5:81, 5:81fthermodynamic constraints 5:80ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 5:533fevaporites 5:94-97

Alps 2:132Arabia 1:141Arabian Gulf 4:511borate deposits 3:517calcium brines 5:95, 5:96Cambrian 4:165classification 4:454, 5:26tcomposition 5:94Cretaceous 3:365densities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:61 Ofgeotechnical properties 1:552,

1:5 52thydrothermal deposits 5:95lacustrine deposits 4:557, 4:559fnitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556tnon-rift basins 5:96North Africa 1:21,1:24North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29foccurrence 5:31palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134,

4:138-139palaeoterranes 5:458porosity 1:5 52trift valleys 5:95seawater chemistry 4:165, 5:96seawater evaporation

deposits 5:94Silurian 4:193sulphate concentrations 5:94, 5:95sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95

flintconchoidal fractures 4:3 84fmining techniques l:434fnodules 4:385occurrence 5:35-36

gemstones 3:13gypsum 3:572-573

classification 5:26t, 5:394tcrystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties 1:552,

3:102tground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572porosity 1:5 52t

halite (NaCl)Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80

640 INDEX

earth materials (continued]carbonatites 3:221tclassification S:26tdensities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:610ffluid inclusions 5:97geotechnical properties 1:552,

3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629?karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558,

4:S59fpetroleum geology 4:229-230phase diagram 5:37Ifporosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

ironstones 5:97-107background information 5:97banded iron formations (BIFs)

1:438-439, 3:489, 3:494-495,4:351,4:372, 5:33-34, 5:37-42

blackband ironstones 5:34, 5:99,5:99fy 5:100f, 5:102, 5:103,5:104f

bog iron ores 5:101, 5:102classification 4:454, 5:26*claystone ironstones 5:99f, 5:100,

5:100f, 5:102, 5:102f, 5:103,5:104f

definition 5:98depositional environment 5:101diagenesis 5:102fferruginization process 5:103,

5:104f,5:105fferruginous peloids 5:101, 5:103glossary information 5:106lithification 5:101mineralogy 5:98nodules 4:385nomenclature 5:98occurrence 5:33ooidal ironstones. See ooidal

ironstonesstratigraphic record 5:106tectonic setting 5:106types 5:99verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545f,

3:547, 5:101kerogenous sediments

classification 4:454, 5:26?occurrence 5:33, 5:34f

limestones 5:107-113aggregates 1:35A\ps2:131fclassification 4:454, 5:26?densities 5:32Ifdissolution processes 1:550, 1:550fgeotechnical properties 1:549,

1:549?, l:550f, 3:102tgrain analysis 5:30, 5:30fkarst landscapes 1:550-551, l:551f,

4:679nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24f

Ordovician4:lS2/"Pagoda Limestone 4:178-179petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235physical properties l:483tporosity 1:549?, 4:234fProterozoic 4:351shorelines and shelves 4:505-506,

5:110, 5:111^magnesite (MgCO3) 5:31, 5:108,

5:108tmicas 3:550mineralogy 5:25-37mudrocks

bentonite illitization 5:65chlorite 5:65, 5:65fgeotechnical properties 1:548geothermometry 5:64-65illite crystallinity 5:65kaolinite 5:65, 5:66fpetroleum geology 4:229-230sharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f

mudstone 1:548, 3:102topal 5:26?, 5:35-36palaeoterranes 5:458phosphates

bedded phosphates 5:34-35classification 4:454, 5:26tguano 5:26?, 5:35, 5:35foccurrence 5:34placer deposits 5:34-35

physical diagenesis 1:393, l:394fplagioclase 3:538-539quartz (SiO2) 3:571residual sediments

classification 5:26?formation processes 5:33foccurrence 5:31

rudaceous rocks 5:129-141alluvial fans 5:135, 5:138fbackground information 5:129beaches 5:133, 5:136f, 5:137f,

5:138fbraided river systems 5:137, 5:138,

5:139fclast form notation 5:130, 5:13If,

5:132fcomposition 5:134fconglomerates 5:26, 5:26?, 5:129,

5:139fdeep-water deposits 5:140form variations 5:133fimbrication 5:133, 5:139importance 5:140natural occurrences 5:131particle size 5:129roundness 5:129, 5:130f, 5:134fsphericity 5:129, 5:134fstream beds 5:132, 5:135fterminology 5:129textures 5:129till 5:139

sandstonesArabia 1:141arkoses 5:27?, 5:29f

Biblical geology 1:256cements 5:143, 5:143tchlorite 5:69, 5:69*classification 5:26?, 5:271comparison with limestones 5:107composition 5:27densities 5:321fdiagenesis 1:394diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144fdiagenetic quantification 5:146fluid inclusion analysis 5:146,5:147fgeotechnical properties 1:547,

3:102tglauconite 5:27, 5:69grain analysis 5:27, 5:27/", 5:107greywackes 1:35, 3:102?, 5:27?,

5:28fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fmicas 5:143tmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fmineralogy 5:143tpetroleum emplacement 5:145,

S:14Sf, 5:148, 5:149fpetroleum reservoirs 4:234,

4:235?, 4:236£ 4:239 f,4:243f

physical properties l:483tporosity 4:232, 4:233fquartzites 5:27?, 5:29fquartz wackes 5:27?, 5:2 8fradiometric dating 5:69, 5:146,

5:147frock classification 5:142fsand 3:104?, 5:141-151zeolites 3:597

shalesanoxic environments 4:193,

4:496-497Arabia 1:141bedded cherts 5:54Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185black shales. See black shalesBurgess Shale 2:274-275, 2:296,

2:324, 2:455classification 5:26?, 5:28densities 5:321ffossils 4:498fgeotechnical properties 1:548,

3:102?Posidonia Shale Formation,

Germany 3:31 l,4:384fSenzeilles Shale, Belgium 5:454weathering 1:548

siderite (FeCO3)chemical diagenesis 1:394classification 5:26?grain analysis 5:31limestones 5:108, 5:105?occurrence 5:1 OS?

siliceous sediments 5:26?, 5:35siltstone 5:26?, 5:28site classification 2:3?stratification 5:25

INDEX 641

earth materials (continued)sulphide minerals 3:585-586zeolites 3:596zircon 3:602

shalesanoxic environments 4:496-497Arabia 1:141Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185black shales

anoxic environments 4:193,4:496-497

bedded cherts 5:54fossils 4:497, 4:498fGondwana 3:129large igneous provinces (LIPs)

3:321fNorth Africa 1:21, 1:22fNorth American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPhosphoria Formation, United

States 4:500Silurian 4:193

Burgess Shalearthropods (Arthropoda)

2:274-275bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general discussion 3:310tinsects 2:296obrution 3:310, 3:311 fOpabinia 3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

classification 5:26*, 5:28densities 5:32Ifgeotechnical properties 1:548, 3:102tPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

3:310*, 3:311, 4:384fweathering 1:548

earthquakes 5:318-330active tectonics 5:425Biblical geology 1:256characteristics

epicentre 5:318, 5:318ffocus 5:318, S:318fgeneral discussion 5:318generation process 1:500, 1:500fmagnitude measurements 5:318,

5:319f9 5:320fRichter scale 5:319-320, 5:320tseismic waves 5:318-319, 5.-320/",

5:332, 5:332f, 5:333feighteenth century viewpoints 3:172elastic-rebound model 5:331fengineering geology 1:456-463

applications 1:456engineering geological mapping

earthquake effects l:460tearthquake motion 1:456fexploration trenches 1:460, l:462tgeological profiles 1:460, l:461thistorical background 1:459isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503f

mitigation methods l:461tpost-event geological mapping

1:460, l:462tpurpose 1:460trench logging 1:460, l:462t

failure conditions 1:457ground effects

accelerograms 1:527fbearing failure 1:531, l:531fdisplacement 1:457, 5:331fground motion 1:500-501ground oscillation 1:530lateral spreading 1:530, l:530fliquefaction 1:457, 1:500-501,

1:525-534, 1:5 56fmitigation methods 1:533residual shear strength 1:531,1:531 fsettlement 1:530, l:531fshear anlysis 1:53 Ofslope failure 1:457, 1:458-459

mitigation methodsAlquist-Priolo Act 1:458collateral damage 1:458damage-prone areas 1:457engineering geological mapping

1:461*general discussion 5:328ground condition improvements

1:458site characterization l:462ttsunamis 1:458-459

observation techniques 1:457post-event geological mapping 1:460,

l:462tseismotectonic zonation

active faults 1:459attenuation 1:459credible faults 1:459design earthquakes 1:459design input 1:459

site characterization 1:460, l:462tengineering seismology 1:499-515

ground motion characterizationsArias intensity 1:505, 1:505 fgeneral discussion 1:504Husid plot 1:505, 1:505 fpeak ground acceleration 1:504,

1:505 f, 1:507 f, l:508f, 1:509 fresponse spectrum 1:505-506,

l:506f, l:507f, 1:51 Of, 1:5 14fshaking duration 1:504-505single-degree-of-freedom oscillators

1:505-506, l:506fground motion measurement

techniquesaccelerograms 1:502-504, 1.-504/",

1:505 f, 1:509 fEuropean Macroseismic Scale

l:502tFourier spectral data 1:5 12fgeneral discussion 1:501intensity scales 1:501, l:502tisoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503 fsite response analysis 1:511 fvelocity profiles l:512f

ground motion prediction techniques1:506

hazard assessment techniques 1:510,l:513f

Mississippi embayment seismic dataI:513f9l:514f

seismic hazards 1:499, l:500f, 1:510focal mechanism 5:332-333, 5:334fgeological research (1900-1962) 3:194geomythology 3:97-98global distribution 4:341f9 5:321, 5:322fhazard analysis

bearing failure 1:531, 1:531/"British Isles 5:32 7fdamage effects 1:500-501, 5:324f,

5:325f, 5:327fdisease 5:328environmental geology 2:31exposure 5:328fire effects 5:325frequency 1:5litgeneral discussion 5:321Geographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:427ground motion characterizations

Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505fgeneral discussion 1:504Husid plot 1:505, l:505fpeak ground acceleration 1:504,

1:505 f, 1:507f, 1:508 f, 1:509 fresponse spectrum 1:505-506,

l:506f, 1:507f, 1:51 Of, l:514fshaking duration 1:504-505single-degree-of-freedom oscillators

1:505-506, l:506fground motion measurement

techniquesaccelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,

1:505/, 1:509 fEuropean Macroseismic Scale

1:502*Fourier spectral data 1:512fintensity scales 1:501, 1:502*isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503fsite response analysis 1:51 Ifvelocity profiles 1:512f

ground motion prediction techniques1:506

ground oscillation 1:530hazard assessment techniques 1:510,

1:513fhistoric earthquakes 5:326*landslides 3:93/", 5:327lateral spreading 1:530, l:530fliquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,

l.-556/i 3:94, 5:325, 5.-32S/1

looting 5:328man-made earthquakes 5:329mitigation methods 1:533, 5:328modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity

scale 5:322, 5:323*mortality rates 1:517*, l:518tquantification analysis 1:516research programs 5:328residual shear strength 1:531, 1:53If

642 INDEX

earthquakes (continued]seismic hazards 1:499, 1:510settlement 1:530, l:531fshear anlysis 1:530fstarvation 5:328tectonic earthquakes 5:322, 5:324ftsunamis 5:325urban environments 5:322, 5:324/",

5:32 7fvolcanic earthquakes 5:329

Japan 3:298, 3:300fManhattan earthquake, Kansas, United

States 4:32New Madrid earthquake, Missouri,

United States 4:32North American continental interior

4:32Oceania 4:11 Ofradar techniques 4:418rock densities 5:321fseismological records 5:320Suess, Eduard 2:237, 2:237/", 2:238-240surface traces 5:321fTibetan Plateau 5:423-424volcanism 5:575See also faulting processes; liquefaction

earth system science 1:430-434biogeochemical cycles 1:431, l:432f,

1:433 fcyclic processes 1:430, I:432f9 1:433fdefinition 1:430Gaia hypothesis 1:432, 3:1-6geosphere 1:431historical background 1:430impact on geological sciences 1:432reductionism 1:433-434stromatolites 1:430, 1:43 If

earwigs 2:297/", 2:300*East African Rift 1:26-34

background information 1:26, 5:437climate 1:29dome structures 1:28fault zones 1:28fgranitic rocks 3:237*hominids 1:31hydrology 1:29, 1:31 flake basins 4:558Miocene tectonics 5:481-482Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220*, 3:220-221,

3:224f, 3:225, 3:23Ofplate tectonics 1:26, 1:27fsatellite images I:26f9 1:30fsedimentation I:27f9 1:30structure 1:27, 1:27f, 5:438, 5:440ftopography 1:27volcanism 1:28, 1:29 f, 1:30 f

East Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135, 1:136East Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA)

4:76/i 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99fEastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:238fEastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f9 3:289Easter Seamount Chain 4:4771East European Craton 2:34-49

accretionary wedge terranes 4:459fArchaean crust

Baltic Shield 4:456-457crustal provinces 4:459fcrustal segments 2:38, 2:42f9 2:43f,

2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47fbackground information 2:34Cambrian 2:36, 2:38f, 4:458-459Carboniferous 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460craton assembly 2:47, 2:48fCretaceous 2:36, 2:3S/j 4:461crustal provinces 4:459fcrustal segments

Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41f,2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 2:48f

general discussion 2:38Sarmatia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f,

2:48fVolgo-Uralia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:46, 2:47f,

2:48fcrustal thickness 2:35/", 2:36, 3:656,

3:657f, 3:658Devonian 2:36, 2:38f9 4:459Eocene 4:461geographic location 2:35fgravity fields 2:36Jurassic 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460-461Kola Peninsula 2:44flithologies 2:39fmagnetic anomalies 2:36, 2:37fmargins 2:34morphology 2:36Mylonite Zone 2:43f9 2:44Oligocene 4:461Ordovician 2:36, 2:38f9 4:459erogenic events 2:40, 2:48fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:47Permian 2:36, 2:3 S/j 4:459-460Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f9 2:48fPrecambrian 2:34Proterozoic 2:43f, 2:48fQuaternary 4:461rift systems 2:36, 2:41f9 2:48f9 2:105Russia 4:456, 4:457f9 4:458fRussian Platform 2:35f9 2:36, 2:38f,

2:41fsedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457f,

4:458f9 4:460fsedimentary cover 2:35f9 2:36, 2:38f,

2:39f, 2:40f9 2:41fSilurian 2:36, 2:38fstructural features 3:650, 3:651ftectonic evolution 3:648terranes 2:44f9 4:458f, 4:459fTimanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50, 2:53,

2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464topography 2:36Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651, 3:652fTriassic 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460-461Uralide orogeny 2:34-35, 3:648Variscides Orogeny 3:648, 3:651Vendian 2:36, 2:38f9 2:54fvolcanism 2:40, 2:48f

East Ghats orogenic belt 3:164fEast Kirkton, Scotland, United Kingdom

4:210-211

East Mariana Basin 3:315f9 3:316tEast Pacific Rise

axial depth profiles 5:375-376, 5:379faxial magma chamber

characteristics S:408f9 5:409f, 5:410,5:414f

crustal structure 5:411 fearly research 5:407schematic diagram 5:413fseismic profile 5:409fseismic velocities 5:410, 5:411f

black smokers 5:366fcontinental drift theory 3:205crustal structure 5:412, 5:415fcrustal thickness 5:416fdivergent plate boundaries 4:342fissure width 5:383geochemical correlations

5:376, 5:380fgeological research (post-1962) 3:198heat flux 5:3 63fhydrothermal vents 5:371*, 5:388,

5:388flinear anomalies 3:203-204magma-lens reflections 5:416fmagma supply 5:379microplates 5:401f9 5:401-402Miocene tectonics 5:479Mohorovicic discontinuity

characteristics 5:412, 5:414fgeneral discussion 5:412schematic diagram 5:413f

seamounts 4:477*, 4:479, 4:480fseismic layer 2A

characteristics 5:407, 5:408f9 5:409fcrustal structure 5:411 fcrustal thickening 5:41 Ofgeological significance 5:407seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f

shaded relief map 5:373fspreading centre topography 5:3 74f

East Sahara Craton 1:10East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f, 2:91 f9

2:92fEaton, Amos 2:195Eauripik Rise 3:315f9 3:316*Echinerpeton 2:487-488Echinochimaera 2:464fEchinocorys 2:352fechinoderms 2:334-341

Ambulararia 2:335Cambrian 2:335-337, 2:336/", 4:171characteristics 2:334Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fCrinoidea 2:342-350

anatomy 2:342anoxic environments 2:349Carboniferous 4:212ecological structures 1:262*ecology 2:348encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fevolution 2:345-346, 2:347ffeeding position 2:348f

INDEX 643

echinoderms (continued)Jurassic 3:358morphology

Aethocrinus moorei 2:346, 2:346farms 2:343f, 2:344, 2:345fcalyx 2:343f, 2:344columnal articulations 2:342-344,

2:343fgeneral discussion 2:342Pentacrinites fossilis 2:345f

phylogenetic relationships 2:347fpseudoplanktonic crinoids 2:349stratigraphic distribution 2:347ftaphonomy 2:348taxonomy

Aethocrinea 2:344-345, 2:347fArticulata 2:344-345Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347fCladida 2:344-345, 2:347fDisparida 2:344-345, 2:347fFlexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347fgeneral discussion 2:335stratigraphic ranges 2:336f

Triassic 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350Deuterostoma 2:335Echinodermata

Asteroidea 2:335, 2:336fcarpoids 2:335, 2:336fCrinoidea 2:335, 2:336fEchinoidea 2:335, 2:336fHolothuroidea 2:335, 2:336f, 2:355Ophiuroidea 2:335, 2:336f

echinoids 2:350-356classification

Arbacioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fCassiduloida 2:355, 2:356fCidaroida 2:351f, 2:355, 2:356fClypeasteroida 2:352f, 2:355,

2:356f, 5:469Diadematoida 2:355, 2:356fEchinoida 2:352/i 2:355, 2:356fEchinothurioida 2:355, 2:356fHolasteroida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fHolectypoida 2:355, 2:356fPedinoida 2:352/i 2:355Salenioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fSpatangoida 2:351f, 2:352f, 2:355,

2:356fTemnopleuroida 2:352/", 2:355,

2:356fechinoid morphology

general discussion 2:350general features 2:3 51 fmodern echinoids 2:352fPalaeozoic echinoids 2:352, 2:353fpost-Palaeozoic echinoids 2:352fspines 2:353 f

ecological structures 1:262tend-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469geological history 2:355heart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355palaeobiology

burrowing 2:354feeding 2:354

locomotion 2:354predation and defence 2:354reproduction 2:355

phylogenetic relationships 2:355,2:356f

sand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355sea urchins 2:350skeletons 2:350stratigraphic ranges 2:356f

Eleutherozoa 2:335end-Permian extinctions 4:220geological history 2:335Jurassic 3:358morphological evolution l:276/i 1:278Ordovician4:179Palaeocene 5:463Pelmatozoa 2:335phylogenetic relationships

2:335, 2:336fstereom 2:334, 2:335/r

stratigraphic ranges 2:336ftaxonomy

asteroids 2:336f, 2:339, 2:340fblastozoans

blastoids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339,4:220

diploporites 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339eocrinoids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339general discussion 2:339rhombiferans 2:33 6/j 2:33 8/j 2:339

carpoidsCincta 2:336/i 2:337, 2:338fcornutes 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338fCtenocystoida 2:336/i 2:337, 2:338fgeneral discussion 2:337mitrates 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338fSoluta 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338fStylophora 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338f

crinoids 2:342, 2:335, 2:336/",2:342-350

edrioasteroids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339helicoplacoids 2:336/", 2:337, 2:338fholothurians 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340f,

2:341fisophorids 2:338f, 2:339ophiocistioids 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340fophiuroids 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340fstromatocystitids 2:338f, 2:339

Echinus 2:352feckermannite 3:505-506eclogites

definition 3:387tkimberlites 3:253, 3:257fmantle composition 1:399Mediterranean region 3:654metamorphic facies

composition 3:404mineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400fpressure-temperature conditions

3:403 fregional metamorphism 4:409f9

4:409-410subduction zones 3:404ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412f

volatile components 3:407fmetamorphic grade 3:396fTasman Orogenic Belt l:246fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

Alps 5:537formation mechanisms 5:533,

5:538-539global distribution 5:536fHimalayan Mountains 5:538identification process 5:534-535Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:647-648Variscides Orogeny 5:538

ecologycorals (Cnidarians) 2:329, 2:331fGaia hypothesis

background information 3:1concept definition 3:1criticisms 3:2geological record 3:4influence 3:5Lovelock's hypothesis

criticisms 3:4Daisy world model 3:3, 3:3fdefinition 3:4four components 3:3

molecular biology 3:1Nisbet's Essay 3:4superorganism concept 3:2

ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:457, 3:460fpalaeoecology 4:140-147

definitions 4:140palaeoautecology

bivalves 4:140, 4:141fEopecten 4:141, 4:141fgeneral discussion 4:140graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142,

4:143 fmolluscs 4:141-142trilobites (Trilobita) 4:142

palaeosynecologybivalves (Bivalvia) 4:146f,

4:146-147Burgess Shale 4:142-143, 4:146competition 4:144example studies 4:146fossil populations 4:143, 4:144fgeneral discussion 4:142organism interactions 4:144predation 4:145symbioses 4:146

rift valleys 5:439economic geology 1:434-444

clays 1:366-370applications 1:367f

building materials 1:367ceramics industry 1:368historical applications 1:366waste disposal 1:368

background information 1:366civil engineering aspects 1:367definition 1:366physicochemical properties 1:368terminology 1:366-367

geological research (1900-1962) 3:192historical background 1:434

644 INDEX

economic geology (continued]mineral deposits

applicationsbuilding materials 1:437energy resources 1:437industrial minerals 1:437, 1:43#*,

l:438fmetallic mineral deposits 1:437,

I:438t9l:438fAtlantic Margin 4:105biological habitats 5:388f, 5:388-389deposit characteristics

deposit development flowchart1:43 6f

economic attributes 1:436general discussion 1:436geological attributes 1:436

exploration trends 3:497genetic processes 3:488-497

ancient sedimentary rockassociations 3:493, 3:495f

background information 3:488bacterial action 3:490-491basic igneous rock associations

3:491carbonate sequences 3:495felsic igneous rock associations

3:492, 3:493fhydrothermal activity 3:494-495industrial minerals 3:489-490,

3:496metamorphic rock associations

3:496meteoric waters 3:491placer deposits 3:489, 3:490ftectonic deformation 3:496ultrabasic igneous rock associations

3:491weathering 3:488-489, 3:489f

geochemical exploration 3:21-29buried deposits 3:23, 3:26fdiamond exploration 3:22elemental analysis 3:21environmental geochemical

mapping 3:27, 3:28fregional geochemical surveys 3:27sample analysis 3:26sediment analysis 3:21, 3:25fsulphide minerals 3:21, 3:2 6f

global distribution 1:438, 1:439fhydrothermal vents 5:388life cycle activities

end of life studies l:440t, 1:443feasibility studies 1:440*, 1:441,

l:442fmine development 1:440*, 1:441,

1:442fmineral extraction 1:440*, 1:442,

2:26, 2:27fnew deposit discovery 1:440,

1:440*, 1:441 frelevant geological knowledge

1:439, l:440tmineral extraction

engineering services 1:443

environmental impacts 2:26, 2:27flife cycle activities 1:440*, 1:442mineral processing 1:443mineral reserves 1:442mining procedures 1:443

mining techniques 1:434, I:434f9

1:43 5 fplate tectonics l:440fsulphide minerals 3:574-586

anoxic environments 4:495-496,4:497f

arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:582-583,3:583f

crystal structure 3:574, 3:575*,3:576f, 3:577f

geobarometry 3:583geothermometry 3:582-583hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:393f,

S:394tlimestones 5:112ore deposit types 3:584, 3:585tphase relationships 3:581fphase transformation diagram

3:S80fphysical properties 3:576, 3:S77tpyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497fsphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:S84fstability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580fsulphidation curves 3:582f

world production rates 1:43 8tweathering 5:588world production demand l:435fSee also mining geology; ore bodies

ECORS-CROP project 2:127-129Ectasian System 5:511 f9 5:517fEctoprocta

See bryozoans (Bryozoa)Ecuador 4:9Ecuadorian Andes 1:121 f9 1:123Edaphosauridae 2:487Edaphosaurus 2:486f, 2:488edenite 3:505fedentates 2:537f, 2:538Edestus giganteus 2:463-465Ediacaran 4:371-381

background information 4:371biodiversity 1:261bioturbation 4:378Cambrian radiation patterns 4:171Cambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380carbon isotopic ratios 4:379Cnidarians 2:321, 2:323feukaryotes 4:362-363extinction events 4:379fossil lichens 2:441general discussion 4:350geological events

banded iron formations (BIFs) 4:372carbonates 4:372continent formation 4:371glaciation 4:372marine transgressions 4:372

Global Standard Stratotype Sections andPoints (GSSPs) 5:511 f

glossary information 4:380

palaeobiological eventsdeath mask hypothesis 4:374Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378feukaryotes 4:372-373general discussion 4:372metacellularity 4:373, 4:376tshelly fossils 4:373, 4:373fstromatolites 4:373, 4:377

Pan-African orogeny 4:378predators 4:379sedimentary structures 4:376, 4:379fstrontium isotopic ratios 4:378

edingtonite 3:593*Edmundian Orogeny 1:214fedoylerite (Hg3S2(CrO4)) 3:533*Edwards, Austin 3:192Eemian interglacial stage 5:506fEggenburg, Austria

See Suess, EduardEgypt 1:12-25, 3:7*, 3:12, 3:78, 5:234f,

5:280, 5:466, 5:506fEhrenberg, Christian 3:184Eifelian stage

Appalachians 4:87fbackground information 4:194biodiversity 4:196, 4:199fcarbon dioxide concentrations 4:196extinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fVariscides Orogeny 2:80fvegetation 4:195

Eights Coast Mountains, Antarctica 1:137Eimer, Theodor 3:180-181Elba 3:655f, 3:656Elba Island, Italy 3:238f, 3:599Elbe Line 2:96, 2:101 fEl Capitan (Mars) 5:281fEl Chichon, Mexico 5:575*Eldeceeon rolfei 2:474felectron microprobe analysis 1:109electrums 3:118-119, 3:119*, 3:553-554,

3:630*elemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639*Eleutherozoa 2:335Elginerpeton 2:469, 2:470f, 2:472fElhuyar, Fausto 3:171Elhuyar, Juan Jose 3:171Elie de Beaumont, Leonce 2:183,

2:208-209, 2:237, 3:177-178, 3:182Elkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446fElliotsmithia 2:487Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,

l:133f, l:134f, 1:136, 3:129, 3:137fElonichthys 2:466-467Elpistostege 2:469Eltanin glasses 5:451Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203Elton Formation 4:186f9 4:189eluvial deposits 3:604Elvis taxa 3:377-378

INDEX 645

Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f, 3:159fembranchements 2:180embreyite (PbsfCrO^IPO^-HaO) 3:533?Emeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:215f,

4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222, 4:227emeralds 3:7?, 3:12Emet mining district, Turkey

See ore bodies, boratesEmiliani, Cesare 5:494Emmons, Ebenezer 2:195Emmons, William 3:192Emsian stage

Appalachians 4:87fbackground information 4:194biodiversity 4:199fextinction events 4:196, 4:197ffish 2:463Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:SllfGondwana 3:129, 3:137fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fVariscides Orogeny 2:80fvegetation 4:195

Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498 f, 2:500tenargite (Cu3AsS4) 3:575?, 3:630?Enceladus 5:257?, 5:288Encope 2:352fencrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fend-Guadalupian extinction event 4:217,

4:221, 4:223, 4:223fEndoceratids 2:392endokarst

See caves (endokarst)end-Permian extinctions 4:219-225

causesextraterrestrial impact 4:221global warming 4:222, 4:223fvolcanism 4:222

definition 4:219Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221, 4:22Ifbivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317crinoids 4:220extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221fgastropods 2:387general discussion 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221 fmarine extinctions 4:220palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567See also extinction events; mass

extinctions

engineering geology 1:444-448, 3:35-43aggregates 1:34-43

applicationsbituminous construction materials

1:41concrete 1:42mortar 1:42railway track ballasts 1:41unbound pavement construction

1:42background information 1:34classification 1:34, 1:36extraction methods 1:35grading process 1:36, 1:37finvestigation process 1:35particle shape

elongation index (British Standard812) 1:38

examples l:38fflakiness index (British Standard

812) 1:38general discussion 1:38

petrographic studies 1:38, 1:39fsources 1:34, 1:35testing procedures

abrasion value (British Standard812) 1:40

chemical tests 1:41concrete prism test 1:41crushing value (British Standard

812) 1:40density 1:39Franklin point load strength 1:40,

1:575, 1:576?, 1:577ffreeze-thaw test 1:40general discussion 1:39impact value (British Standard 812)

1:39Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM

C131/C535) 1:40magnesium sulphate soundness test

(British Standard 812) 1:40methylene blue absorption test 1:41Micro Deval test 1:40mortar bar test 1:41polished stone value (British

Standard 812, part 114) 1:40Schmidt Rebound Hammer value

1:40slake durability test 1:41, 1:577,

1:577f10% fines value (British Standard

812) 1:40water absorption 1:39

background information 1:444, 3:35building stones 1:328-333

characteristics 1:329?, 1:330geological controls 1:330, l:330thistorical use 1:328, 1:329?modern use 1:329?quarrying 4:399-405recovery planning and permitting

process 1:332?, 1:333source location tasks 1:331?, 1:333stone masonry 1:33It, 1:333

civil engineering 3:39clays 1:366-370

applications l:367fbuilding materials 1:367ceramics industry 1:368historical applications 1:366waste disposal 1:368

background information 1:366civil engineering aspects 1:367definition 1:366physicochemical properties 1:368terminology 1:366-367

codes of practice 1:448-455core indices 1:451Eurocodes 1:453?, 1:454historical background 1:448international standardization 1:450laboratory test procedures 1:452,

1:453?particle size definitions 1:451, 1:45Itprofessional qualifications 1:452standards 1:448terminology standardization 1:450weathering classifications 1:451

definition 3:37earthquakes 1:456-463

applications 1:456engineering geological mapping

earthquake effects 1:460?earthquake motion 1:456fexploration trenches 1:460, 1:462?geological profiles 1:460, 1:461?historical background 1:459isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503fmitigation methods 1:461?post-event geological mapping

1:460, 1:462?purpose 1:460trench logging 1:460, 1:462?

failure conditions 1:457Geographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:427ground effects

accelerograms 1:527fbearing failure 1:531, l:531fdisplacement 1:457, S:331fground motion 1:500-501ground oscillation 1:530lateral spreading 1:530, 1:53O/"liquefaction 1:457, 1:500-501,

1:525-534, l:556fmitigation methods 1:533residual shear strength 1:531,1:531 fsettlement 1:530, l:531fshear anlysis 1:53 Ofslope failure 1:457, 1:458-459

mitigation methodsAlquist-Priolo Act 1:458collateral damage 1:458damage-prone areas 1:457engineering geological mapping

1:461?general discussion 5:328ground condition improvements

1:458

646 INDEX

engineering geology (continued)site characterization l:462ttsunamis 1:458-459

North American continental interior4:32

observation techniques 1:457post-event geological mapping 1:460,

1:462*seismotectonic zonation

active faults 1:459attenuation 1:459credible faults 1:459design earthquakes 1:459design input 1:459

site characterization 1:460, l:462teconomic importance 1:446engineering geological mapping

1:463-474applications l:469tbackground information 1:463data collection 1:469data content 1:467, l:468tdata interpretation 1:472desk study (preliminary sources)

1:472earthquakes

earthquake effects 1:460tearthquake motion 1:456fexploration trenches 1:460, l:462tgeological profiles 1:460, l:461thistorical background 1:459isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503fmitigation methods l:461tpost-event geological mapping

1:460,1:462?purpose 1:460trench logging 1:460, 1:462?

field mapping 1:472hazard mapping 1:467large-scale engineering geology map

l:466fmap legend information 1:464?,

l:466f, 1:470?map presentation 1:472map scale 1:467?, 1:468site investigation 1:473three-dimensional models 1:4 72f,

1:473written reports 1:472zoning maps 1:467-468

engineering geophysics 1:482-499applications

bedrock depth studies 1:488,1:491?,1:493 f

buried objects 1:491?, 1:497,1:498fcontainment structures 1:49It,

1:495 f, 1:496electromagnetic profiling 1:498ffoundation design 1:489, 1:49It,

1:494 fgeneral discussion 1:487ground penetrating radar 1:488,

1:491?, l:493f, 1:498fhazard identification 1:4911, 1:493,

1:495 f

military applications 1:495-496,l:496f

non-destructive testing 1:491?,1:496,1:497?

pavement studies 1:488, 1:491?,1:493 f

pipeline investigations 1:490,1:491?, l:494f

transport infrastructure 1:487,1:491?, l:492f, 1:493f

background information 1:482methodology

analytical techniques 1:482, 1:483?data processing and interpretation

1:483, l:484/;i:485/"modeling techniques 1:482, 1:485f,

l:486ftarget properties 1:482-483, 1:483?three-dimensional (3D) imaging

techniques 1:484, l:486fsurvey design

aliasing 1:488 fcost-benefit analysis 1:49Ifdetection distance plots 1:487ffeasibility studies l:489f, l:490fgeneral discussion 1:484sampling intervals 1:488ftwo-dimensional (2D) modeling

techniques 1:486, 1:489 f,1:490 f

engineering seismology 1:499-515ground motion characterizations

Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505fgeneral discussion 1:504Husid plot 1:505, 1:505fpeak ground acceleration 1:504,

1:505f, 1:507f, l:508f, 1:509fresponse spectrum 1:505-506,

l:506f, 1:507f, l:510f, 1:514fshaking duration 1:504-505single-degree-of-freedom oscillators

1:505-506, l:506fground motion measurement

techniquesaccelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,

1:505 f, 1:509 fEuropean Macroseismic Scale

1:502?Fourier spectral data 1:512fgeneral discussion 1:501intensity scales 1:501, 1:502?isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503fsite response analysis 1:511 fvelocity profiles 1:512f

ground motion prediction techniques1:506

hazard assessment techniques 1:510,1:513f

Mississippi embayment seismic data1:513f, 1:514f

seismic hazards 1:499, l:500f, 1:510environmental geology 1:445, 3:38future directions 3:42geohazards 1:515-524

anthropogenic hazards

classification 1:518ground subsidence 1:519f, l:520fgroundwater 1:519sea-level changes 1:519soil loss 1:519urbanization l:522fworld population growth l:521f

background information 1:515definitions 1:516disaster equation 1:516ffloods. See floodsgas hydrates 4:266Geographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:424geomorphology 1:474-481hazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, 1.-522/,

1:523flandslides 4:687-692

ancient landslides 4:690f9 4:691angle of repose 4:688, 4:692Atlantic Margin 4:94f, 4:94-95catastrophic floods 4:632classification 4:688, 4:689fcreep 4:691, 4:691fdebris avalanches 4:690-691,

5:573, 5:576?, 5:576fdebris flows 4:689, 4:690fearthflows 4:690earthquakes 5:327economic losses 4:688, 4:688fengineering geomorphology l:476f,

1:476-478, 1:477ffrequency 1:517?Geographical Information

Systems (CIS) 4:426, 4:426/i4:428?

hazard analysis 1:515-524hazard mapping 1:523flahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,

5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577fmitigation methods 4:692mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?,

4:688Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:69Ifmud flows 4:689occurrence 4:687quick clay landslides 4:690rainfall 5:17, 5:19frockfalls 4:689, 4:689frotational slides 4:689, 4:690fslope stability studies 4:688slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690fsturtzstroms 4:690-691Tadzhikistanl:518/"talus 4:689topples 4:689translational slides 4:689volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?,

5:576fmitigation methods 1:518, 1:522natural hazards

classification 1:516hazard frequency 1:517?mitigation methods 1:518mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?

INDEX 647

engineering geology (continued)risk assessment 1:519, 1:523*, 3:103site investigation 1:522volcanism 3:328, 4:426, 5:572, 5:573,

5:576*geological engineering 1:445, 3:36geological research (1900-1962) 3:192geologist's role 1:449geomorphology 1:474-481

applications 1:474background information 1:474investigation methods

general discussion 1:475geomorphological mapping 1:479,

l:480fgeomorphological models 1:481historical records 1:476, 1:47 6f,

1:477fmeasurement techniques 1:477f,

1:478terrain analysis 1:478, 1:478 f,

l:479tphysical systems 1:474, 1:475f

geotechnical engineering 3:100-105basic research areas

foundations 3:103ground improvement 3:103slope stability studies 3:103underground excavation analysis

3:103components 3:101, 3:101fdefinition 3:100ground investigation 3:103hydrogeology 3:104modeling techniques 3:104professional registration 3:38-39risk analysis 3:103rock mechanics 3:101, 3:102*soil mechanics 1:445, 3:101, 3:103*,

3:104*, 5:184-193, 5:558ground behaviour 1:446historical background 1:445, 3:39hydrogeology 1:445, 3:38importance 1:448landfills 2:14-21

carbon dioxide formation 2:14,2:15f

dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17,2:19 f

gas formation 2:14, 2:14fgovernment regulation 2:14isotopic analyses

carbon isotope concentrations 2:16,2:17, 2:18f

data interpretation 2:17deuterium concentrations 2:16,

2:17, 2:18fgeneral discussion 2:16oxygen isotope concentrations 2:16,

2:17,2:18fpH2:15,2:15fredox level 2:17, 2:19fseasonal variations 2:19, 2:19fin situ passive sampling 2:17thermal surveys 2:15

volatile organic compounds 2:15,2:15 f

liability issues 3:40licensing 3:36, 3:40made ground 1:535-542

applications 1:538collapse compression 1:541-542compaction 1:540-541, 1:541 fcreep compression 1:541, 1:541 fdefinition 1:535embankment dams 1:536, 1:538-539examples 1:537*fill placement 1:539, l:539f, l:540ffill properties 1:540, l:541ffuture directions 1:541historical background 1:535, 1:535flagoons 1:540, 1:540/"landfill 1:538land reclamation 1:537liquefaction 1:525*mine wastes 1:538modern applications 1:536physical properties l:483tSilbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:537*,

1:537fmilitary geology 3:481modeling techniques 1:446professional registration

Canada 3:42certification 3:41competing approaches 3:41, 3:42engineering geology 3:38Europe 1:447, 3:41examination process 3:41general discussion 3:36geological engineering 3:37liability issues 3:40United States 3:40

quarrying 4:399-405aggregates 1:35background information 4:399career opportunities 4:401design 4:400engineering considerations 4:401environmental issues 4:401, 4:404*general description 4:399fgeological factors 4:400military geology 3:478,3:479f, 3:480f,

3:484foperational considerations 4:399planning considerations 4:401, 4:404*quarried stone

geological characteristics 4:400,4:402*

joint sets 4:401 fmass characteristics 4:400physical properties 4:400regional characteristics 4:403*

quarry restoration 4:402quarry types 4:400, 4:403*

rock mechanics 4:440-451background information 1:445, 4:440components

existing fractures 4:440, 4:442f.,4:443f

intact rock 4:440, 4:444fin situ stress 4:440, 4:441f, 4:446f

fracture testing 4:444/", 4:445fgeotechnical engineering 3:101, 3:102*Hoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443,

4:444f, 4:445fhydraulic fracturing 4:440, 4:441 fmagnitude measurements 4:446fovercoring 4:440, 4:441 frock masses 4:443, 4:445/", 4:446fservo-controlled testing device 4:441,

4:443^shear box 4:443 fsingle-plane-of-weakness theory

4:443, 4:444ftechniques

continuous rock analyses 4:449,4:451f

excavation effects 4:446ffractured rock analyses 4:447general discussion 4:446kinematic analyses 4:447Kirsch solution 4:45Ifnumerical analyses 4:450slope instability 4:448fstress analysis 4:450fstress/strain analyses 4:45Ifunderground excavation analysis

3:103, 4:448f, 4:449fwedge instability 4:447f

rock properties 1:543-554, 1:566-580anhydrite 1:552background information 1:543carbonates 1:549, 1:549*, 1:5 50fchalk 1:549*, 1:551-552coal 1:553deformation characteristics

classification 1:57 Itelasticity 1:570, 1:571general discussion 1:569moisture content 1:570plasticity 1:570rock composition 1:569-570strength analysis 1:570stress/strain analyses 1:570-571,

1:571 fyield strength 1:570

density 1:566, 1:567*discontinuities 1:543durability

general discussion 1:575geodurability classification chart

1:578 fslake durability test 1:41, 1:577,

1:577fsoak tests 1:575, 1:577*

evaporites 1:552, 1:552*folding 5:348, 5:350fgypsum 1:552,3:102*halite (NaCl) 1:552,3:102*hardness 1:567igneous rocks

geotechnical properties 1:544,1:545*

granites 1:545*, l:546f

648 INDEX

engineering geology (continued)weathering l:546f

limestones 1:549, l:549t, 1:55Of,3:102t

mudrocks 1:548mudstone 1:548,3:102*permeability 1:579, 1:579*, 1:579 fporosity 1:549*, 1:552*, l:566f,

1:566-567,1:567*sandstones 1:547, 3:102*Schmidt hammer 1:568, l:568fSchmidt hardness values 1:569fshales 1:548, 3:102*Shore hardness values l:568fShore scleroscope 1:567, 1:567fspecific gravity 1:566strength analysis

Brazilian strength test 1:573-575direct shear 1:573, 1:575fMohr-Coulomb failure criterion

1:573Mohr stress circle 1:574fpoint load strength test 1:40, 1:575,

1:576*, 1.-576/"tensile strength 1:573triaxial compression strength 1:573,

l:574funiaxial compression 1:572, 1:572*,

1:573 fsylvite 1:552, 5:94-95weathering

general discussion 1:543rock-mass strength 5:581shales 1:548spheroidal weathering 1:543fweathering grades 1:544fweathering profile 1:545f

site classification 2:1-9characteristics 2:2fcomponents 2:3*, 2:4*definition 2:1goals 2:1, 2:4*key considerations 2:6*pitfalls 2:2, 2:7*purpose 2:1scope 2:1

site investigation 1:580-594borehole analysis 1:593fdefinition 1:580engineering geological

mapping 1:473fieldwork

boring techniques l:586f, 1:587,1:588

dynamic probing 1:588, l:588fmoisture determination 1:586-587,

1:587fstatic probing 1:589, 1:589ftrial pits 1:586, 1:586f

geophysical techniques 1:590ground investigation

decision-making process 1:585design process 1:585geotechnical engineering 3:103techniques 1:585

groundwater instrumentation 1:590,1:591 f

hazard analysis 1:522investigation process

contaminated ground 1:585data presentation 1:472, 1:585desk study (preliminary sources)

1:472, 1:581, l:582t, l:584fProcedural Statement 1:581, 1:582*stages 1:581, 1:581*walk-over survey 1:585

laboratory test procedures 1:591,1:591 f

property determination 1:585reporting process 1:592, l:592f,

1:593fresponsibilities 1:581in situ testing 1:590

soils 1:554-565cold regions

permafrost 1:563quick clays 1:562, 1:563ftill 1:562varved clays 1:562, 1:563^

collapsible soils 1:555, 1:556/", 1:557*,1:5 57f

crete formation 1:562deserts 1:561dispersive soils 1:558, 1.-559/", l:560fexpansive clays 1:557, 1:559fhumid tropical zone soils 1:560peat 1:564, 1:5 64fquicksands 1:555, l:556fsabkhas 1:561sediment transport effects 1:555*soil mechanics 5:184-193

applications 5:193Atterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186,

5:187*basic principles 5:184, 5:184fCam Clay 5:185, 5:192compression 5:187, 5:188fconsolidation 5:192, 5:192fcritical state strength 5:190, 5:190fdense/loose states 5:189drainage 5:185, 5:186general discussion 1:445geotechnical engineering 3:101,

3:103*, 3:104*grain characteristics 5:186, 5:186fHazen permeability formula 5:186Liquidity Index 5:187, 5:187floading rates 5:186Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

5:185one-dimensional compression 5:188packing states 5:188, 5:189fpeak strength 5:191, 5:191fplasticity 5:185, 5:187, 5:187fprinciple of effective stress 5:185relative density 5:187, 5:187fshearing behaviour 5:189, 5:189f,

5:190fshear modulus 5:191, 5:191fsoil classification 5:186

soil strength 5:189state boundary surfaces 5:192,

5:193fstate parameters 5:188, 5:189fstiffness 5:191, 5:191fstress/strain analyses 5:184, 5:185fswelling 5:187, 5:188fTerzaghi effective stress equation

5:185undrained strength 5:190, 5:190f

subsidence 2:9-14causal mechanisms

alluvium 2:13differential settlement 1:519fflowing water 2:12ground shrinkage/swelling

cycles 2:13groundwater extraction 2:11groundwater regime changes 2:13karst2:10mine workings l:520fmining 2:9oil and gas extractions 2:11salt dissolution 2:12thermokarst 2:13volcanism 2:13

glossary information 2:13terminology 1:445, 3:36training 1:445, 1:447urban geology 5:557-563

cities 5:557Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559*discontinuities 5:558, 5:563fengineering contributions 5:560*foundation materials 5:558fgeneral discussion 2:30geologist's role 5:559geotechnical constraints 5:560*groundwater 5:558importance 5:557professional registration 3:39site characterization 5:558, 5:558f,

5:561*, 5:562, 5:562*, 5:563fsocietal issues 5:562*soils 5:558urban construction constraints 5:558,

5:561*, 5:562*urban development 5:558, 5:558furbanization effects 1:522f

weathering 5:588engineering seismology

See seismologyEngland

Carboniferous 4:202fCretaceous 3:361flying reptiles 2:509Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:51 Ifgranitic rocks 3:237*Holocene 2:148Jurassic 3:352*marine reptiles 2:502, 2:504-505,2:507fPermo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96/",

2:97-98Pleistocene 5:493, 5:495

INDEX 649

England (continued)soils 1:557-558, l:S64f9 1:565

Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)4:434?, 4:436

enstatite 3:397f, 3:404, 3:567enstatite chondrites 5:23Itentisols 5:196?, 5:199Entrada Sandstone, Utah 4:546, 4:547fenvironment

environmental geochemistry 2:21-25acidification 2:23, 2:24fenvironmental restoration 2:23, 2:24torganic contaminants 2:23trace elements

abundance 2:22?bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

Holocene 2:152, 2:154, 2:159tquarrying 4:404t

environmental geology 2:25-33definition 2:25engineering geology 1:445, 3:38engineering geomorphology 1:474-481Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:424natural hazards

frequency 1:5171Geographical Information Systems

(GIS) 4:424mortality rates 1:517?, l:518tquantification analysis 1:516volcanism 2:31, 2:32f, 3:328, 4:426,

5:572resource management

economic mineral resources 2:26general discussion 2:26geological conservation 2:29mineral extraction impacts 2:26, 2:27fsoil resources 2:28water resources 2:28, 2:28/

urban geologybuilt environment 2:29, 2:29fengineering geology 2:30geomaterials 2:29, 2:29furban environments 2:25, 2:26furbanization effects 1:522f

volcanic hazards 2:31, 2:32/j 3:328,4:426, 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?

waste managementclays 1:368contaminated ground 2:30nuclear waste repositories 2:31, 2:3Ifsanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30fstrategies 2:30, 2:30f

Eoarchean Era 5:51 If, 5:517fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521fEocene 5:466-472

amphibians 2:523-524, 2:524-525Andes Mountains 1:127, 1:128, 1:130Antarctica 1:139-140Arabia 1:142f, 1:144fAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:230f, 1:236background information 5:466

Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fBartonian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fbiota

marine environmentsBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction

(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470bryozoans(Bryozoa) 5:469calcareous nannoplankton 5:467/",

5:468coelenterata 5:469corals 5:469dinoflagellates 5:468echinoids 5:469foraminifera 5:468molluscs 5:469vertebrates 5:469

terrestrial biotaflora 5:469invertebrates 5:469vertebrates 5:469

biozones 5:467fchronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:466, 5:467f,

5:468fclay occurrences 1:364climate 5:470Coccolithophoridae 2:43IfEarly Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO)

5:467f, 5:470East European Craton 4:461Europe 2:117geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

geological evolution 1:18Itmarine environments 5:468palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:188f, l:190fterranes 3:13If

Grube Messel, Germany 3:310?, 3:312gymnosperms 2:45Ifimpact craters 5:468impact structures 4:95, 4:98finsects 2:299f, 2:300?, 5:469International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten 3:310tLutetian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fMammalian Dispersal Event (MDE)

5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471marine environments 5:468, 5:470Metasequoia 2:45IfNew Caledonia 4:116North Africa 1:24, 1:24fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25fnorthern Cordillera 4:41 fPalaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum

5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470

Pangaea3:131/"Papua New Guinea 4:110plate tectonics 5:466Priabonian stage l:322f, 1:325f,

5:466, 5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470,S:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

radiation patterns 5:468fSolomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia 1:18It, 1:188f, l:190fsouthern Cordillera 4:58tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:452terrestrial environments 5:469, 5:471Tethys Ocean 3:295time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTonga 4:120Ypresian stage l:322f, 1:325'f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470, 5:506^International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fEocephalodiscus 2:357-359Eocoelia 4:186-188Eoentophysalis 4:367f, 4:368Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f, 3:270fEomaia scansoria 2:533f, 2:533-534Eopecten 4:141, 4:141fEoplectus 2:464fEoraptor 2:492Eorhabdopleura 2:357-359eosphorite-childrenite 5:124-125Eothyrididae 2:485Eothyris 2:485ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542epidiagenesis 1:393, 1:393 fepidote 3:235?, 3:242, 3:404, 3:563,

3:631-632See also silicate minerals

epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409, 4:409fEpiphyton 2:435epistilbite 3:593?epitheres 2:538epithermal deposits 3:634erbium (Er) 3:223?, 3:224f, 3:242fergs 4:540-541, 4:547-549erionite 3:593?Eriptychius 2:457, 2:464/Eromanga Basin 3:147, 3:150ferosion surfaces 4:587-593

catastrophic floods 4:635fchannels 4:592, 4:592ferosional sole marks

chevron marks 4:591, 4:591fdevelopmental stages 4:589ffluid turbulence 4:589flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590fgeneral discussion 4:588gutter casts 4:590, 4:590flongitudinal furrows 4:590obstacle scours 4:589, 4:589f, 4:591tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591fway-up indicators 4:588-589

facies analysis 4:490, 4:490ffluvial geomorphology

flood events 3:90, 3:91 f

650 INDEX

erosion surfaces (continued)flood plains 3:90f, 3:91 fmeandering river systems 3:90fmeasurement techniques 3:90fstream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

mass wasting processes 3:93palaeosols 5:207fprocesses

abrasion 4:588cohesiveness 4:588, 4:588fcritical erosion velocity 4:588, 4:588f

surface structures 4:591tectonic erosion 5:317tSee also landslides

Errivaspis waynensis 2:458fEryops 2:477ferythite 3:508fEscher von der Linth, Arnold 2:234, 3:182eskers 4:677, 4:677fEspirito Santo basin 1:32If, 1:322fEstonia 4:187fEstrada Nova formation 3:146festroncioginorite ((Sr,Ca)2B10Oi7-7H2O)

3:513testuaries 1:528*, 4:571 fEtendeka Traps 3:315f, 3:316*, 3:363tethane (C2H6) 4:258, 4:259fEthiopia 5:491*Ethiopian Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316*,

5:474Etna, Mount 1:200*, 3:329, 4:389*", 5:575eubacteria 4:355feucrites 5:23ItEucritta melanolimnetes 2:474fEudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514, 2:515Eugonophyllum 2:434euhemerism 3:96eukaryotes (Eukarya) 4:354-363

algaeearly Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fgreen algae 4:358-359, 4:3S9f, 4:360late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:358red algae 4:356*", 4:358, 4:360, 4:361 f

Archaean eukaryotes 4:357atmospheric evolution 1:202, 1:203biodiversity 1:261biomineralization 4:359-360carbonaceous compression 4:357, 4:358,

4:360fungi

Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,

2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f,

2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442general discussion 4:354heterotrophy 4:360

Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:3 56*",4:357

Neoproterozoic eukaryotesearly animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 4:362-363general discussion 4:358late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361f,

4:362fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360Vendian 4:372-373

Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356*",4:357

phylogenetic relationships 4:355ftestate amoeba 4:360tree of life l:203f, 4:125*", 4:365f

Euler rotation poles 4:344, 4:346fEuler's theorem 4:344-346Euparkeria 2:485Euramerica 4:204, 4:21 OfEurasia 5:481, 5:484Eurocodes 1:453*, 1:454Europa 4:13f, 4:14-15, 5:283, 5:284*,

5:284fEurope

Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,

4:471Alps 2:125-135

alpine nappe structuresgeneral discussion 2:129internal deformation 2:130, 2:131 f,

2:132fSuess, Eduard 2:241, 2:241fthrust faults 2:130, 2:130*", 2:131f

Central Alps 2:117, 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:654, 3:655f

Eastern Alps 2:128*", 2:129,2:133-135geomorphology 2:125, 2:126fmountain-building processes

crystalline basement rocks 2:133fgeneral discussion 2:132erogenic process 2:134fsubduction zones 2:133fSuess, Eduard 2:235

palaeogeographic reconstruction2:127f

rock types 2:127subsurface geological structure

Central Alps 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135, 2:134*", 3:655f

Eastern Alps 2:128f9 2:129,2:133-135

Western Alps 2:127, 2:128*",2:133-135

tectonic unitsAdriatic margin 2:125, 2:128*",

2:132, 2:132fEurasian plate 2:125European margin 2:125, 2:128f,

2:132, 2:132fgeneral discussion 2:125Penninic nappes 2:126-127tectonic map 2:126f

Western Alps 2:117, 2:133-135

Appenines 3:654, 3:655fbeer brewing process 3:80Cenozoic European Rift System 2:120,

3:653central Europe

Cenozoic European Rift System 2:120,3:653

Cretaceous basins 2:113Mohorovicic discontinuity 2:104/,

3:650*"Permo-Carboniferous basins

2:95-102, 3:653tectonic processes 2:102tektites 5:444, 5:445*, 5:445fTriassic basins 2:105Variscides Orogeny 2:79, 2:80*", 2:81f,

3:651Corsica 3:655*", 3:656Cretaceous 2:113East European Craton 2:34-49

accretionary wedge terranes 4:459*"Archaean crust 2:38, 2:42/", 2:43 f9

2:44*", 2:45f, 2:47fbackground information 2:34Cambrian 4:458-459Carboniferous 4:460craton assembly 2:47, 2:48fCretaceous 4:461crustal provinces 4:459*"crustal segments

Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41*",2:42f, 2:43*", 2:44f, 2:48f

general discussion 2:38Sarmatia 2:41 f, 2:42f9 2:45, 2:45/",

2:48fVolgo-Uralia 2:41*", 2:42*", 2:46,

2:47f, 2:48fcrustal thickness 2:35 f, 2:36, 3:656,

3:657*", 3:658Devonian 4:459Eocene 4:461geographic location 2:35*"gravity fields 2:36Jurassic 4:460-461Kola Peninsula 2:44flithologies 2:39fmagnetic anomalies 2:36, 2:37*"margins 2:34morphology 2:36Mylonite Zone 2:43/", 2:44Oligocene 4:461Ordovician 4:459orogenic events 2:40, 2:48fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:47Permian 4:459-460Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48fPrecambrian 2:34Proterozoic 2:43*", 2:48fQuaternary 4:461rift systems 2:36, 2:41 f, 2:48*", 2:105Russia 4:456, 4:457*", 4:458fRussian Platform 2:35*", 2:36, 2:38*",

2:41fsedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457*",

4:458*", 4:460f

INDEX 651

Europe (continued)sedimentary cover 2:35f, 2:36, 2:38f,

2:39f, 2:40f, 2:41fstructural features 3:650, 3:651ftectonic evolution 3:648Timanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50,

2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464topography 2:36Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651,3:652f

Triassic 4:460-461Uralide orogeny 2:34-35, 3:648Variscides Orogeny 3:648volcanism 2:40, 2:48f

Elba 3:655f, 3:656engineering geology 3:41Eocene 2:117granitic rocks 3:237?groundwater 3:80Hercynian Belt, Europe 3:237?Holocene 2:147-160

background information 2:147Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2:152f, 2:153f,

2:155-159, 2:156f, 2:159tclimate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159tdating methods 2:147environmental periods 2:159thuman activity

environmental conservation 2:154environmental effects 2:152historical developments 2:159tindustrialisation effects 2:155,

2:15 6fNeolithic period 2:152phosphate concentrations 2:156f

sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150f,2:151f,2:154f,2:155f

vegetation 2:147, 2:149f9 2:152f,2:15'3f, 2:155'f

Jurassic 2:108Ligurian Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656magmatism 2:96/i 2:97, 2:101f, 2:102,

3:657Miocene 2:120Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:645-659

background information 2:95, 3:645Cenozoic European Rift System 3:653characteristics 3:646, 3:647fdepth map 2:104f, 3:649fMediterranean region

Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 3:654, 3:655fcross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 3:654Ligurian Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656orogenic events 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654f

Permo-Carboniferous basins 3:653structural features

Baltic Shield 3:650, 3:651fcrustal thickness 3:649feastern Europe 3:650, 3:651fEast European Craton 3:650,3:651f

general discussion 3:649morphology 3:65Ofnorthern Europe 3:650, 3:651f

subcrustal lithosphere 3:656, 3:657fUral Mountains 3:652, 3:653fwestern/central Europe 2:104f,

3:650fOligocene 2:120, 2:121/"orogenic events. See orogenic eventsPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fPermian 2:95-102

geodynamic setting 2:100geological characteristics 2:95magmatism 2:102

age distribution 2:96fforeland 2:97general discussion 2:97Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100Oslo Rift 2:101 f, 2:97petrogenesis 2:99Variscan internides 2:98

palaeogeography 2:107'fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:653North German Basin 2:97,

2:99-100, 2:101 fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99, 2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

sedimentary basin formation 2:96,2:101f, 3:653

tectonic processesrift systems 2:105, 2:106fsedimentary basin formation 2:102wrench tectonics 2:102

Provencal Basin 2:120-124, 3:655f,3:656

Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654fsedimentary basins

Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117Anisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk

palaeogeography 2:110fAptian-Albian palaeogeography

2:116fBaj ocian-Bathonian palaeogeography

2:112fbasin formation 2:102Berriasian-Valanginian

palaeogeography 2:115fCenozoic 2:122fCretaceous 2:113, 2:117East European Craton 4:456, 4:457/",

4:458f, 4:460f

Eocene 2:117geological map legend 2:123fhydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103f, 2:122fJurassic 2:108Kimmeridgian-Tithonian

palaeogeography 2:114-fMiocene 2:120North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,

2:119f,2:121f,2:122fOligocene 2:120, 2:121fPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fPermian 2:105Rhaetian-Hettangian

palaeogeography 2:11 Ifrifting events 2:105Scythian-Bundsandstein

palaeogeography 2:109fsea-level changes 2:105Senonian-Danian palaeogeography

2:118 fthermal subsidence 2:105, 2:117Triassic 2:105western/central Europe 2:105, 2:113wrench tectonics 2:102Zechstein palaeogeography 2:107f

tectonic processescentral Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,

2:102geological map legend 2:123fmain tectonic units 2:106f, 3:648,

3:648fpalaeogeography 2:107frift systems

Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117background information 2:105Cretaceous 2:113Eocene 2:117geological map legend 2:123fJurassic 2:108Miocene 2:120Oligocene 2:120, 2:121fPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fpalaeogeography 2:107fPermian 2:105, 2:106fTriassic 2:105

sedimentary basin formation 2:102western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f,

2:102wrench tectonics 2:102

tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445^Timanide Orogeny 2:49-56

background information 2:49Barents Shelf 2:50f, 2:53Caledonian Orogeny 2:72-73East European Craton 2:49-50, 2:53,

2:54fforeland thrust-and-fold belt 2:5Of,

2:51geographic location 2:35fNovaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f, 2:53Pechora Basin 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52f,

2:53f, 2:54fPolar Ural Mountains 2:50f, 2:52Precambrian 4:352

652 INDEX

Europe (continued]Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53, 2:54ftectonic relationships 2:5Ofterranes 2:5Of

Triassic 2:105, 3:344Tuscany 3:655f, 3:656Uralide orogeny 2:86-95

aeromagnetic map 2:87f, 2:93fBouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94,

2:93^crustal structure 2:90, 2:91fEast European Craton

2:34-35, 3:648geological map 2:88fheat flow density 2:91-92, 2:93fseismic profile 2:91f, 2:92ftectonic evolution

foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:90general discussion 2:86island arcs 2:88strike-slip fault systems 2:90subduction zones 2:89tectonic processes 2:89f

topography 2:94, 2:94fvelocity profiles 2:91, 2:92fzone classifications 2:86, 2:87f

Ural MountainsCarboniferous 4:201cross-sections 3:653fEast European Craton 2:4Ifgemstones 3:12geological map 2:88fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fKazakhstan-Khingan domain 4:467,

4:467fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:652,

3:653fPermian 4:214-215, 5:511 fSilurian 4:192-193tectonic map 4:467fTimanide Orogeny

background information 2:49foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:5Of,

2:51Polar Ural Mountains 2:50f, 2:52Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53

topography 2:94, 2:94fzone classifications 2:86, 2:87f

Variscides Orogenycentral Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,

3:651crustal thickness 3:658East European Craton 3:648evolutionary history 2:95geographic location 2:35fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:9'5, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97

North German Basin 2:97,2:99-100, 2:101f

Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99, 2:1 OlfVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f,3:651

European Federation of Geologists1:452-454, 3:75, 3:76f, 3:77t, 3:77f

European Geotraverse (EGT) project2:129, 3:645

European Land Mammal Ages (ELMAs)5:472, 5:473f, 5:478, 5:479^

European Rift System 2:120, 3:648-649,3:653

europium (Eu)carbonatites 3:223t, 3:224fcrustal composition 5:174tgranitic rocks 3:242flava/lava flows 3:224f

EUROPROBE project 3:645Europrobe Seismic Reflection in the Urals

(ESRU) 2:88f, 2:90, 2:91feurypterids 4:210-211eustasy

See sea-level; sequence stratigraphyEustbenopteron 2:464f, 2:467, 2:469,

4:196Eutheria 2:535-540eutherians 2:528f, 2:533f, 2:533-534Evandavia aureola 4:376, 4:376f, 4:379fEvans, R. 5:266?evaporites 5:94-97

Alps 2:132anhydrite

classification 5:26tdensities 5:32Ifgeotechnical properties 1:552hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,

5:394thydrothermal vents 5:391occurrence 5:32fporosity 1:5 52t

Arabia 1:141Arabian Gulf 4:511borate deposits 3:517brewing process 3:80calcium brines 5:95, 5:96Cambrian 4:165classification 4:454, 5:26tcomposition 5:94Cretaceous 3:365densities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610, 4:610fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 1:552tgypsum 3:572-573

classification 5:2 6£, 5:394tcrystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679

lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572porosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

halite (NaCl)Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80classification 5:26tdensities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs

4:610, 4:610ffluid inclusions 5:97geotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559fpetroleum geology 4:229-230porosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

Hellenic Trench 5:433hydrothermal deposits 5:95lacustrine deposits 4:557, 4:559fnitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556tnon-rift basins 5:96North Africa 1:21, 1:24North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29foccurrence 5:31palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134, 4:138-139palaeodeposits 4:102, 5:441f, 5:442palaeoterranes 5:458porosity 1:5 52trift valleys 5:95seawater chemistry 4:165, 5:96seawater evaporation deposits 5:94Silurian 4:193sulphate concentrations 5:94, 5:95sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95

evolution 2:160-167Agassiz, Louis 2:178biodiversity

biodiversity curvesgeneral discussion 1:264mass extinction events 1:264fshape significance 1:264tetrapod evolution 1:264f

causes 1:265diversity changes 1:261, 1:262faunal ecological structure l:262tgeneral discussion 1:259measurement methods

ancient species 1:260, l:260fdisparity 1:259diversity 1:259marine fauna 1:260, 1:260fmodern species 1:260types 1:259

Phanerozoicgeneral discussion 1:262marine change l:260f,

1:262, l:264fterrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f

Precambrian 1:261creationism

INDEX 653

evolution (continued)Creation science 1:385definitions 1:381Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,

2:182,2:224-225Fundamentalism 1:383gap theory 1:383radiometric dating 1:386Scriptural Geology 1:383Seventh Day Adventists 1:384static versus dynamic theories 1:382

Darwin, Charles 1:257, 2:160,2:184-187

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161,2:162f

genetic transmission 2:161historical background 2:160Hox genes 2:166Lyell, Charles 2:160-161macroevolution

evolutionary radiations 2:165-166extinction 2:165-166general discussion 2:165tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f

metazoans 1:261microevolution

allopatric-speciation 2:163, 2:164fgeneral discussion 2:163phyletic gradualism 2:164/,

2:164-165punctuated equilibrium 1:27'If, 2:164,

2:164fsympatric speciation 2:163-164,

2:164fradiations

abiotic causes 1:273, 1:273fCretaceous l:273fdistorting factors 1:270-271environmental shift 1:271, 1:272fevolutionary novelties 1:274, l:274fgeneral discussion 1:269Jurassic 1:273 fmorphological evolution 1:274 f9

1:276, 1:27 6fPalaeocene l:273fphylogenetic relationships 1:274ftaxic evolution 1:274f, 1:276, 1:276ftetrapod radiations 1:273ftriggers 1:269-270

Red Queen hypothesis 2:166speciation

definition 1:266fossil record 1:267general discussion 1:266fphyletic gradualism 1:267, l:268f,

1:269f, l:270fPrunum coniforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:268, 1:268 f9

1:271 fspecies recognition 1:267

See also Biblical geologyEwamin Orogeny l.-213/j 1:218-219Ewing, Maurice 3:194, 3:197, 3:199excurrite (Na4B10O17- 7H2O) 3:513*exhumed karst 4:679

exogenic trace fossils 5:523, 5:523fexokarst

See karst landscapesexpansive clays 1:557, l:559fExploits subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87fExplora Wedge 3:147, 3:151f, 3:152fexposure 5:328extinction events

Aptian extinction event 3:370Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BFE)

5:462, 5:468, 5:470biodiversity

ancient species 1:260, l:260fgeneral discussion 1:259, 1:262measurement methods 1:260, l:260fPhanerozoic

general discussion 1:262marine change l:260f, 1:262, l:264fterrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f

Precambrian 1:261carbon dioxide concentrations 4:223,

4:223fCarboniferous 4:212Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:360,

3:370, 4:567-568Cretaceous 3:360, 3:370Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:372-385amphibians 2:523background information 3:372causal mechanisms

bolide impact craters 3:383large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383multiple events 3:384sea-level changes 3:383

impact structures 3:277, 3:283-284Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375fbackground information 3:372biostratigraphy 3:374Elvis taxa 3:377-378fossil record 3:374, 3:377fhistorical background 3:373Lazarus taxa 3:377-378marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378, 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381fpseudoextinction 3:375-376,3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377,

3:3 77fstratigraphy 3:373fterrestrial invertebrates 3:381,

3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382fvegetation 3:382, 3:383f

Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501fstratigraphy 3:373ftektites 5:453

Deccan Traps 3:383, 4:198-199Devonian 1:264f9 4:194, 4:196, 4:197,

4.-197/; 4:198Elvis taxa 3:377-378end-Cretaceous extinction 2:355end-Guadalupian extinction event 4:217,

4:221, 4:223, 4:223f

end-Ordovician extinction 4:180end-Permian extinctions 4:219-225

amphibians 2:516causes

extraterrestrial impact 4:221general discussion 3:348global warming 4:222, 4:223fvolcanism 4:222

definition 4:219general discussion 4:217Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,4:22 If

bivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317crinoids 4:220extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221fgastropods 2:387general discussion 3:348, 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221 fmarine extinctions 4:220marine invertebrates 3:348fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567Siberian Traps 4:222

Frasnian/Famennian (F/F) massextinction 4:197, 4:197f

Hangenberg bioevent 4:197, 4:197finsects 2:296-298, 2:298fKellwasser bioevent 4:197, 4:197flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321/",

3:322Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221 fOligocene 5:473, 5:476Pleistocene 5:497-498pseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376freef environments 4:565-566,

4:566-567Signor-Lipps effect 3:376-377, 3:377fsuperanoxic event 4:499Vendian 4:379

Faberge, Peter Carl 3:267Fabiano, Papirio 3:168fabric, definition of 3:390tFaeroe Islands 3:598Faint Young Sun Paradox 1:340fairfieldite 5:122fair weather wave base 4:570-571, 4:574ffake fossils 2:169-173

amber 2:172Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172chimera 2:170-171creationism 2:172

F

654 INDEX

fake fossils (continued)embellishments 2:171, 2:171 fforgery identification 2:169, 2:169f,

2:173hoaxes

Beringer, Johann 2:169-170Piltdown Man 2:170

Falcatus 2:464fFalkland Plateau 3:315f, 3:316tfalling dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fFamennian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:196, 4:199fchronostratigraphy 4:202fextinction events 4:197, 4:197f, 4:198fish 4:196glaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fnon-amniote tetrapods 2:469palaeoclimate 4:196ftektites 5:454Uralide orogeny 4:468vegetation 4:195

Farallon Plate 5:461, 5:479-480Faroe-Shetland Basin, United Kingdom

l:103f, 1:103-104, l:104fFassanian stage 3:34SfFaujas de St. Fond, Barthelemy

2:181-182faujasite 3:593tfaulting processes

breccia 3:388tcrustal deformation 1:408, 1:409 f,

5:425-428fault gouge 3:388tfaults 5:330-338

active faults 1:459background information 5:330classification 5:353, 5:354fconjugate normal faults 5:354fcredible faults 1:459definition 3:390?deltas 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536/dip-slip fault systems 5:332felastic-rebound model 5:33Iffault geometry 5:331, 5:331/, 5:332/",

5:334ffocal mechanism 5:332-333, 5:334fground displacement 5:331fgrowth faults 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536fMendocino escarpment 3:198models 5:336, 5:337f, 5:338fnormal faults 4:23Ifnorthern Andes 1:121 fpetroleum reservoirs 4:231, 4:313plate margin faults 5:360reverse faults 4:23Ifrock friction 5:336, 5:337f, 5:338fSan Andreas Fault Zone, California

4:58-60, 4:59/j 4:343, 4:345f,5:476-477, 5:479-480

seismological studies 5:332, 5:332f,5:333f

strain analysis 5:334, 5:335f, 5:336fstrength envelopes 5:335-336, 5:336fstress analysis 5:334, 5:334/, 5:335f,

5:338fstrike-slip fault systems

basement faulting 5:347-348,5:348f

fault geometry 5:331, 5:332ffocal mechanism 5:334fJapan 3:304fKuznetsk-Teletskoye strike-slip fault

system 4:466models 5:333, 5:337f, 5:338fschematic diagram 5:332fSouth-east Asia 1:169, l:170fsouthern Cordillera 4:52stress analysis 4:23Ifstress fields 5:335fUral Mountains 2:90

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:243 f, 1:245f,1:246 f

Trans-Eurasian fault system 4:45'8f,4:464f, 4:467f

Trans-European Fault Zone 3:651,3:652f

Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)East European Craton 2:39 f^ 2:40f,

2:41f, 2:42f, 2:43fextent 3:648, 3:648f, 3:649fgeneral discussion 3:651geographic location 2:35fplate tectonics 5:455Variscides Orogeny 3:652f

transform faults 3:202, 3:203 f, 5:375,5:386f, 5:396f

types 5:332ffault zone alteration 3:599gravity measurements 1:105fmid-ocean ridges

abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386fbookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398,

5:404ffault scarps 5:384f, 5:385fgeneral discussion 5:383pseudofaults 5:396, 5:396ftransform faults 5:375, 5:386f, 5:396fvolcanic growth faults 5:386f,

5:386-387northern Cordillera 4:3 7/i 4:38, 4:41f,

4:43ocean trenches 4:343f, 4:344, 4:345f,

5:4357, 5:43 6fseamounts 5:435f, 5:436fseismotectonic zonation 1:459Tibetan Plateau 5:423-424See also earthquakes; fractures; orogenic

events; rift valleys; tectonicprocesses

favusellids 3:450ffayalite

See olivineFeijoo, Benito Jeronimo 3:169, 3:172feldspars 3:534-539

crystal symmetry 3:534-535depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:145fdiaplectic minerals 3:281-282, 3:282fgeneral discussion 3:534granites 3:235?, 3:240hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632igneous rocks 3:536metamorphic rocks 3:399/", 3:400f,

3:401 f, 3:537nomenclature 3:534, 3:534foccurrence 3:534optical properties 3:536phase diagram 3:187fpressure-temperature diagram 3:243fproperties

alkali feldspars 3:536f, 3:536frequency distribution 3:539fgeneral discussion 3:536plagioclase 3:537, 3:537f, 3:538f,

3:539frefractive indices 3:536f, 3:537f

sand 5:142sandstones 5:143?, 5:27shock metamorphic effects 5:183tspectral data 1:11 Ifstructure 3:535, 3:535ftwinning 3:535-536, 3:537-538ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fvine nourishment 3:88weathering processes 5:588

feldspathoids 3:539-541occurrences 3:541structure

general discussion 3:539leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541fnepheline 3:539, 3:540fsodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f

fenitisation 3:229Fennian stage 4:183 fFennoscandian Shield

carbonatites 3:228fcrustal provinces 2:42f, 2:43fevolution 2:48fgeneral description 2:38Neoproterozoic 2:41 fSuess, Eduard 2:238Triassic 2:108

ferberite (MnWO4) 3:587, 3:5S7?fernandinite (Cao.6(V8O2o)-10H2O) 3:589tferns 4:210Ferraiolo, James 5:121ferrallitization 5:196fFerrar Basalts 1:135, 3:315f, 3:316tferrarisite 3:509?ferricrete 4:134, 5:588ferrierite 3:593?ferrimolybdite (Fe2(MoO4)3-8H2O) 3:552?ferritungstite ((W,Fe)(O,OH)3) 3:587?ferroaugite 3:567ferrosilite 3:567ferruginous peloids 5:101, 5:103fertilizers 5:128Ferussac, Andre de 2:183

INDEX 655

fervanite (Fe4(V4O16)-5H2O) 3:S89tfianelite (Mn2(V2O7)-2H2O) 3:589tfield mapping 3:43-52

air photographs 1:372, 3:44base maps 3:44basic principles 3:43boundaries 3:50, 3:51fclothing 3:47equipment

compass/clinometer 3:45,3:46f

field notebook 3:45hammer and chisel 3:45hand lens 3:45map board/case 3:45mapping pens 3:45miscellaneous equipment 3:46pencils 3:45

exposures 3:50, 3:51ffield evidence 3:49f, 3:50field notebook 3:49f, 3:50formation contacts 3:49/", 3:50Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:423, 4:424fhealth/safety issues 3:47mapping process 3:49f, 3:50, 3:51 fmapping symbols 3:47, 3:48fpreliminary reconnaissance methods

3:47superficial deposits 3:52

Field, Richard 3:194Fiji

background information 4:109Beqa4:118economic geology 4:120geology 4:118, 4:119fKadavu Islands 4:120Koro Islands 4:118Lau Islands 4:120plate tectonics 4:120Quaternary volcanism 4:120VanuaLevu 4:118, 4:119fVatulele 4:118VitiLevu4:118,4:n9/r

Yanuca(Serua)4:118Yasawa Group 4:118

fillSee made ground

fineness 3:118fingerite (Cu11O2(VO4)6) 3:589tFinland 3:363tfire

Carboniferous 4:209earthquake effects 5:325

fireclay 1:366-367Firth of Forth 2:472fischesserite3:119^fish 2:462-468

acanthodians 2:465actinopterygians 2:466agnathan diversity 2:462anaspids 2:458, 2:462biodiversity 2:464fblack shales 4:497, 4:498fCarboniferous 4:212

coelacanth fishes 1:274 f9 1:276-278,2:466

Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368f, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fDevonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196early development 2:462Eocene 5:469freshwater fish 3:368, 3:369fHaikouichthys 1:351jawed fish 2:462jawless fish 2:454-461

agnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462background information 2:454conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448evolutionary relationships 2:460fgaleaspids 2:458origins 2:455ostracoderms

Astraspis 2:457f, 2:457Cephalaspis utabensis 2:458fdecline 2:459Devonian 2:457, 2:458fEriptychius 2:457Errivaspis waynensis 2:458fheterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459Ordovician 2:457reconstruction drawings 2:456fSilurian 2:457thelodonts 2:459, 2:459fThelodus macintosh! 2:459fTuberculaspis elyensis 2:458f

phylogenetic relationships 2:455,2:459

Jurassic 3:358lungfishes 2:467Onychodontiformes 2:467osteichthyans 2:466osteolepiforms 2:467osteostracans 2:462Palaeocene 5:463placoderms 2:465, 2:465fradiation patterns 2:463fsarcopterygians 2:467seamounts 4:482sharks 2:229f, 2:463Silurian 4:191teeth 2:462teleosteans 2:466/", 2:466-467tetrapodomorphs 2:469thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462Triassic 3:350

Fish Canyon Tuff, Colorado, United States3:246

fission track analysis 1:43-53age determination 1:47, I:48f9 1:49falpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:52fannealing process 1:45, l:46f, 5:127applications 1:52background information 1:43etch pits 1:46, 1:47'ffission track length 1:48, 1:48ffossil partial annealing zone 1:45, l:46fglossary information 1:53Helium Partial Retention Zone 1:50-51

spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f, 1:45fthermal history modelling 1:49, L-50/",

l:51ftrack-in-cleavage l:45f, 1:49track-in-track 1:45 f, 1:49uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He

dating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127Fitton, William Henry 3:62fjords 4:670, 4:672fFlandrian stage 5:496fflaser bedding 4:599fleas 2:297f, 2:300tFlemish Cap 4:100, 4:101fflies (Diptera) 2:297/", 2:300t, 5:469flint

conchoidal fractures 4:384fmining techniques l:434fnodules 4:385occurrence 5:35-36terminology 3:570

Flinton Group 3:155-156, 3:158f, 3:160floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564fflood basalts

See basaltsfloods

catastrophic floods 4:628-641causal mechanisms

controlling factors 4:629fdam failures 4:629, 4:631fdrainage area 4:63 Ofgeneral discussion 4:628glacial melt 4:628-629, 4:631fjokulhlaups. See jokulhlaupslandslides 4:632rainfall 4:628snow dams 4:629snowfall 4:628spatial/temporal factors 4:63Ofvegetative debris 4:629

characteristics 4:633, 4:634fdefinition 4:628geomorphic impacts

backwater effects 4:637fchannel morphology 4:636ferosion surfaces 4:635fflood deposits 4:639f, 4:640fgeneral discussion 4:637ice blocks 4:638fkettle holes 4:63^rip-up clast deposits 4:636fstream power 4:635f

hydrographs 4:634fimpact controls 4:640sediment transport 4:633turbulent flows 4:634f

Flood GeologyBiblical geology 1:254, 3:170, 3:176creationism 1:382, 1:384Cuvier, Georges 2:182geomythology 3:98-99Smith, William 2:224-225

hazard analysisfrequency 1:517tmortality rates 1:517tquantification analysis 1:516

656 INDEX

floods (continued]stream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

sediment fluxes 5:22, 5:23fSee also fluvial geomorphology

Flora 5:221t, 5:222fFlorida-Bahamas shelf region 4:93f, 4:505,

4:505f, 4:506fFlorida platform 4:100, 4:96fFlorida, United States 3:128, 4:92,

5:460-461flowering plants

See angiospermsfluellite 5:126fluid inclusions

analytical techniquesbulk methods 2:259microthermometry 2:259optical methods 2:259point methods 2:259

applicationschemical composition 2:259as tools in exploration 2:260gemology 2:260, 2:260fas geobarometer 2:255, 2:257, 2:2S8fas geothermometer 2:255, 2:257,

2:258fnuclear waste repositories 2:260pitfalls 2:256

aqueous and gaseous inclusions 2:258,2:258, 2:258f

characteristicshost material 2:254morphology 2:254, 2:255fphases 2:254

daughter minerals 2:255, 2:255fdouble bubble inclusion 2:255fimmiscible assemblages 2:256fphase diagram 2:258f

crystallization conditions 2:257, 2:257fdefinition 2:253diagenetic quantification 5:146, 5:147fformation processes 2:254genetic classification 2:254, 2:254fhalite (NaCl) 5:97melt inclusions 2:258recrystallization effects 2:256, 2:257f

fluorapatite 5:123, 5:124ffluorine (F)

apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 5:120-128carbonatites 3:221*, 3:221-222kimberlites 3:254soft tissue mineralisation 3:312,

3:312fvine nourishment 3:88

carbonatites 3:223*fluorite 3:221*, 3:222hydrogen fluoride (HF) l:200tniobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640fpartitioning behaviour 3:639tterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200*fluorspar l:438tflutes 4:676, 4:677f

fluvial geomorphology 4:650-663abrasion analysis 4:655fbraided river systems 4:656/", 4:657f,

4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139fchannel networks 4:65Ofchannel patterns 4:656, 4:656fy 4:657f,

4:658f, 4:659fdeserts 4:541f, 4:542downstream fining 4:655fdrainage basins 4:657, 4:660fflood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660fflood frequency 4:653-654, 4:654ffloodplain classification 4:658t, 4:658fflood plains 3:90f, 3:91 fgeneral discussion 4:650grain size analysis 4:654, 4:655flandforms 4:654material transfer process 4:651, 4:651*,

4:652f, 4:653fmeandering river systems 3:90/j 4:656f,

4:657f, 4:659fnetwork development

eustatic cycles 4:660-661, 4:662fmodels 4:661ftime factors 4:659

petroleum reservoirs 4:235tsediment transport 4:653f, 4:654fsolute transfer 4:65Itstraight river systems 4:656/j 4:659fstream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

fluviokarst 4:682flying reptiles 2:508-516

pterosaurs 2:508affinities 2:513Anhanguera 2:515Austriadactylus 2:510body hair 2:511, 2:511 fCampylognathoides 2:513-514Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511,

2:513-514Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514,

2:515historical background 2:509integument 2:511Istiodactylus 2:510locomotion 2:515origins 2:513palaeobiology 2:514phylogeny 2:513, 2:S13fPreondactylus 2:513-514Pteraichnus 2:515-516Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515pterodactyloids

azhdarchoids 2:514body hair 2:51 Ifctenochasmatoids 2:514dsungaripteroids 2:514general discussion 2:514life restoration 2:509flonchodectids 2:514ornithocheiroids 2:510f, 2:514,

2:514fsoft tissue 2:512fwing membranes 2:511f

wing skeleton 2:51 OfPterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:511 f,

2:515Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513, 2:514,

2:515skeletal material 2:510, 2:51 Of,

2:511fsoft tissue 2:511, 2:512f

Flynn Creek impact event 4:199flysch 4:485Fogo Seamounts 4:94folding 5:339-351

bending 5:347box folds 5:345fbuckle folds

anisotropic materials 5:340f, 5:344,5:345f

buckle folds 5:340general discussion 5:340interface buckling 5:340f, 5:341fmultilayer buckling 5.-340/", 5:343,

5:343f, 5:344f, 5:346fsingle layer buckling 5:340f, 5:341,

5:342f, 5:343fwavelength/thickness ratio 5:341,

5:343fdefinitions 5:339ductile deformation 5:339, 5:348experimental research 5:344, 5:346ffault-bend folds 5:348, 5:349fflow folding 5:348, 5:349f, 5:350fforced folds 5:347, 5:347ffractures 5:348, 5:349, 5:350f, 5:351fgeometric features 5:339, 5:339f, 5:340fmechanisms 5:346fplains-type folding 4:32, 4:34*, 4:35frock properties 5:348, 5:350fsalt domes 5:348, 5:349fstrain analysis 5:349, 5:351fstrike-slip faulting 5:347-348, 5:348fthree-dimensional (3D) geometry 5:346,

5:347jffoliation, definition of 3:390tFolk's classification system 3.-527/J 4:645fforaminifera 3:448-453

allogromids 3:45Ofammodiscana 3:45Ifastrorhizana 3:45Ifastrorhizata 3:45Ifastrorhizids 3:45OfBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BFE)

5:462, 5:468, 5:470buliminids 3:450fclassification 3:449, 3:45OfCretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646*,

5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75tEocene 5:468extraction methods 3:471favusellids 3:450ffusulinids 3:45Ofgeneral discussion 3:448

INDEX 657

foraminifera (continued)globigerinids 3:45Ofhormosinana 3:45Ifinvoluntinids 3:45OfJurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556lagenids 3:45Oflagynana 3:45Iflituolids 3:450floftusiids 3:45OfMaastrichtian-Danian boundary 3:373fmiliolana 3:45Ifmiliolata 3:45Ifmiliolids 3:45Ofnodosariana 3:45Ifnodosariata 3:45IfOligocene 5:473, 5:476Palaeocene 5:462Permian 4:216rank 3:449robertinids 3:45Ofrotaliana 3:45Ifrotaliata 3:45Ifrotaliids 3:450fshell morphology 3:451f, 3:452fsilicoloculinids 3:45Ofspirillinana 3:451fspirillinata 3:45Ifspirillinids 3:450ftextulariana 3:45Iftextulariids 3:45Of

fore-arc basinsaccretionary wedges 5:307, 5:308f,

5:311 f, 5:313fAndes Mountains

central Andes 1:125, 1:126general discussion 1:118southern Andes 1:127

Mediterranean region 3:654ocean trenches 5:431seamounts 4:482, 4:483fsediment accumulation 3:597

forensic geology 2:261-273background information 2:261evidence

analytical techniques 2:262, 2:265tburnt-out car 2:264-fcharacteristics 2:262evidence persistence 2:266primary transfer modification 2:268secondary transfer 2:268trace evidence 2:262f, 2:263f

human remains 2:270, 2:272fisotope analysis 2:271Locard exchange principle 2:261location identification 2:268, 2:269/",

2.-270/", 2:271freference sample comparisons

exotic particles 2:267/", 2:268f, 2:270,2:272f

general discussion 2:262house brick 2:266fsample properties 2:265tsoil-stained boot 2:266/", 2:267f

fornacite (CuPb2[(Cr,As,P)O4]2OH) 3:533t

forsteriteSee olivine

Forth Metamorphic Complex l:246fFort Worth Basin 4:67, 4:68fFossa Magna 3:297fossil fuels

See natural gas; oil; petroleum geologyFossil Konservat-Lagerstatten 2:274-275fossils

ammonites 2:396-407aptychi 2:398, 2:399farchitecture 2:396background information 2:396bathymetry 2:404, 2:405fblack shales 4:497, 4:499fbuoyancy 2:402, 2:403fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380ffeeding habits 2:404growth stages 2:399habitat 2:404, 2:406fhydrostatics/hydrodynamics 2:402,

2:403f, 2:405fJurassic 3:309, 3:352, 3:357longevity 2:399Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

3:375fmigration 2:404morphology 2:396, 2:397forganism reconstruction 2:402,

2:403fphylogenetic relationships 2:398,

2:400fpoise 2:402, 2:403fpost-mortem drift 2:404predators 2:404pyritized fossils l:377f, 3:312septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401sexual dimorphism 2:400-401, 2:401fstability 2:403fsutures 2:398, 2:399f, 2:401

amphibiansCenozoic 2:523-526

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,

2:525fassemblages 2:523caecilians 2:525frogs 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525fPalaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fPiceoerpeton 2:524-525Pleistocene glaciations 2:526Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525fsalamanders 2:524, 2:525f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary2:523

Lissamphibiaalbanerpetontids 2:521/", 2:523caecilians 2:521f, 2:522Celtedens ibericus 2:521 fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521 ffrogs 2:521, 2:521fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521

Karaurus sharovi 2:521fsalamanders 2:521f, 2:522Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fTriadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 fValdotriton gracilis 2:522f

Mesozoic 2:516-523albanerpetontids 2:521f, 2:523background information 2:516Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fcaecilians 2:521f, 2:522Capitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fChroniosuchians 2:520end-Permian extinctions 2:516fossil assemblages 2:516frogs 2:521fJurassic 2:520Lissamphibia 2:521Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fsalamanders 2:521f^ 2:522Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f9

2:518ftemnospondyls 2:517Trematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Rhytidosteroidea 2:517ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fBuettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fJurassic 2:520Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517fMastodonsaurus 2:517fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517Siderops kehli 2:519fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,

2:518fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Tertiary 2:523angiosperms

Acer trilobatum 2:419fArchaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,

2:423-424background information 2:418characteristics 2:418, 2:419fclassification 2:419, 2:421fCretaceous clays 2:418, 2:422diversification 2:424, 2:426forigins 2:420, 2:422fpalaeolatitudes 2:426fPalmoxylon 2:420fpollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424 f,

2:426f

658 INDEX

fossils (continued)pollen-feeding insects 2:426, 2:427fParana oeningensis 2:420fQuercus 2:420fwater lily 2:425f

Archaeopteris hibernica 2:445arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-281

amber 2:274-275, 2:275fchitin 2:274-275classification 2:275fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fDevonian 4:196ecdysis 2:275exoskeletons 2:274-275feeding strategies 2:278flight ability 2:277fossil record 2:276horseshoe crabs 2:277f, 2:280insects 2:295-300

Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tarthropod relationships 2:297fbiodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:29 6f,

2:298fCarboniferous 1:204-206,

2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tcollection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fDevonian 2:296-298, 2:299/,

4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300*Jurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299fPhanerozoic 2:298fPterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300ttaxonomy 2:2951Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298 f, 2:299f,

3:350morphology 2:274ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463

applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454tCretaceous 3:460f9 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures 1:262tecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556

life cycle 3:457morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,

3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459fMyodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,

3:45 8 f, 3:460fOrdovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa. See PodocopaQuaternary 3:460f, 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f,

3:462f, 4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

podomeres 2:274, 2:275relevance 2:279reproduction 2:278respiration 2:277terrestrialization 2:276-277trace fossils 2:279visual systems 2:279, 2:280f

background information 4:156-159biodiversity 1:260

biodiversity curvesgeneral discussion 1:264mass extinction events 1:264fshape significance 1:264tetrapod evolution 1:264f

causes 1:265diversity changes 1:261, 1:262faunal ecological structure l:262tgeneral discussion 1:259measurement methods

ancient species 1:260fdisparity 1:259diversity 1:259marine fauna 1:260, l:260fmodern species 1:260types 1:259

Phanerozoicgeneral discussion 1:262marine change l:260f, 1:262, l:264fterrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f

Precambrian 1:261biozones 1:294-305

biochronozones 1:304, l:304fbiostratigraphic principles 5:301,

5:301f, 5:302fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434chronostratigraphical relationships

l:296fdating techniques 1:295-296Eocene 5:467fglossary information 1:305historical background 1:294multivariate biostratigraphic analyses

l:304fOppel, Albert 1:295Ordovician 4:176, 4:182Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Smith, William 1:294zone types

acme zone 1:302, 1:303f

assemblage zone 1:301, l:301fconcurrent range zone 1:297,1:298ffirst appearance/last appearance

1:296, 1:297fgeneral discussion 1:296interval zone 1:302, l:303flineage zone 1:300, l:300fmiscellaneous zones 1:304Oppel zone 1:299, 1:299frange zones 1:296taxon range zone 1:297, 1:298f

bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:369-378adaptive radiation 2:377black shales

fossil assemblages 4:497, 4:498fpaper pectens 4:497

brachiopods 2:301-310affinities 2:303black shales 4:497Cambrian 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification 2:303, 2:304*, 2:305fCraniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,

2:306fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fDevonian 4:194ecological structures 1:262tecology 2:303end-Permian extinctions 4:220extinction events 2:309, 2:309fgeographic distribution 2:305Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182Jurassic 3:356life styles 2:307fLinguliformea 2:301, 2:302f,

2:304*, 2:306fmodern brachiopods 2:310morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,

2:304*, 2:305fOrdovician 4:179origins 2:303palaeocommunities 2:307fPermian 4:216phylogenetic relationships 2:306fradiation patterns 2:309Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302,

2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f, 2:309fshell structure 2:302, 2:303fSilurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:185-186South-east Asia 1:173 f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306/,

2:309, 2:309fstratigraphic ranges 2:304*trace fossils 4:158, 4:158fTriassic 3:349/", 3:350

classificationAnomalodesmata 2:376*Cryptodonts 2:376*general discussion 2:376Heterodonta 2:376*Palaeoheterodonta 2:376*Palaeotaxodonta 2:376*Pteriomorphia 2:376*subclasses 2:376*

ecological structures 1:262*

INDEX 659

fossils (continued)ecology

attachment processes 2:373, 2:375fboring bivalves 2:375, 2:375fburrowing bivalves 2:372, 2:374fbyssate attachment 2:373-374cemented attachment 2:375free living bivalves 2:375, 2:375fgeneral discussion 2:372swimming bivalves 2:373-374,

2:377-378Eopecten 4:141, 4:141fevolutionary history 2:377, 2:377ffamily diversity 2:377fgeneral discussion 2:369Inoceramus 4:3 84fJurassic 3:356-357life habits 4:141fmorphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375fpalaeoautecology 4:140, 4:141 fpalaeosynecology 4:146f,

4:146-147phylogenetic relationships 2:376predation 4.-145/", 4:145-146,

4:161fpredations 4.-145/", 4:145-146shell morphology

dentition 2:374fgeneral discussion 2:370growth bands 2:370f, 2:37Ifhinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376tinternal structure 2:373fmicrostructures 2:372fmusculature 2:371, 2:373f, 2:376t

soft part anatomy 2:371, 2:373fblack shales 4:497, 4:498fbrachiopods 2:301-310

affinities 2:303classification 2:303, 2:304*, 2:305fCraniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,

2:306fDevonian 4:194ecology 2:303extinction events 2:309, 2:309fgeographic distribution 2:305Jurassic 3:356life styles 2:307fLinguliformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,

2:306fmodern brachiopods 2:310morphology 2:301, 2:301*; 2:302f,

2:304*, 2:305forigins 2:303palaeocommunities 2:307fphylogenetic relationships 2:306fradiation patterns 2:309Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302,

2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f, 2:309fshell structure 2:302, 2:303fSilurian 1:173f, 1:177f, 4:185-186South-east Asia 1:173 f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306f,

2:309, 2:309^stratigraphic ranges 2:304t

bryozoans (Bryozoa) 2:310-320

anatomy 2:310, 2:31 Ifbryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fclassification

Cheilostomes l:274f, 2:315, 2:315*,2:316f, 2:319f

Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f,2:318, 2:319f

Ctenostomes 2:315, 2:315*, 2:319fCyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,

2:319 fCystoporates 2:315*, 2:317/", 2:318,

2:319 fFenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,

2:319 fgeneral discussion 2:314Gymnolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*Phylactolaemata 2:314-315,

2:315*, 2:319fprimary groups 2:315*Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317,

2:317f, 2:319fTrepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,

2:319 fcolonial variations 2:313colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f,

2:313 fcompetition 4:144-145Cretaceous l:272f, 1:274*; 1:274-276Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379end-Permian extinctions 4:220evolution 1:274 ffeeding habits 2:310geological range 2:315*Jurassic l:274f, 1:274-276, 3:356morphology 2:315*nervous system 2:312occurrence 2:318palaeoecology 2:320polymorphism 2:313punctuated equilibrium 1:268-269,

1:271 fradiations 1:272 freproduction 2:312skeletons 2:314

calcareous algae 2:428-436Archaeolithophyllum 2:435fbackground information 2:428calcified cyanobacteria 2:434, 2:435fcarbonate sedimentation 3:524*", 3:529Cayeuxia 2:435fchlorophyta (green algae)

charophyceae 2:433, 2:434fcyclocriniteae 2:433dasycladales 2:432, 2:433fHalimeda 2:432, 2:432fhalimedales 2:432

coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:431fextraction methods 3:471, 3:472fgymnocodiaceae 2:434haptophyta 2:430, 2:431fLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383fPalaeocene 2:433*; 5:462Phanerozoic 2:428, 2:428f

phylloid algae 2:434, 2:435freef environments 2:243, 2:244,

2:428, 2:429frhodophyta (red algae)

corallinales 2:428, 2:429fLithothamnion 2:429fpeyssonneliaceae 2:430, 2:430fPolystrata 2:430fsolenoporaceae 2:429, 2:430fSolenoporella 2:430f

shorelines and shelves 4:506stratigraphic range 2:428f

cephalopods 2:389-396background information 2:389classification

Actinoceratids 2:391f, 2:392background information 2:390Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394fColeoidea 2:392Decabrachia 2:394, 2:395fEndoceratids 2:392Nautiloidea 2:391, 2:391 fNautiloids 2:392, 2:396Octobrachia 2:394, 2:395fOrthoceratids 2:392

Devonian 4:194Jurassic 2:389f, 3:357morphology 2:389, 2:390fstratigraphic ranges 2:389f

classification 4:157condition 4:157conservation techniques 1:373-381

documentation 1:381preventive conservation

collection surveys 1:376, 1:376fenvironmental conditions 1:375environmental monitoring 1:375,

1:3 76 fhandling procedures 1:374importance 1:374integrated pest management 1:376lighting effects 1:375mould 1:376packaging materials 1:374reduced oxygen environments

1:377, l:377frelative humidity 1:375, l:380fstorage 1:374temperature controls 1:375

remedial conservationadhesives 1:379chemical surface cleaning 1:378consolidants 1:379gap fillers 1:379general discussion 1:377mechanical surface cleaning 1:377Moabirdl:376/"

sensitive geological materialfine-grained sediments 1:381pyrite(FeS2) l:377f, 1:381subfossilized bones 1:380, l:380f

surface cleaningabrasive cleaning methods 1:377laser cleaning 1:378, 1:378fsteam cleaning 1:378

660 INDEX

fossils (continued)ultrasonic cleaning 1:378

corals (Cnidarians) 2:321-334anatomy 2:324f, 2:326fCarboniferous 4:212classification 2:324, 2:325fcomparative features 2:332?Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fDevonian 4:198ecology 2:329, 2:331fend-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469glossary information 2:332Jurassic 3:356life cycle 2:322fMiocene 5:482nodular cherts 5:58fOrdovician4:179Palaeocene 5:462palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331 fpalaeoterranes 5:457-458Permian 4:216Phanerozoic 2:323Rugosa

anatomy 2:326fcomparative features 2:332?ecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:328fstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

Scleractiniaanatomy 2:326fCambrian corals 2:327fcomparative features 2:332?ecology 2:329, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324reef-forming corals 2:331 frepresentative corals 2:33Ofstratigraphic ranges 2:325'f

structure 2:327symbioses 4:146Tabulata

comparative features 2:332?ecology 2:330, 2:331fgeneral discussion 2:324representative corals 2:329fstratigraphic ranges 2:325f

taxonomy 2:327Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

Creation science 1:385Crinoidea

anatomy 2:342anoxic environments 2:349ecology 2:348encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fevolutionary history

2:347f, 2:377feeding position 2:348fJurassic 3:358morphology

Aethocrinus moorei 2:346,2:346f

arms 2:343/", 2:344, 2:345fcalyx 2:343/, 2:344

columnal articulations 2:342-344,2:343f

general discussion 2:342Pentacrinites fossilis 2:345f

phylogenetic relationships 2:347fpseudoplanktonic crinoids 2:349stratigraphic distribution 2:347ftaphonomy 2:348taxonomy

Aethocrinea 2:344-345, 2:347fArticulata 2:344-345Camerata 2:344-345, 2-347fCladida 2:344-345, 2:347fDisparida 2:344-345, 2:347fFlexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347fgeneral discussion 2:342, 2:335stratigraphic ranges 2:336f

crustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f, 1:278,3:357

Cuvier, Georges 2:180Darwin, Charles 2:184-187, 3:180definition 4:156dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496

Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,

3:358-359Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiagnostic characteristics 2:490,

2:491f, 2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495Jurassic 3:358, 3:359forigins 2:492Ornithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493Thyreophora 2:493

palaeopathology 4:162, 4:162fphysiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Reptilia 2:490Saurischia

general discussion 2:492f, 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:351f

Triassic 2:492, 2:493/", 3:350, 3:3Slfdisarticulation 4:157early chordates 2:455echinoderms. See echinodermseighteenth century viewpoints 3:172end-Permian extinctions 4:221, 4:221 fevolution

radiationsabiotic causes 1:273, l:273fCretaceous 1:273 fdistorting factors 1:270-271environmental shift 1:271, 1:272fevolutionary novelties

1:274, 1:274 f

general discussion 1:269Jurassic 1:273 fmorphological evolution 1:274f,

1:276, 1:276 fPalaeocene 1:273 fphylogenetic relationships 1:274ftaxic evolution I:274f9 1:276,

1:2 76 ftetrapod radiations 1:273ftriggers 1:269-270

speciationdefinition 1:266fossil record 1:267general discussion 1:266fπηψλετιχ γραδυαλισµ 1:267, λ:268φ,

1:269 f9 1:27 OfPrunum comforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:268,

l:268f,l:271fspecies recognition 1:267

fake fossils 2:169-173amber 2:172Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172chimera 2:170-171creationism 2:172embellishments 2:171, 2:17Ifforgery identification 2:169, 2:169f,

2:173hoaxes

Beringer, Johann 2:169-170PiltdownMan2:170

fish 2:462-468acanthodians 2:465actinopterygians 2:466agnathan diversity 2:462anaspids 2:458, 2:462biodiversity 2:464fblack shales 4:497, 4:498fCarboniferous 4:212coelacanth fishes l:274f, 1:276-278,

2:466Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fDevonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196early development 2:462Eocene 5:469Haikouichthys 1:351jawed fish 2:462jawless fish 2:454-461

agnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462Astraspis 2:457, 2:457fbackground information 2:454Cephalaspis utahensis 2:45 8fconodonts 2:455, 3:440-448Devonian 2:457, 2:458fEriptychius 2:457Errivaspis waynensis 2:458fevolutionary relationships 2:460fgaleaspids 2:458heterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459Ordovician 2:457origins 2:455ostracoderms 2:457, 2:459phylogenetic relationships 2:455,

2:459

INDEX 661

fossils (continued)reconstruction drawings 2:456fSilurian 2:457thelodonts 2:459, 2:459fThelodus macintoshi 2:459fTuberculaspis elyensis 2:458f

Jurassic 3:358lungfishes 2:467Onychodontiformes 2:467osteichthyans 2:466osteolepiforms 2:467osteostracans 2:462Palaeocene 5:463placoderms 2:465, 2:465fradiation patterns 2:463fsarcopterygians 2:467seamounts 4:482sharks 2:229/", 2:463Silurian 4:191teeth 2:462teleosteans 2:466f, 2:466-467tetrapodomorphs 2:469thelodonts 2:459, 2.-459/J 2:462Triassic 3:350

fossil fuels 4:159fossil meteorites 5:235fossil plants 2:436-443

fungiAscomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,

2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f,

2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442glossary information 2:442lichens

fossil lichens 2:441hyphae 2:441-442Nematophytes 2:441Rhynie chert 2:441-442symbiotic relationships 2:441

palaeopathology 4:160fossil record

evolutionary theory 2:163hydrothermal vents 5:394pollen 2:420-422

gastropods (Gastropoda) 2:378-388anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 fBellerophontida 2:381f, 2:385, 2:387characteristics

anatomy 2:378ontogeny 2:379, 2:386fshell morphology 2:379f

classification 2:383, 2:385f, 2:386fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fecological structures l:262tEocene 5:469evolution

Cenozoic 2:387freshwater gastropods 2:387

general discussion 2:385Mesozoic 2:387origins 2:385Palaeozoic 2:386terrestrial gastropods 2:387

Jurassic 3:357Mimospirina 2:381f, 2:385occurrence 2:378Opisthobranchia 2:383-384, 2:385Ordovician 4:179Orthogastropoda

Archaeogastropoda 2:384Caenogastropoda 2:384-385Heterobranchia 2:385Neritimorpha 2:384

Palaeocene 5:463Patellogastropoda 2:380-381, 2:384Permian-Triassic boundary 2:387phylogenetic relationships 2:385fpredation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161fpredations 4:145f, 4:145-146Prosobranchia 2:383-384pteropods 4:646;, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75tPulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385shell

coiling direction 2:380, 2:381,2:382f, 2:384f

colour patterns 2:379/i 2:380,2:383f

general discussion 2:380heterostrophic shells 2:382fhomeostrophic shells 2:382fmorphology 2:379f, 2:381fmuscle scars 2:383operculum 2:380protoconch stage 2:380, 2:382fstructure 2:380, 2:383fteleoconch stage 2:380, 2:382f

symbioses 4:146Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

geological research (1780-1835) 3:176graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:357-367

background information 2:357Climacograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366Dendroidea 2:361, 2:362fDictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f,

2:3 64fDiplograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366Eocephalodiscus 2:357-359Eorhabdopleura 2:357-359evolutionary history 2:357, 2:358f,

2:365, 2:365fgraptoloids 2:3 60f, 2:363fliving colony hypothesis 2:364/", 2:365Monograptus

rhabdosomes 2:361, 2:361fspeciation 2:366, 2:366fstructure 2:361-362, 2:363ftransverse section 2:361 f

morphology 2:358foccurrence 2:363Ordovician index fossils 4:175-184palaeoautecology 4:142, 4:143fParakidograptus acuminatus 4:185periderm structure

bandaging 2:361 fKozlowski's classic interpretation

2:3 60flayered structure 2:360ftransverse section 2:361fultrastructure 2:359

preservation 2:363, 2:363/", 2:364fPseudoclimacograptus 2:364f, 2:365Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363frhabdosomes 2:361sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359fSilurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187fstolon system

dendroids 2:357, 2:359fgeneral discussion 2:357graptoloids 2:360ftuboids 2:357, 2:360f

stratigraphic use 2:366synrhabdosomes 2:361thecae 2:358f

gymnosperms 2:443-454Araucaria mirabilis 2:45OfAraucarioxylon 2:448fArchaeopteris hibernica 2:445fcharacteristics 2:444classification 2:444, 2:444tconifer phylogeny 2:448fCycadeoidea microphylla 2:453fElkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446fgeneral discussion 2:443Ginkgo gardneri 2:452fGlossopteris 2:45Ifmajor groups

Bennettitales 2:453/", 2:453Calamopityales 2:447Callistophytales 2:449Caytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451fCordaitales 2:449Corystospermales 2:452Cycadales 2:448, 2:449fCzekanowskiales 2:451Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452fGlossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fGnetales 2:453Hydraspermales 2:447Lyginopteridales 2:448Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fPeltaspermales 2:452Pentoxylales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

Metasequoia 2:45IfNeuropteris heterophylla 2:447forigins 2:445Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45Ifphylogenetic relationships 2:445fSagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fTrigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449fWalchia piniformis 2:447fXenotheca devonica 2:446fZamites gigas 2:453f

hominids 2:541-545background information 2:541early hominids 2:541, 2:542fHomo erectus 2:542, 2:543f

662 INDEX

fossils (continued)Homo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543fHomo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo sapiens 2:543

human understanding 4:158hydrothermal vents 5:394insects 2:295-300

Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tarthropod relationships 2:297fbiodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:296f,

2:298fCarboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,

2:299f, 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300tcollection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369^Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:381fDevonian 2:296-298, 2:299f,

4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300*Jurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299fPhanerozoic 2:29S/r

Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300ttaxonomy 2:295?Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,

3:350Lagerstatten 3:307-315

concentration depositsgeneral discussion 3:307stratiform deposits 3:307traps 3:308

conservation depositsanoxia 3:311bacteria 3:311decay experiments 3:309, 3:309fgeographic locations 3:310tobrution 3:310, 3:31 Ifpreservation importance 3:308scavengers 3:309soft tissue preservation 3:308soupy substrates 3:310stagnation 3:311stratiform deposits 3:309taphonomy 3:308traps 3:309

definitions 3:307soft tissue mineralisation

apatite 3:312, 3:312fcalcium carbonate 3:313clay minerals 3:313general discussion 3:312Leancholia 3:313fnodules 3:313, 3:314fNotelops3:312f

Offacolus kingi 3:314fpycnodont fish 3:314fpyrite 3:312, 3:313fsilica 3:313temporal trends 3:313

Lystrosaurus 4:227, 4:227fmacroevolution

evolutionary radiations 2:165-166extinction 2:165-166general discussion 2:165tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f

mammals 2:527-534background information 2:527Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiversifications 2:532evolutionary features

brain size 2:530diphyodont dental replacement

2:531general discussion 2:527inner ear cochlea 2:530jaw hinges 2:528mammaliaforms 2:S28fmiddle ear 2:528phylogenetic relationships 2:528f

hominids 2:541-545marsupials 2:528f, 2:533monotremes 2:528f, 2:533placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f

microevolutionallopatric-speciation 2:163, 2:164fgeneral discussion 2:163phyletic gradualism 2:164f,

2:164-165punctuated equilibrium l:271f, 2:164,

2:164fsympatric speciation 2:163-164,

2:164fmicrofossils

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425Cambrian 4:169fclassification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fextraction methods 3:473flanges 3:419f, 3:420late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology 3:419, 3:421foccurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426f, 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469/preservation 3:419processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422freef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f, 4:191

wall types 3:420Apex Chert, Pilbara region, Western

Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369^

biodiversity 1:261biofilms 1:283, l:283fbiomarkers 1:292, 1:293 fbiosediments 1:279-294biosignatures 1:285, 1:2851chemical fossils 1:293chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:428-440

applications 3:434biological affinity 3:432biostratigraphy 3:434carbon isotopic ratios 3:439classification 3:430Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,

3:435fDesmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,

3:435fevolutionary trends 3:434extraction methods 3:473intervesicle adjustments 3:429,

3:430fLagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:43 If,

3:435fMargachitina 3:434morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,

3:436fOperculatifera 3:430palaeobiogeography 3:439palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439fpalynology 3:468Prosomatifera 3:430Pterochitina 3:434Silurian 4:191structure 3:428vesicle linkages 3:43 Of

Coccolithophoridaechalk 4:556, 5:42, 5:43/i 5:44,

5:45/",5:112Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f,

5:74, 5:74/i 5:75*Jurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476

conodonts 3:440-448anatomy 3:441, 3:441f, 3:442fapparatus functions 3:446, 3:447farchitecture 3:443/", 3:446Belodellida 3:446biological affinity 3:445, 3:445fbiostratigraphy 3:447characteristics 2:455cladogram 3:445fClydagnathus 3:442fevolution 3:447extraction methods 3:472Hindeodus parvus 4:219internal structure 3:443, 3:443fmorphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443/",

3:444fOrdovician index fossils 4:175-184

INDEX 663

fossils (continued)Ozarkodinida 3:442-443, 3:446Panderodontida 3:443, 3:446Paraconodonta 3:447preservation 3:441Prioniodinida 3:446Prioniodontida 3:442-443, 3:446Proconodontida 3:446Promissum 3:44IfProtopanderodontida 3:446Silurian 4:185-186soft tissue preservation 3:308South-east Asia l:184fas thermal maturation

index 3:448diatoms

biogenic silica 4:500, 4:556, 5:52deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*extraction methods 3:473forensic geology 2:270-271, 2:272flacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476siliceous sediments 5:35

dinoflagellatesCretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fextraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:462

eukaryotes 4:354-363algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359fArchaean eukaryotes 4:357biomineralization 4:359-360carbonaceous compression 4:357,

4:358,4:360early animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 4:362-363general discussion 4:354heterotrophy 4:360late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4.-361/",

4:3 62 fMesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:3 56f,

4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360Neoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:358Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes

4:356f, 4:357phylogenetic relationships 4:355ftestate amoeba 4:360tree of life 1:203f, 4:365f

filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367'f,4:368

foraminifera 3:448-453allogromids 3:45Ofammodiscana 3:45Ifastrorhizana 3:45Ifastrorhizata 3:45Ifastrorhizids 3:45OfBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction

(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470buliminids 3:45Ofclassification 3:449, 3:450f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:378, 3:378f

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f9 5:75t

Eocene 5:468extraction methods 3:471favusellids 3:450ffusulinids 3:45Ofgeneral discussion 3:448globigerinids 3:45Ofhormosinana 3:45Ifinvoluntinids 3:45OfJurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556lagenids 3:45Oflagynana 3:45Iflituolids 3:450floftusiids 3:45Ofmiliolana 3:451fmiliolata 3:45Ifmiliolids 3:450fnodosariana 3:45Ifnodosariata 3:45IfOligocene 5:473, 5:476Palaeocene 5:462Permian 4:216rank 3:449robertinids 3:45Ofrotaliana 3:45Ifrotaliata 3:45Ifrotaliids 3:45Ofshell morphology 3:451 f, 3:452fsilicoloculinids 3:45Ofspirillinana 3:451fspirillinata 3:451fspirillinids 3:45Oftextulariana 3:45Iftextulariids 3:45Of

fossilization process 1:288geographic distribution l:280f, 1:282geological research (1900-1962)

3:189glossary information 1:294interpretive processes 1:288, 1:292fmicrobial effects

precipitation processes 1:284,l:284t

trapping and binding 1:285microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,

4:223-224, 4:377micropalaeontological techniques

3:470-475nannofossils 3:471, 3:472foldest microfossils 1:291, 1:292fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463

applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454tCretaceous 3:460f, 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures l:262tecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471

geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556life cycle 3:457morphology 3:455, 3:455 f, 3:456f,

3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459fMyodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457,

3:45 8f, 3:460fOrdovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:454f,

3:457, 3:457f, 3:459f, 3:460fQuaternary 3.-460/J 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f9 3:461f,

3:462/, 4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

palynology 3:464-469acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fbackground information 3:464biostratigraphy 3:465carbonization studies 3:469, 3:469fclimate variability 3:465coal seams 3:468-469geological research (1900-1962)

3:189interglacial pollen assemblages

3:467fKnoxisporites stephanephorus

3:464fpalynological zonations 3:468fpeat deposits 3:468-469pollen 3:473pre-Quaternary palynology 3:468Quaternary 3:464spores 3:473vegetation reconstructions 3:466f

prokaryotes 4:363-370biochemical evidence 4:365biogenicity criteria 4:369filamentous microbes 4:367f, 4:368fossil evidence 4:352general discussion 4:354origins 4:3 64fphylogenetic relationships 4:355fsilicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368stromatolites 4:367, 4:367fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366tree of life 4:3 65f

radiolariansallopatric-speciation 2:163biogenic silica 4:500, 5:52Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?extraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:464phyletic gradualism 1:27Of

664 INDEX

fossils (continued]radiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsiliceous sediments 5:35

significance 1:282stromatolites

Archaean stromatolites. SeeArchaean; stromatolites

biosediments 1:285biosignatures l:285tformation processes 1:287f, l:288tinterpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556Permian-Triassic boundary

4:223-224physical properties l:286freef environments 3:524f, 4:565stromatolite-like structures 1:287

tree of life l:203f, 1:279, l:280f,4:124, 4:125f, 4:365f

micropalaeontological techniques3:470-475

extraction methodsacid-insoluble microfossils 3:472acritarchs 3:473calcareous microfossils 3:471calcareous nannofossils 3:471,

3:472fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:473conodonts 3:472diatoms 3:473dinoflagellates 3:473foraminifera 3:471general discussion 3:470organic microfossils 3:473ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:471pollen 3:473radiolarians 3:473siliceous microfossils 3:473spores 3:473

sampling procedures 3:470separation/concentration methods

flotation 3:474magnetic separation 3:474sieving 3:474specimen selection 3:475

Miocene 5:483molluscs 2:367-369. See also

ammonites; bivalves (Bivalvia);cephalopods; gastropods(Gastropoda)

classification 2:367Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fJurassic 3:356life habits 4:141-142morphology 2:367palaeoautecology 4:141-142reproduction 2:368shell morphology 2:367

Ordovician index fossils 4:176palaeoautecology

bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141 fgeneral discussion 4:140graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142,

4:143 f

molluscs 4:141-142trilobites (Trilobita) 4:142

palaeosols 5:206, S:206fpalaeosynecology

Burgess Shale 4:142-143, 4:146competition 4:144example studies 4:146fossil populations 4:143, 4:144fgeneral discussion 4:142organism interactions 4:144predation 4:145, 4:145fsymbioses 4:146

palaeoterranes 5:457-458Pangaea 4:227, 4:227fPermian 4:216porifera (Porifera) 2:408-417

anatomy 2:408, 2:409fbiogenic silica 5:52Cambrian 2:408-417, 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification

Archaeocyatha 2:408,2:416, 2:416f

Calcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414fchaetetids 2:413, 2:416fDemospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412fgeneral discussion 2:408Heteractinida 2:408, 2:413, 2:415fHexactinellida 2:408,2:411,2:413f,

2:414fSclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413,

2:415f, 2:416fstromatoporoids 2:413, 2:415f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:379, 3:380f

environmental settings 2:408hypercalcified sponges 2:412Jurassic 3:356megascleres 2:408, 2:410fmicroscleres 2:408, 2:411 fnodular cherts 5:57fspicules 2:408, 2:41 Of, 2:41 If, 5:57fstructural grades 2:409f

preservation 4:157reptiles (Reptilia) 2:479-490

amniotes 2:479, 2:480farchosauromorphs

crocodiles 2:485general discussion 2:484rhynchosaurs 2:484-485Sphenosuchidae 2:485

background information 2:479Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiapsids

Araeoscelis 2:482-483dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:495general discussion 2:482Lepidosauromorpha 2:483mosasaurs 2:483Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482fsnakes 2:483Sphenodon 2:483Spinoaequalis 2:482-483Squamata 2:483

Younginiforms 2:483eureptiles

captorhinids 2:481, 2:481fprotorothyridids 2:481

marine reptiles 2:502-508Askeptosaurus 2:504Augustasaurus 2:506axial swimmers 2:503Clarazia 2:504Coniasaurus 2:504-505Corosaurus 2:506Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:380, 3:381fCrocodylus porosus 2:504Cyamodus 2:506Dakosaurus 2:504Dermochelys 2:505fDolichosaurus 2:504-505Dyrosaurus 2:504general discussion 2:483, 2:502Geosaurus 2:504Globidens 2:505Henodus 2:506Heschelaria 2:504Hyposaurus 2:504Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2.-503/",

3:358,3:380Jurassic 3:358, 3:3S8fKeichousaurus 2:506Lariosaurus 2:506locomotion mechanisms

2:502-503mesosaurs 2:249, 2:479Mesosaurus 2:503fMetriorhynchus 2:504Mosasauroidea 2:504f, 2:504-505Mosasaurus 2:504-505Neusticosaurus 2:506nothosaurs 2:484Nothosaurus 2:506occurrences 2:502Ophthalmosaurus 2:503-504Paraplacodus 2:506paraxial swimmers 2:505, 2:505fPistosaurus 2:506Placodontia 2:484, 2:506Placodus 2:506Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:5 07f,

3:358Plesiosaurus 2:506Pliosaurus 2:506Psephoderma 2:506Rhomaleosaurus 2:507fSauropterygia 2:484, 2:506Simosaurus 2:506Sphenisciformes 2:507Steneosaurus 2:504Stenopterygius 2:503f, 2:503-504Styxosaurus 2:506Teleorhinus 2:504Thalassiodracon 2:506Thalattosauria 2:504Thalattosuchia 2:504Trinacromerum 2:506-507Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505

INDEX 665

fossils (continued)mesosaurs 2:479parareptiles

millerettids 2:479-481pareiasaurs 2:479-481procolophonids 2:479-481,

2:480ftestudines 2:481

synapsidsbackground information 2:479,

2:485Caseidae 2:485, 2:486fEdaphosauridae 2:487Eothyrididae 2:485Mesozoic 2:527Ophiacodontidae 2:487phylogenetic relationships 2:528fphysical appearance 2:477-478Sphenacodontia 2:488Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487f

therapsids 2:489sandstones 5:27stratigraphic principle 2:221tetrapods 1:263, l:263f, l:264ftrace fossils 5:520-532

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:279brachiopods 4:158, 4:158fburrowing structures 5:520-521,

5:521/, 5:522fchalk 5:44, 5:47fchronostratigraphy 4:164Cnidarians 2:324death mask hypothesis 4:374definition 5:520-521environmental indicators

endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529/",5:53 Of

ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531fichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528finfaunal ecospace 5:529palaeo-oxygenation 5:531

ethologyagrichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fbehaviour variations 5:526fcubichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fdomichnia 5:524, 5:525/~, 5:526felectron acceptors 5:527fethological classification 5:525ffodinichnia 5:524, 5:525ffugichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fgeneral discussion 5:524pascichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fpraedichnia 5:524, 5:525 f, 5:526frepichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f

exogenic trace fossils 5:523, 5:523fichnofabric 5:520-532

definition 5:520-521endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:52 9/",

5:53 Ofichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531fichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, S:S28fichnotaxons 5:521, 5:522finfaunal ecospace 5:529palaeo-oxygenation 5:531

microbial structures 5:52If

predepositional/postdepositional tracefossils 5:523f, 5:524

preservation 5:523, 5:523fprimary trace fossils 5:524producer identification 5:521, 5:522fpseudofossils 4:382secondary trace fossils 5:523f, 5:524shelly fossils 4:373, 4:373ftaxonomy 5:521, 5:522fTreptichnus pedum 4:164, 5:303-304trilobites (Trilobita) 2:279, 2:288Vendian 4:373, 4:374, 4:377-378

trilobites (Trilobita) 2:281-295activities

digging 2:288feeding strategies 2:288swimming 2:288, 2:290fwalking 2:288

anatomical features 2:286, 2:287f,2:290f

background information 2:281biostratigraphy 2:294, 2:294fCambrian

biogeographical distribution4:173 f

first appearance 4:164, 4:171stratigraphic correlation 4:167'f,

4:169 fXystridura templetonensis 4:174f

cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f,2:284f

classificationAgnostida 2:29ItAsaphida 2:29ItCorynexochida 2:291tgeneral discussion 2:291Lichida 2:291*major orders 2:292fPhacopida 2:291*Proetida 2:291*Ptychopariida 2:291*Redlichiida 2:291*

Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 fecdysis 2:286-287enrolled trilobite 2:282fenvironmental settings 2:291exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f9 2:282f,

2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292fextinction 2:281, 2:293geographic distribution 2:291growth stages 2:286, 2:288f, 2:289flimbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288morphology 2:281Mucronaspis 4:1SO~1S1Ordovician 4:176-177, 4:179,

4:181fpalaeoautecology 4:142pygidium 2:282f, 2:283, 2:284frelevance 2:279, 2:288Rochester Shale, New York 4:189Silurian 4:185thorax 2:282f, 2:283visual systems 2:283, 2:285f, 2:286f,

2:290fFoundation Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*

Fouque, Ferdinand 3:184Fourier's law 3:411-412fractures 5:352-361

definition 3:390*, 5:352fluid pressure effects

fluid-induced failure 5:356, 5:357^fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f

folding 5:348, 5:349, 5:350f, 5:351fformation mechanisms 5:354f

general discussion 5:352Griffith criterion of tensile fracture

5:354-355, 5:355fMohr stress circle 5:353f, 5:355f,

5:356, 5:357/Navier-Coulomb criterion 5:353occurrence criteria 5:356shear fractures 5:352, 5:352f, 5:354ftensile fractures 5:354, 5:355f

fracture analysis 5:360fracture networks 5:359, 5:359ffracture sets 5:358plate margin faults 5:360plumose structures 5:361rock properties 1:572, l:573fscale 5:360, S:360fshear fractures 5:352, 5:352f, 5:354fstrain analysis 5:334, 5:335f, 5:336f,

5:349, 5:351fstrength envelopes 5:335-336, 5:336fstress analysis 5:334, 5:334f, 5:335f,

5:338fsurface features 5:361, 5:361 ftensile fractures

formation mechanisms 5:354, 5:355ffracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f,

5:358fgeneral discussion 5:352polygonal arrays 5:358fschematic diagram 5:352f

See also faulting processesframestone 3:527f, 4:562f, 4:562-563,

4:568f, 4:569fFrance

beer brewing process 3:79Campanian-Maastrichtian 3:372Carboniferous 4:201, 4:202fCretaceous 3:361Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:51 Ifgranitic rocks 3:237*Jurassic 3:352, 3:352*marine reptiles 2:502meteorites 5:280Palaeocene 5:459-460Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Pleistocene 5:493Silurian 4:193Variscides Orogeny 2:83fwine geology 3:82

francevillite((Ba,Pb)(U02)(V04)2-5H20)3:589t

Franciscan Complex, California1:243-244

francolite 5:99Franz Josef Land 2:53, 3:344

666 INDEX

Frasnian stagebackground information 4:194biodiversity 4:199fEast European Craton 4:459-460extinction events 4:196, 4:197f9 4:198fish 2:467, 4:196Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana3.-:Z3S/; 3:139International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fjawless fish 2:458-459marine environments 4:197fnon-amniote tetrapods 2:469palaeoclimate 4:196fVariscides Orogeny 2:80fvegetation 4:195

French Guiana 1:311Friasian stage 5:479, S:479ffringing reefs 4:564, 4:568ffrogs

Cenozoicgeneral discussion 2:524Latonia gigantea 2:524Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fRana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525f

Mesozoic 2:521, 2:521fFrontenac terrane 3:158f, 3:159fFroude number 5:548-549Fueguian fold-and-thrust belt 1:159Fuller's earth 1:366-367fumaroles 3:107, 3:628, 3:634Fundamentalism 1:383fungi

Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438, 2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436glossary information 2:442Rhynie chert 2:437,

2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442Furcacauda 2:464fFurnas volcano, Azores 5:575Furongian series 5:511 f, 5:517ffusain 4:134, 4:209fusulinids 3:450/i 4:216fuzzy logic analysis 4:428-429, 4:429f

gabbros 2:98, 3:237*, 3:550gadolinium (Gd) 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:242fGaia hypothesis 3:1-6

background information 3:1concept definition 3:1criticisms 3:2earth system science 1:432geological record 3:4influence 3:5Lovelock, James 3:1

Lovelock's hypothesiscriticisms 3:4Daisy world model 3:3, 3:3fdefinition 3:4four components 3:3

molecular biology 3:1Nisbet's Essay 3:4superorganism concept 3:2

gainesite (Na2Zr2(Be(PO4)4)) 5:121-122Gakkel Ridge 4:456, 4:464f, 4:472f, 4:479,

5:384Galapagos Marine Iguana 2:505Galapagos Ridge

heat flux 5:3 63fhydrothermal vents 5:388, 5:388flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f,

3:316tpropagating rifts 5:397f, 5:397-398seamounts 4:4771

Galapagos Spreading Center 5:411f,5:411-412, 5:416f

Galaxaura 2:434galeaspids 2:458galena (PbS)

carbonatites 3:221tcrystal structure 3:575*, 3:576fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:630*, 5:394*occurrence 3:585tphysical properties 3:577*sulphidation curves 3:582f

Galeras, Colombia 5:575Galice-Brittany Ocean 2:80-82, 2:82fGalicia-Brittany Massif 2:80-82Galilee Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fGallileo spacecraft 5:27Ofgallium (Ga) 3:223*, 5:114tgallobeaudanite 3:508fGalvinian stage 5:473fgamagarite(Ba2(Fe,Mn)(VO4)2(OH)) 3:559*Gamburtsev Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,

1:133 fGanderia 4:83fGander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87fGanges River 4:65It, 5:19tgangue minerals 3:630Ganly, Patrick 3:184Ganymede 5:284, 5:284tGaptank formation, Ouachita Mountains

4:63-65, 4:70Garden of Ediacara 4:379Gariep Belt l:2f, 1:8Garleton Hills 2:96fgarnets

aluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562fcharacteristics 3:561geographic distribution 3:7*granites 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241findustrial minerals 3:496kimberlites 3:254, 3:256*, 3:257fmetamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:399f,

3:400*; 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405mineral analysis l:108t, 1:117fpressure-temperature diagram 3:562fspectral data 1:111 fstaurolite 3:563

thermodynamic diagram 3:562fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535garronite 3:593*garyansellite 5:125-126gas chromatography

gas chromatography-mass spectrometry4:252, 4:254/

kerogen classification 4:278, 4:279foil 4:250, 4:253f

Gascoyne Margin 3:315f, 3:316*gas hydrates 4:261-268

accretionary wedges 5:312, 5:314fAtlantic Margin 4:105, 4:106fbottom-simulating reflection 4:263,

4:264f, 4:266characteristics 4:261continental margins 4:647Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 3:38:distribution 4:263as energy source 4:264gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) 4:262

4:262/, 5:313, 5:314fgeneral discussion 4:261as a geohazard 4:266occurrence 4:262fpalaeoclimate 4:266petroleum reservoirs 4:237*, 4:243stability diagram 4:262fstructure 4:261 f

GASPSee Geotechnical Area Studies

Programme (GASP), Hong Konggastropods (Gastropoda) 2:378-388

anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 fBellerophontida 2:381f, 2:385, 2:387characteristics

anatomy 2:378ontogeny 2:379, 2:386fshell morphology 2:379*"

classification 2:383, 2:385f, 2:386fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fecological structures 1:262tEocene 5:469evolution

Cenozoic 2:387freshwater gastropods 2:387general discussion 2:385Mesozoic 2:387origins 2:385Palaeozoic 2:386terrestrial gastropods 2:387

Jurassic 3:357Mimospirina 2:381f9 2:385occurrence 2:378Opisthobranchia 2:383-384, 2:385Ordovician 4:179Orthogastropoda

Archaeogastropoda 2:384Caenogastropoda 2:384-385Heterobranchia 2:385Neritimorpha 2:384

Palaeocene 5:463Patellogastropoda 2:380-381, 2:384Permian-Triassic boundary 2:387

G

INDEX 667

gastropods (Gastropoda) (continued]phylogenetic relationships 2:385fpredation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 fProsobranchia 2:383-384pteropods 4:646?, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75tPulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385shell

coiling direction 2:380, 2:381, 2:382/",2:384f

colour patterns 2:379f, 2:380, 2:383fgeneral discussion 2:380heterostrophic shells 2:382fhomeostrophic shells 2:3 82 fmorphology 2:379f, 2:381fmuscle scars 2:383operculum 2:380protoconch stage 2:380, 2:382fstructure 2:380, 2:383fteleoconch stage 2:380, 2:382f

symbioses 4:146Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

Gault, Donald 3:195Gauss, K. 3:333-334Gawler Craton l:209f, l:210f, 1:215,

1:239 fGeber 3:500gedrite 3:504-505Geer, Gerard Jacob de 3:62Gegenschein 5:227Gehlingia 4:376, 4:378fGeikie, Archibald 2:214, 3:179Gelasian stage (upper Pliocene) 5:487,

5:487?, 5.-506/; 5:517/gelisols5:196?gemology

fluid inclusions 2:260, 2:260fgemstones 3:6-13

alluvial depositseluvial deposits 3:7, 3:10f, 3:603tmining methods 3:7, 3:9/, 3:10fpanning 3:8, 3:8frubies 3:8ruby deposits 3:9sapphires 3:8tracer gems 3:8

background information 3:6diamonds

Australia l:218f, 1:221Canadian Shield 4:11 f, 4:8-9carbonatites 3:222geochemical exploration 3:22,

3:23f, 3:24fgeographic distribution 3:7tkimberlites 3:247-260, 3:492,

4:8-9, 4:11 f, 4:473lamproites 3:257, 3:259fnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554placer deposits 3:489-490, 3:490fprospecting methods 3:256Russia 4:473shock metamorphic effects 5:183tSouth-east Asia 1.-178/", 1:196ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 5:533/", 5:534f9

5:536-537

uncut diamond 3:258fgarnets

aluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562fcharacteristics 3:561geographic distribution 3:7?granites 3:235?, 3:240-241kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257fmetamorphic facies 3:398/", 3:399f,

3:400f, 3:401f, 3:404, 3:405mineral analysis 1:108?, 1:117fmineral deposit formation 3:496pressure-temperature diagram

3:562fspectral data 1:111 fstaurolite 3:563thermodynamic diagram 3:562fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 5:534-535, 5:535fgeographic distribution 3:7?igneous rocks

extrusive rocks 3:10general discussion 3:10hydrothermal fluids 3:11intrusive rocks 3:10pegmatites 3:11, 3:1 If

metamorphic rocksemeralds 3:12general discussion 3:12rubies 3:12sapphires 3:12

obsidian 3:271, 3:275fproduction analysis 3:6sedimentary rocks 3:13South-east Asia 1:196zircon 3:601-608

aeolian placers 3:603?, 3:604analyses 3:604, 3:605, 3:606beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f9

3:605fchemical composition 3:601, 3:602?gem-quality stones 3:602, 3:603fhafnium (Hf) 3:601mining processes 3:604, 3:607fNarryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607f9 3:607-608occurrence 3:602optical properties 3:602, 3:602?overgrowths 3:608, 3:608fplacer classification 3:603?properties 3:601, 3:601?South-east Asia 1:196structure 3.-601/, 3:601uses 3:604world production 3:604, 3:606?,

3:606fxenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f

varietal names 3:500general circulation models 4:131, 4:135Genesis Rock (Moon) 5:268genetics

Darwin, Charles 2:161deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161,

2:16.2fHox genes 2:166macroevolution 2:165

Mendel, Gregor 2:161microevolution 2:163ribonucleic acid (RNA) 2:161

geoarchaeology 3:14-21aerial photography 3:16analytical techniques 3:20archaeomaterial geochemistry 3:17,

3:18 farchaeoseismology 3:16basic principles 3:14ceramic petrology 3:19, 3:20fcharacterisation studies 3:17Dead Sea Rift 1:33geochronology 3:20geomorphological studies 3:14, 3:15fgeophysical techniques 1:49It, 3:16,

3:17.flithic petrology 3:19magnetic susceptibility 3:16metal production 3:18, 3:19fmineralogical studies 3:18, 3:2Ofpalynology 3:16pottery analyses 3:18f9 3:19, 3:20fsite formation processes 3:14soils and sediments 3:14stable isotope analyses 3:18, 3:19fstratigraphic principles 3:14

geochemical analysis 1:54-76archaeomaterials 3:17, 3:18fbackground information

accuracy analysis 1:55fanalytical protocols 1:55analytical techniques 1:55, 1:56?basic principles 1:54calibration techniques 1:54fdata production 1:54detection limits 1:55precision analysis 1:55f

chromatographic techniquesgas chromatography 1:56?, 1:65?,

1:69, l:69f, 1:7Ofgeneral discussion 1:67ion chromatography 1:56?, 1:68?,

1:69,l:70.fliquid chromatography 1:68?technique description 1:56?, 1:68?

electron microprobe analysis 1:56?, 1:76,1:110

environmental geochemistry 2:21-25acidification 2:23, 2:24fenvironmental restoration

2:23, 2:24?organic contaminants 2:23trace elements

abundance 2:22?bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

hydrogeology 3:618?mass spectroscopy

basic principles 1:71gas chromatography-mass

spectroscopy 1:72, 1:72?, 1:73 f,4:252, 4:254f

668 INDEX

geochemical analysis (continued)inductively coupled plasma-mass

spectroscopy 1:72, l:72tisotope-dilution mass spectroscopy

l:56t, 1:71schematic diagram 1:7Iftechnique description l:56t, l:72tthermal ionization mass spectroscopy

l:72tmiscellaneous techniques 1:56t, 1:76soi\s3:618tspectroscopic techniques

atomic absorption spectroscopy 1:56t,1:64, 1:651, 1:66 f

atomic emission spectroscopy 1:56t,1:64,l:65t

general discussion 1:63inductively coupled plasma-atomic

emission spectroscopy 1:5 6t,1:64, 1:651, 1:67f

infrared spectroscopy l:65t, 1:66technique description 1:5 6t9 l:65tultraviolet spectroscopy 1:5 6t, 1:66

thermal techniquesevolved water analysis 1:56t, 1:73,

l:74tfluid inclusion microthermometry

1:5 6t, 1:75pyrolysis l:56t, 1:73, l:74t, l:75fthermogravimetry 1:5 6t, 1:73, 1:7 4t

vegetation 3:618twater (H2O) 3:618tX-ray techniques

bremsstrahlung 1:57, 1:59 felectromagnetic spectrum 1:59felectron-shell emission 1:57, 1:59f,

l:60fX-ray diffraction

components 1:62 fdiffraction output data l:63f, 1:64fdiffraction process 1:62fforensic geology 2:263-265, 2:267fgeneral discussion 1:61glauconite identification 3:545technique description 1:56t, 1:58t

X-ray fluorescencegeneral discussion 1:60mineral analysis l:109t, 1:114schematic diagram 1:61 ftechnique description 1:56t, 1:58t

X-ray generation process I:59f9 1:109X-ray spectrometry

energy-dispersive technology 1:111,lilllf

general discussion 1:110wavelength-dispersive technology

1:110, l:110fX-ray theory 1:57

geochemical exploration 3:21-29buried deposits 3:23, 3:26fdiamond exploration 3:22, 3:23f, 3:24felemental analysis 3:21environmental geochemical mapping

3:28fregional geochemical surveys 3:27

sample analysis 3:26sediment analysis 3:21, 3:25fsulphide minerals 3:21, 3:26f

geochronology 1:77-91absolute dating techniques

age determination 1:77astronomically calibrated time-scales

applications 1:90, 1:90 fmethodology 1:90

dendrochronology 1:8 8t, 1:91historical background 1:78, l:82tradiometric dating

applications 1:87isotopic properties l:88tmethodology 1:87

age determinationabsolute ages 1:77astronomical calendars 1:77, l:78f,

l:81tgeneral discussion 1:77geological time-scale 1:77, 1:81 fradiometric dating 1:77relative ages 1:77

future directions 1:91glossary information 1:91historical background

absolute ages 1:78, l:82tastronomically calibrated time-scales

1:82-83, l:83fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale l:81f,

l:S2-S3,l:83fmagnetostratigraphy 1:82-83relative ages 1:78

Jurassic 3:353, 3:354frelative dating techniques

age determination 1:77biostratigraphy

applications 1:84, l:86fJurassic 3:353methodology 1:84

chemostratigraphyapplications l:86f, 1:87Jurassic 3:353methodology 1:84

historical background 1:78magnetostratigraphy

apparent polar wander paths 1:85f^4:153, 4:153f

applications 1:84, 1:86 fJurassic 3:353methodology 1:84

stable isotope studies 1:84, 1:86fSee also stratigraphy

geodurability classification chart 1:578fGeographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:420-431applications

earthquakes 4:427environmental quality 4:424exploration tools 4:424, 4:425ffield mapping 4:423, 4:424fgeohazards 4:424landslides 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428tnatural resources 4:424volcanism 4:426

basic principlesdatabase design and quality 4:422general discussion 4:421georeferencing 4:422spatial data representations 4:421,

4:422fvisualisation process 4:422, 4:423f

engineering geology 1:447, 1:476future directions 4:430historical background 4:420Internet applications 4:429software products 4:430, 4:430tspatial analysis tools

general discussion 4:427individual layers 4:427multicriteria evaluation 4:427, 4:428tmultiple layers 4:427, 4:428funcertainty analysis 4:427, 4:429f

geohazards 1:515-524anthropogenic hazards

classification 1:518ground subsidence 1:519f, l:520fground water 1:519sea-level changes 1:519soil loss 1:519urbanization l:522fworld population growth l:521f

background information 1:515definitions 1:516disaster equation l:516fengineering geomorphology 1:474-481floods. See floodsgas hydrates 4:266Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:424hazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, l:522f,

1:523 flandslides 4:687-692

ancient landslides 4:690f, 4:691angle of repose 4:688, 4:692Atlantic Margin 4:94 f, 4:94-95catastrophic floods 4:632classification 4:688, 4:689fcreep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691 fdebris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573,

5:576t, 5:576fdebris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690fearthflows 4:690earthquakes 3:93feconomic losses 4:688, 4:688fengineering geomorphology l:476f,

1:476-478, 1:477fGeographical Information Systems

(GIS) 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428thazard analysis

earthquakes 5:327frequency 1:517thazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523fmortality rates 1:5111, l:518t,

4:688quantification analysis 1:516

lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f

lidar topography 3:93fmitigation methods 4:692

INDEX 669

geohazards (continued)Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691 fmud flows 4:689occurrence 4:687quick clay landslides 4:690rainfall 5:17, 5:19frockfalls 4:689f, 4:689rotational slides 4:689, 4:690fslope stability studies 4:688slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690fsturtzstroms 4:690-691Tadzhikistan l:518ftalus 4:689topples 4:689translational slides 4:689volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576t, 5:576f

mitigation methods 1:518, 1:522natural hazards

classification 1:516hazard frequency 1:517tmitigation methods 1:518mortality rates 1:517t, l:518t

risk assessment 1:519, l:523t, 3:103site investigation 1:522volcanism 3:328, 4:426, 5:572, 5:573,

5:576*geoid 1:92, 1:95, 1:97fgeological conservation 3:29-35

background information 3:29Earth heritage conservation 3:29environmental geology 2:29geodiversity

environmental impacts 3:31geomorphology 3:30-31geotourism 3:30importance 3:30public awareness 3:34soils 3:31

palaeontological techniques 1:373-381documentation 1:381preventive conservation

collection surveys 1:376, 1:37'6fenvironmental conditions 1:375environmental monitoring 1:375,

1:3 76 fhandling procedures 1:374importance 1:374integrated pest management 1:376lighting effects 1:375mould 1:376packaging materials 1:374reduced oxygen environments

1:377, 1:377frelative humidity 1:375, l:380fstorage 1:374temperature controls 1:375

remedial conservationadhesives 1:379chemical surface cleaning 1:378consolidants 1:379gap fillers 1:379general discussion 1:377mechanical surface cleaning 1:377Moabirdl:376/"

sensitive geological material

fine-grained sediments 1:381pyrite(FeS2) 1:377f, 1:381subfossilized bones 1:380, l:380f

surface cleaningabrasive cleaning methods 1:377laser cleaning 1:378, l:378fsteam cleaning 1:378ultrasonic cleaning 1:378

resource management 2:29site management

site assessment 3:31site management techniques 3:33sustainable management 3:33

geological mapsair photographs 1:372applications 3:59basic principles 3:53-59

cross-sections 3:53geological histories 3:59importance 3:53interpretive processes 3:54map scale 3:53quantitative assessments

cross-sections 3:56-57structure contours 3:57trigonometric calculations 3:56f

visual assessmentfault traces 3:56fgeneral discussion 3:54outcropping formations 3:54ftopographic contours 3:55fvalley contours 3:55f

colonial surveys 1:372engineering geological mapping

1:463-474applications l:469tbackground information 1:463data collection 1:469data content 1:467, l:468tdata interpretation 1:472desk study (preliminary sources) 1:472earthquakes

earthquake effects l:460tearthquake motion 1:456fexploration trenches 1:460, l:462tgeological profiles 1:460, 1:4611historical background 1:459mitigation methods l:461tpost-event geological mapping

1:460, l:462tpurpose 1:460trench logging 1:460, l:462t

field mapping 1:472hazard mapping 1:467isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503flarge-scale engineering geology map

1:466 fmap legend information 1:464t,

l:466f,l:470tmap presentation 1:472map scale l:467t, 1:468site investigation 1:473three-dimensional models I:472f9

1:473written reports 1:472

zoning maps 1:467-468environmental geochemical mapping

3:27, 3:28ffield mapping 3:43-52

air photographs 1:372, 3:44base maps 3:44basic principles 3:43boundaries 3:50, 3:51fclothing 3:47equipment

compass/clinometer 3:45, 3:46ffield notebook 3:45hammer and chisel 3:45hand lens 3:45map board/case 3:45mapping pens 3:45miscellaneous equipment 3:46pencils 3:45

exposures 3:50, 3:51ffield evidence 3:49f, 3:50field notebook 3:49/j 3:50formation contacts 3:49f, 3:50Geographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:423, 4:424fhealth/safety issues 3:47mapping process 3:49f9 3:50, 3:5Ifmapping symbols 3:47, 3:48fpreliminary reconnaissance methods

3:47superficial deposits 3:52

geological surveys 3:70geomorphological mapping 1:479,

l:480fhazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, l:522f,

1:523fmap scale l:467t, 1:468, 3:70mid-ocean ridges 5:373, 5:373fmilitary geology 3:483, 3:483f9 3:484f,

3:485f, 3:486fmineral exploration 3:616tSmith, William 1:463, 2:221, 2:223,

3:39, 3:74, 3:173, 5:297surficial deposits 3:92fSee also Geographical Information

Systems (CIS)geological research

See history of geologygeological societies 3:60-64

Geophilists 3:60-61historical background 3:60Irish geological societies 3:63-64nineteenth century geological societies

3:62Geological Society of America

2:195,3:64Geological Society of Australia 3:64Geological Society of India 3:64Geological Society of London

founding event 3:60-61function 3:61historical background 3:61, 3:73-74,

3:476Lyell, Charles 2:208professional organizations 3:75, 3:77tSedgwick, Adam 2:216

670 INDEX

Geological Society of London (continued)Smith, William 2:222-223, 3:173-174Wollaston Medals 3:62women members 3:61

Geological Society of South Africa 2:190,3:64

Geological Survey of Canada 3:68Geological Survey of Great Britain 1:370,

1:373Geological Survey of the Union of South

Africa 2:190geological surveys 3:65-72

associations 3:72Australian Geological Survey 3:68background information 3:65British Geological Survey 3:67colonial surveys 1:370-373

air photographs 1:372British Empire 1:370Directorate of Colonial Geological

Surveys 1:370, 1:371Directorate of Overseas Geological

Surveys 1:373geological maps 1:372Geological Survey of Great Britain

1:370, 1:373historical background 1:370Imperial Institute 1:370Mineral Resources Department 1:370,

1:371overseas geology 1:370

De la Beche, H. T. 3:179funding 3:72geological mapping process 3:70Geological Survey of Canada 3:68Geological Survey of the Union of South

Africa 2:190German Geological Survey 3:68government relationships 3:70Hall, James, Jr. 2:194-200historical background 3:69, 3:179Murchison, Roderick 2:214, 3:476primary activities 3:65resources 3:72size 3:70, 3:71tSociete Geologique de France 2:183survey types

federal geological surveys 3:66t, 3:67national geological surveys 3:66,

3:66t,3:71t, 3:179state geological surveys 3:67, 3:7It

United Kingdom 3:69, 3:173, 3:476United States Geological Survey (USGS)

3:67, 3:69, 4:332See also field mapping; geological maps

geological time-scale 5:503-520astronomically calibrated time-scales

1:82-83,l:83fboundaries 1:8 Ifchronostratigraphy 5:504construction steps

basic principles 5:505general discussion 5:503International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517f

radiometric dating 5:518scaling concepts 5:516fsedimentary cycles 5:516time-scale choices 5:515

data interpolation 5:519as geochronological tool 1:77geological time 5:503geomagnetic polarity time-scale l:81f,

l:83f, 3:331Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:504, 5:506^human time 5:503Jurassic 3:353, 3:354fstatistics 5:519Stratigraphic correlation 5:503

geology as a profession 3:73-78academic education 3:74disciplinary specialties 3:74employment areas

academia 3:75government 3:75industry 3:75-76

historical background 3:73learned societies 3:60, 3:75professional organizations

3:75, 3:77*professional qualification system

academic qualifications 3:73fcodes of ethics 3:73/", 3:76continuing education 3:73fexperience 3:73fgeneral discussion 3:73standards 3:76websites 3:77?

regulations and licensing 3:78geomagnetic storms 5:217geomorphology 3:90-95

catastrophic floodsbackwater effects 4:637fchannel morphology 4:636ferosion surfaces 4:635fflood deposits 4:639f, 4:640fgeneral discussion 4:637ice blocks 4:638fkettle holes 4:638frip-up clast deposits 4:636fstream power 4:635f

definition 3:90engineering geology 1:474-481

applications 1:474background information 1:474investigation methods

general discussion 1:475geomorphological mapping 1:479,

1:480 fgeomorphological models 1:481historical records 1:476, 1:4 76/j

1:477fmeasurement techniques 1:477'f,

1:478terrain analysis 1:478, 1:478f,

l:479tphysical systems 1:474, 1:475f

fluvial geomorphology 4:650-663abrasion analysis 4:655f

braided river systems 4:656f, 4:657f,4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139f

channel networks 4:65Ofchannel patterns 4:656, 4:656f,

4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659fdeserts 4:541f, 4:542downstream fining 4:655fdrainage basins 4:657, 4:660fflood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660fflood frequency 4:653-654, 4:654ffloodplain classification

4:658t, 4:658fflood plains 3:90f, 3:91fgeneral discussion 4:650grain size analysis 4:654, 4:655flandforms 4:654material transfer process 4:651,

4:65It, 4:65 2f, 4:653fmeandering river systems 3:90/j

4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659fnetwork development

eustatic cycles 4:660-661, 4:662fmodels 4:661ftime factors 4:659

petroleum reservoirs 4:23 51sediment transport 4:653f, 4:654fsolute transfer 4:65Itstraight river systems 4:656f, 4:659fstream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

geoarchaeology 3:14, 3:15fgeological research (1835-1900) 3:181geological research (1900-1962) 3:189glacial deposits 3:94mass wasting processes 3:93shorelines and shelves 4:573tectonic terrains 3:93f, 3:94, 3:94fSee also landslides

geomythology 3:96-100classical mythology 3:96, 3:97controversies 3:99examples

dinosaurs 3:98earthquakes 3:97-98flooding 3:98-99fossils 3:98landforms 3:99toxic gases 3:97volcanism 3:97-98

future directions 3:99modern scientific contributions 3:97oral traditions 3:99

Geophilists 3:60-61geophysical techniques

engineering geophysics 1:482-499applications

bedrock depth studies 1:488, l:491t,' 1:493 f

buried objects I:491t9 1:497, l:498fcontainment structures l:491t,

1:495 f, 1:496electromagnetic profiling 1:498ffoundation design 1:489, 1:4911,

1:494 fgeneral discussion 1:487

INDEX 671

geophysical techniques (continued)ground penetrating radar 1:488,

1:491*, 1:493'/", 1:498 fhazard identification 1:491*, 1:493,

1:495 fmilitary applications 1:495-496,

l:496fnon-destructive testing 1:49It,

1:496, l:497tpavement studies 1:488, 1:491*,

1:493 fpipeline investigations 1:490,

1:491*, l:494ftransport infrastructure 1:487,

1:491*, l:492f, 1:493fbackground information 1:482methodology

analytical techniques 1:482, l:483tdata processing and interpretation

1:483, l:484f, 1:485fmodeling techniques 1:482, 1:485f,

l:486ftarget properties 1:482-483, l:483tthree-dimensional (3D) imaging

techniques 1:484, l:486fsurvey design

aliasing l:488fcost-benefit analysis 1:49Ifdetection distance plots 1:487ffeasibility studies 1:489f, 1:490fgeneral discussion 1:484sampling intervals 1:488ftwo-dimensional (2D) modeling

techniques 1:486, 1:489 f,1:490 f

exploration geophysics 3:190geoarchaeology 1:491*, 3:16, 3:17fkarst landscapes 1:491*, 1:493, 1:495fmilitary geology 1:495-496, 1:496fmining geology 1:491*, 3:617, 3:619*,

3:620fpetroleum exploration 4:296sandl:490f9l:494fsite investigations 1:590soils 1:490, 1:49 Itstratigraphy 1:49 ItSee also seismology

georeferencing 4:422Georges Bank 4:101 f, 4:93, 4:93f,

4:94f, 4:96f, 4:98-100,4:103, 4:103f

Georgia 4:471georgiaites 5:445fGeorgia, United States 4:72, 4:73f, 4:7 Sf,

5:444, 5:445*Geosaurus 2:504Geosiphon pyriforme 2:441-442geosol 5:203geosphere

biogeochemical cycles 1:431feedback mechanisms 1:431fluxes 1:431, 1:433 fGaia hypothesis 1:432solar radiation 1:431,

l:432f, 1:433 f

geostrophic cycle 2:201, 2:202 f,5:296-297, 5:542, 5:544, 5:547

geostrophic flow 4:581, 4:582fgeosynclines 3:192-193Geotechnical Area Studies Programme

(GASP), Hong Kong 1:463, 1:464*,1:469

geotechnical engineering 3:100-105basic research areas

foundations 3:103ground improvement 3:103slope stability studies 3:103underground excavation analysis

3:103components 3:101, 3:1 01 fdefinition 3:100ground investigation 3:103hydrogeology 3:104modeling techniques 3:104professional registration 3:38-39risk analysis 3:103rock mechanics 3:101, 3:102*soil mechanics 1:445, 3:101, 3:103*,

3:104*, 5:184-193, 5:558geothermal systems

background information 3:105energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:lllf

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

power installation 3:11 Ofsoffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109*"water temperature variations 3:110fworldwide utilization rates 3:112*

nonvolcanic-related processesBath, England 3:1 13*, 3:113f, 3:114commercial applications 3:116doublet system 3:114fgeneral discussion 3:114geochemical analysis 3:113*geothermal utilization 3:115fheat output 3:1 13*Paris Basin 3:114f9 3:115, 3:1 15 fseafloor activity 3:115spas/thermal baths 3:113f, 3:116,

3:116fvolcanic-related processes

bioherms3:109fumaroles 3:107general discussion 3:106geysers 3:107, 3:107 f, 3:108fhot- water waterfall 3:106fmofettes 3:107sinter 3: 108solfataras 3:107stromatolites 3:109travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f

Geotrichites glaesarius 2:439 fgerhardtite (Cu2NO3(OH)3) 3:556*German Geological Survey 3:68Germany

beer brewing process 3:79, 3:80, 3:80*

Carboniferous 4:202fDevonian 4: 194gemstones 3:7*, 3:13Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:51 Ifgold (Au) 3:123Holocene2:148jawless fish 2:458-459Jurassic 3:352*marine reptiles 2:502, 2:503fOligocene 5:472pterosaurs 2:513-514reptiles (Reptilia) 2:477-478tektites 5:444-445, 5:445*, 5:445fTriassic 3:344wine geology 3:82, 3:83f

Gerrothorax rhaeticus 2:5 19 fgersdorffite ((Ni,Co,Fe)AsS) 3:575*Gesner, Conrad 5:295geysers 3:105-117

chert 5:59East African Rift 1:29 fecology 3:105energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:111 f

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

power installation 3:1 10 fsoffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109fwater temperature variations 3:110fworldwide utilization rates 3:112*

geothermal systems 3:105mineral deposits 3:628, 3:634nonvolcanic-related processes 3:114occurrence 3:105volcanic-related processes 3:106, 3:107,

3:1 07 f, 3:108fGhana 5:443-444Ghazalat Basin 3:129, 3:137fGibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393fGibraltar 2:97, 2:125-126, 3:147, 4:95,

5:481,5:486Gigantocypris 3:453Gilbert, Grove K. 2:196, 3:62, 3:181-182,

3:195Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452fGinkgo biloba 2:451-452Ginkgo gardneri 2:4 52fginorite (Ca^Cbs-S^O) 3:513*gismondine 3:593*Givetian stage

background information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fEast European Craton 4:459-460extinction events 4:197 'fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 Ifimpact events 4: 199-200International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fmarine environments 4:197 fpalaeoclimate 4:196, 4:19 6f

3:lllf

3:111f

672 INDEX

Givetian stage (continued)Variscides Orogeny 2:80fvegetation 4:195

glaciationAgassiz, Louis 1:430, 2:176, 2:177f,

2:209,3:181,4:663,5:493amphibians 2:526Antarctica 1:139Arabia 1:151Australia l:226f, 1:234carbon cycle 1:341, l:342f, l:343fCarboniferous l:226f, 1:234, 4:207,

4:208fChina 1:351Devonian 4:197, 4:199f, 4:208fDu Toit, Alexander 2:190Flood Geology 1:254Gaia hypothesis 3:4geological research (1835-1900) 3:181geological research (1900-1962)

3:189-190glacial deposits

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:642fNorth American continental interior

4:27, 4:28fquick clays 1:562, 1:563fSouth-east Asia 1:172-174, l:178f,

1:182till

characteristics 3:94kimberlite indicator minerals 3:23liquefaction 1:5 28tmineral dispersion 3:21-22, 3:22/",

3:23physical properties l:483tproblematic soils 1:562rudaceous rocks 5:139terminology 4:675

varved clays 1:562, 1:563fglacial/interglacial periods

aeolian systems 4:626, 4:626fAnglian stage 5:496fAveley interglacial stage 5:496fcarbon cycle 1:341, l:342f, l:343fCromerian complex 5:496fDevensian stage 5:496fEast European Craton 4:461Eemian interglacial stage 5:506fFlandrian stage 5:496fGondwana 3:129Gunz stage 5:493Hoxnian stage 5:496fIpswichian stage 5:496fMindel stage 5:493Ordovician 3:129Purfleet interglacial stage 5:496fRiss stage 5:493Siberian craton 4:463Wurm stage 5:493

glacial isostatic adjustment 2:151 f, 5:427glacial stages 5:496fglaciers 4:663-678

Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663t, 4:664,4:664t, 4:664f, 4:665f

background information 4:663

catastrophic floods 4:628-629, 4:631fcharacteristics

deformation mechanisms 4:667,4:667f

glacier flow 4:667, 4:667fmass balance 4:665, 4:666fmorphology 4:664regelation 4:667, 4:668fstructure 4:667, 4:669fthermal regime 4:666, 4:666f

cirque glacier 4:664debris entrainment 4:671, 4:673fdeposition

braided river systems 4:676drumlins 4:676eskers 4:677, 4:677fflutes 4:676, 4:677fglacigenic sediments 4:134, 4:675,

4:675fice-marginal landforms 4:676kames 3:95/", 4:676marine environments 4:677moraines 3:94/", 4:676, 4:677fprocesses 4:671, 4:674fsubglacial landforms 4:676, 4:677fsurficial deposits 3:94

erosionaretes 4:670, 4:672fcirques 4:670, 4:672fcrescentic gouges 4:668-669, 4:670ffjords 4:670, 4:672fhorns 4:670, 4:672ficebergs 4:670-671landforms 4:668, 4:670 f, 4:671fmarine environments 4:670microchannels 4:668-669, 4:670fprocesses 4:668roches moutonnees 4:669-670,

4:671fstriations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671ftunnel valleys 4:670-671

global distribution 4:663, 4:663t,4:664f

Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663t, 4:664,4:664t, 4:664f

ice caps 4:665fice sheets 4:664, 5:473-474Oligocene 5:476-477sea-level effects 4:664tvalley glacier 4:664, 4:666f

Ice Age 5:493-499Last Glacial Maximum 1:140, 4:626f,

4:646Little Ice Age 2:148, 2:148f9 2:153-154,

2:159tMars 5:279Miocene 5:482Mississippian 4:208fMurchison, Roderick 2:215Neoproterozoic 4:358North Africa 1:18northern Cordillera 4:38Oligocene 5:473-474, 5:475,

5:476_477

Ordovician 3:129, 4:180

Pennsylvanian 4:208fPermian 4:208f, 4:216Pleistocene 2:526, 4:131, 4:663Pliocene 5:487t, 5:489solar radiation 5:215supercontinents 4:14fVendian 4:372Wegener, Alfred 2:251Younger Dryas event 2:147, 2:152,

2:159tglaciokarst 4:682, 4:682fGlarus thrust fault 2:130, 2:130f, 2:131f,

2:241, 2:241fglass 3:570Glass Mountain, California, United States

3:270, 3:274fglaucochroite 3:558glauconite 3:542-548

chemical composition 3:549-550chemical indicators 3:543-544, 3:547composition 3:542, 3:542tcondensed sections 3:547ferric illite 3:548formation

appearance 3:543/", 3:545fformation processes 3:543glauconitization 3:543marine environments 1:364verdinization 3:544, 3:545f

ironstones 5:99radiometric dating 3:547sandstones 5:27, 5:69spatial distribution 3:546temporal distribution 3:546transgressive sediments 3:546, 3:547X-ray diffraction identification

techniques 3:545glaucophane 3:397, 3:398f, 3:404,

3:505-506gleization 5:195, 5:196f, 5:198f, 5:204Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:210fGlenelg Zone, Australia 1:242-243, 1:246fglimmerites 3:253Glires 2:539Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs)biostratigraphy 3:434Cambrian chronostratigraphy 4:164Carboniferous 4:201Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:466Eocene 5:466geological time-scale 5:504, 5:506fJurassic 3:352, 3:352;Palaeocene 5:460Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum

5:460Triassic chronostratigraphy 3:345

global tectonics 2:233, 2:238, 5:426global warming/cooling

carbon cycle 1:340Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:466,

5:467^, 5:470, S:470fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383Devonian 4:197, 4:198

INDEX 673

global warming/cooling (continued]end-Permian extinctions 4:222, 4:223fJurassic 3:354mid-Pliocene warming 5:4#7?, 5:489Oligocene 5:473Palaeocene 5:464Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum

5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:206solar radiation 5:215

Globidens 2:505globigerinids 3:45OfGloborotalia bononiensis 5:487Globorotalia crassaformis 5:486-487Globorotalia margaritae 5:486-487Globorotalia menardii 5:77Globorotalia puncticulata 5:486-487Globorotalia sphericomiozea 5:486Globorotalia tumida 5:486Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fGlossopteris

Carboniferous 4:205Gondwana 2:451f, 3:128, 3:142, 4:205Permian 2:451 f, 3:142, 4:217, 4:218fTriassic 2:451fWegener, Alfred 2:249

gmelinite 3:593?gnathostomes 2:455gneiss

Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429,4:10f,4:13f,4:15f, 4:350

definition 3:387, 3:388tgeotechnical properties I:545t9 3:102tgranitic gneiss 3:599Lewisian Gneiss Complex 4:11Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607f, 3:607-608regional metamorphism 3:396f

Gnetales 2:453gobbinsite 3:593?Gobi-Tianshan Belt 1:355goethite (Fe2O3-H2O)

dendrites 4:382, 4:383fgleyed soils 5:195, 5:198fhydrothermal ore deposits S:394tironstones 5:98-99Liesegang banding 4:382, 4:383fphysical properties 4:149>?

Golconda allochthon 4:52gold (Au) 3:118-127

applications 3:118assaying techniques 3:126Australia 1:218 f, 1:221carats 3:118carbonatites 3:223?characteristics 3:118, 3:119fcyanide heap leaching 3:123, 3:125,

3:12Sfeconomic aspects 3:126fineness 3:118geochemistry 3:118hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?,

3:635/i 5:394?mineralogy 3:118, 3:119tmining processes

amalgamation 3:123hard-rock mining 3:123placer deposits 3:489, 3:490fplacer mining 3:123

natural occurrences 3:118, 3:120f,3:553, 3:553?

North American continental interior4:33

oceanic manganese nodular deposits5:114t

ore bodiesArchaean gold-quartz conglomerates

(palaeoplacers) 3:121, 3:121fby-product gold 3:123, 3:492-493Carlin-type gold 3:122epithermal gold 3:122, 3:122fFiji 4:120hydrothermal ore deposits 3:119,

3:119f, 3:120f9 3:630?, 3:635fLihir Island, Papua New Guinea

1:441-442, l:442f, 4:112orogenic lode gold 3:122

ore processing 3:124partitioning behaviour 3:639?Russia 4:456, 4:472/", 4:473troy ounce 3:118weathering processes 3:489world production rates 1:43 8t

Goldich weathering system 5:583fGoldschmidt, Victor 3:187Goma, Congo 5:575?Gonatodus 2:466-467Gondwana 3:128-154

Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Antarctica 1:132-140

Antarctic Peninsula I:133f9 I:134f9

1:137East Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135,

1:136Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica

1:132, I:133f9 I:134f9 1:136geological map 1:134fglaciation 1:139Gondwana disintegration 1:138,

l:138fMarie Byrd Land I:133f9sdsl:134f,

1:137meteorites 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236,

5:23 6f, 5:23 7fpalaeoclimate 1:139Suess, Eduard 2:238, 2:240^supercontinents 1:132, 1:133 fThurston Island I:133f9sdsl:134f,

1:137topography 1:132, l:133fTransantarctic Mountains

Reason Supergrooup 1:135general discussion 1:135geological map 1:134fmafic sills l:136fRoss Orogeny 1:135Theron Mountains l:136ftopography 1:132, l:133f

vegetation 1:136, 1:139

volcanism 1:139West Antarctica

HaagNunataks l:134f, 1:136rift system I:134f9 1:139

Appalachians 4:72Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:148Brazil 1:306-328

cratonsAmazon craton 1:311, 1:311 f,

l:312fgeneral discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields l:238f, l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, l:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:310 f9

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312

glossary information 1:328Neoproterozoic orogenic domains

Aracuai orogenic event 1:313 f9

1:315Araguaia orogenic belt I:314f9

1:319Borborema strike-slip system

I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318general discussion 1:314Mantiqueira orogenic system

I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9

1:320Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318suture zones 1:312fTocantins orogenic system 1:307f,

I:314f9 1:319palaeogeographic reconstruction

1:323 fPhanerozoic sedimentary basins

Amazonas basin 1:316f9 1:317fBarreirinhas basin l:326fCampos basin 1:321 f, l:322fCeara basin 1:325fcontinental margin basins 1:316f9

1:325eastern Brazilian margin basins

l:321f,l:322f, 1:325equatorial margin basins 1:324f,

1:325f, 1:326, l:326fEspirito Santo basin 1:321 f9 1:322fgeneral discussion 1:306, 1:324geographic distribution l:306finterior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:319fPalaeozoic sag basins 1:316f9

I : 3 1 7 f 9 l : 3 1 8 f , 1:324Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin 1:314, I:316fsadI:317f9

I:318f9 I:319f9 I:320f9 1:324Parnaiba basin I:316fasa1:317f,

1:318 fPotiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f,

1:327fReconcavo basin 1:327f

674 INDEX

Gondwana (continued]Santos basin 1:321 f, l:322fSergipe-Alagoas basin l:322fSolimoes basin l:316f, l:317f,

l:318fstratigraphy 1:317f

tectonic processes 1:306, l:306f,1:307f, l:308f

thermotectonic events 1:308ttopography 1:309, 1:309 f

breakup events 1:245, 1:249fCaledonian Orogeny 2:56-63Cambrian

general discussion 3:128, 4:164geological evolution 1:178, 1:18Itpalaeogeographic reconstruction

3:133f,4:170ftectonic processes 3:132fterranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f

Carboniferouscontinent formation 4:204general discussion 3:139geological evolution 1:178, 1:18Itglaciation 4:208fNamurian stage 3:139, 3:141fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:182f, l:184f, 3:140f, 3:141fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPermo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:101fterranes 3:130f

Cenozoicgeological evolution 1:187palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:154terranes l:172f, 3:131f

chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:436, 3:437f,3:439

climatic effects 3:142, 3:143fcontinental stability 1:135cratons 1:238f, l:306fCretaceous

background information 3:360geological evolution 1:18It,,,1:187mid-Cretaceous 3:147palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:188f,3:153f,3:362ftectonic processes 3:362terranes I:170f9 l:172f, 1:175f

definition 4:225Devonian

black shales 3:129Devonian, early 3:129Devonian, late 3:129geological evolution 1:178, l:181tpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:182f, 2:78, 2:79, 3:137f9 3:138fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fsharks 2:463-465terranes I:170f9 1:171, I:172f9asdfl:175f,

3:130fDuToit, Alexander 2:190environmental conditions 4:165Eocene

geological evolution l:181t

marine environments 5:468palaeogeographic reconstruction

I:188f9l:190fterranes 3:13 If

fades 3:128, 3.-133/; 3:139geological map l:238fGondwana breakup event 1:138, 1:1 38f,

3:292Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169,

l:170fGondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80fHercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16f, 2:102,

4:225Ho\ocene3:131fIndian Sub-Continent

classification 3:289, 3:292?definition 3:289Gondwana breakup event 3:292sedimentary basins 3:290

Jurassicgeological evolution 1:18It, 1:186Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?Jurassic, early 3:147Jurassic, end 3:147palaeogeographic reconstruction

I:188f,3:151f93:152fterranes I:170f9aal:172f, l:175f, 3:131f

LaurussiaHercynian Orogeny 2:102Mesozoic 3:129-139Permian 3:139, 3:142Saar-Nahe Basin 2:97Tibetan Plateau 5:420Variscides Orogeny 2:100

mafic sills 1:136fmammalian diversification 2:532mantle convection 3:142, 3:143fMesozoic 3:13IfMiocene

geological evolution 1:18Itpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:192f, 1:193 fterranes 3:13If

Neoproterozoic 1:1, l:2f, 3:130f,4:352-354, 4:353^

New Zealand 4:1-7Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:89Oligocene

geological evolution 1:18Itpalaeogeographic reconstruction

1:191 f, 1:193 fOrdovician

geological evolution 1:178glacial/interglacial periods 3:129glaciation 4:180Ordovician, early 2:78, 3:128Ordovician, late 2:78, 3:129palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:134f,3:135f,4:WLParana basin l:319f, l:320fterranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f

palaeobiogeography 4:205palaeoclimate 4:136palaeogeographic reconstruction

Cambrian 4:83fCarboniferous l:184fDevonian 1:182fOrdovician 4:155f9 4:155-156Tasman Orogenic Belt l:248f,

1:249 fVariscides Orogeny 2:77f

Palaeo-Pacific margin 1:135Pan-African orogeny

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, I:2f9asdl:3f,I:4f9 1:5 f

background information 1:1belt distribution 1:2fcentral Africa 1:10, l:llfDamaraBelt I:2f9 1:7Gariep Belt I:2f9 1:8Gondwana correlations 1:11Kaoko Belt I:2f9 1:9LufilianArcl:2/;i:7, 1:S/"Madagascar 1:6, I:6f9 1:7fMozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,

l:7fnorth-eastern Africa 1:10pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3fRokelide Belt I:2f9 1:10Saldania Belt I:2f9 1:8Trans-Saharan Belt I:2f9 1:9,asl:10fWest Congo Belt I:2f9 1:9Zambezi Belt 1:2/; 1:7, l:8f

Parana basin I:319f9 l:320fPermian

coal 3:142, 3:145fearly Permian 1:182, l:184fgeological evolution I:181t9 1:182Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?late Permian 1:182, 1:184fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

I:184f93:144f93:146fParana basin 1:319f, 1:320fPermian, early 3:142Permian, late 3:142Permo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:101fterranes 1.-J70/; 1:2 72/j

1:175 f93:130fPermo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:96-97Phanerozoic 1:1, 1:222, 1:306, l:308fPliocene 1:193 fRodimal:174fsharks 2:463-465Silurian

early Silurian 3:129geological evolution 1:178palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:78,

3:129, 4:191f9 4:192, 4:192fParana basin 1:319f, l:320ftectonic processes 4:191terranes I:173f93:130f

Suess, Eduard 2:238, 2:240fsupercontinents 4:14/, 5:177-178Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251

background information 1:237cross-sections l:224fdeformation processes 1:242, 1:245f

INDEX 675

Gondwana (continued)Delamerian Orogeny 1:239 f, 1:240,

l:240t, l:241f, 1:245, 1:248ffault traces 1:243f, 1:245f, 1:246fgeochronology 1:244 fgeological map 1:238f, l:239f, 1:241 f,

l:244f, 1:245 fgranite intrusives 1:247f, 1:249fLachlan Orogeny. See Lachlan

Orogenylithofacies 1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243 fmafic rocks 1:243fmagmatism 1:244, 1:247f, 1:249 fmetamorphism 1:242, 1:246 fNew England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240?,

1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247orogenic events 1:240tpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:248f, 1:249 fProterozoic l:223f, l:224f, 1:225-226Ross Orogeny 1:245subprovinces l:240ttectonic evolution

Andean-type mountain building1:250

arc-continent collisions 1:250back-arc basin formation 1:247,

1:248 f, 1:249basin inversion 1:245general discussion 1:244orogenic events 1:245, 1:247,

1:248 f9 1:249, 1:249 fRodinia breakup 1:245volcanism 1:250

Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240?,1:241 f, 1:242

timetable of events 1:223fturbidites 1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f

tectonic processes 1:222, 2:82f, 2:83fterranes

boundaries 5:457fDevonian 5:458fgeneral discussion 5:455palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:130frifting and separation events

Carboniferous-Permian events1:175

general discussion 1:174Jurassic 1:175timeframes 1:17 5 fTriassic 1:175

Tertiary l:170f, l:1Triassic

flora 3:349fgeological evolution 1:181?, 1:184Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?late Triassic l:184fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:184f, 3:148f9 3:149f, 3.-150/,3:346

terranes 1:17Of, I:172f9 I:175f9 3:131fTriassic, early 3:147Triassic, late 3:147Triassic, middle 3:147

trilobites (Trilobita) 2:291, 2:293vegetation 3:348, 3:349fSee also Australia

Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169, l:170fgoniatites 4:212, 4:220gonnardite 3:593?Goochland terrane 3:157fGoodnews terrane 4:40 f, 4:46-47goosecreekite 3:593?Gorda Ridge 5:399fGordon, R. 5:266?Gorgonosteus 2:466gormanite 5:125-126Gorstian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f9 4:189,

5:511f95:517fGosses Bluff impact structure, Australia

3:279f, 3:363?Gothian orogeny 2:41-44Gotland Basin 2:156fGotland, Sweden 4:187fgottardiite 3:593?goudeyite 3:508fGould, Stephen]. 1:278, 3:2gowerite (CaB6O10-5H2O) 3:513?Grabau, Amadeus 2:243, 3:188, 5:542graben

A\ps2:126fCenozoic European Rift System 2:120,

3:653definition 3:351East African Rift 1:27, 1:2 7flake basins 4:558, 4:S60fmid-ocean ridges 5:384-386, 5:386fNorth Sea Central Graben 5:44-46,

5:47, 5:48ocean trenches 5:431/", 5:434-435rift valleys 5:437, 5:439f

Graham, John 3:194Graham, Maria

See Callcott, Maria, Ladygrain flows 5:2grainstone 3:526f9 3:527% 4:586, 5:109f,

5:110, S:lllfgrain whisky 3:82Grampian Orogeny 2:568f,Grampian terrane 2:59Grand Banks, Bahamas 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95,

4:98, 4:101f9 4:102, 4:103fGrand Canyon Dating Project 1:386Grand Coupure event 5:476Grandfather Mountain,

Appalachians 4:73granites 3:233-247

Appalachians 4:78associated rock types 3:237?background information 3:233batholiths

alkali-lime index 3:235fassociated rock types 3:237?Bega Batholith, Australia 3:243fCoastal Batholith, Peru 3:237?, 3:239

Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes3:246

emplacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238fGondwanan margin 1:244, 1:250Idaho Batholith, United States 3:237?,

4:216Moruya Batholith, Australia 3:238fNew Zealand 4:4f, 4:6Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt

2:46Patagonian Batholith, Chile 3:237?Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United

States 3:237?plate tectonics theory 1:440fSierra Nevada Batholith, United States

3:237?, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:55fSouth Mountain Batholith, Canada

3:240-241tectonic setting 3:237?

biotite 3:550carbonatites 3:218tclassification schemes

alkali-lime index 3:235falumina saturation index 3:235?general discussion 3:234oxidation state 3:234-235, 3:235f

composition 3:237?crustal differentiation 3:233, 3:234fdensities 5:321fdykes 3:236-239, 3:237?, 3:238f, 3:240?,

3:244economic deposits 1:440femplacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238f9 3:239, 3:240?formation processes 3:233, 3:234ffractional crystallization 3:242gemstones 3:10geochemical analysis 3:242f9 3:243fgeotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546f9

3:102?Gondwana 3:128graphic granite 1:256, 1:256fisotope analysis 3:244, 3:244fmagmatism time-scales 3:245, 3:246fmetaluminous granites

classification schemes 3:235?composition 3:237?, 3:243/", 3:244formation processes 3:244fmineralogy 3:241tonalites 3:23Sf

mineral deposits 3:492, 3:493^mineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241fmuscovite 3:550New Zealand 4:4f, 4:6occurrence 3:236, 3:237?origins 4:455partial melting 3:234, 3:234/i 3:236,

3:242, 3:242/", 3:245pegmatites 5:124, 5:124fperalkaline granites

classification schemes 3:235?composition 3:237?enclaves 3:240?fractional crystallization 3:246

676 INDEX

granites (continued]melting phases 3:242fmineralogy 3:242

peraluminous granitesclassification schemes 3:235*composition 3:237*cordierite 3:241fenclaves 3:239, 3:240*formation processes 3:244fleucogranites 3:238fmelting phases 3:242f, 3:243-244mineralogy 3:240-241zircon crystals 3:245-246

Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98petrogenic studies 3:242, 3:242fpetrology 3:238fphosphate minerals 5:124, 5:124fphysical properties l:483tpluton formation process 3:246fplutonic shape 3:236pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fquartz (SiO2) 3:571rare earth element plots 3:242fshock metamorphic effects 5:180t,

5:183tSouth-east Asia 1:187'fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:247f, 1:249ftextures 3:240zircon crystals 3:245, 3:245f

Granites-Tanami Complex 1:21 Of, 1:211granitic gneiss 3:599granitization 3:187granodiorites 3:237*granofels 3:387, 3:388tGranton Shrimp Bed, Scotland, United

Kingdom 2:455-456, 3:308, 3:441,3:442f

grantsite ((Na,Ca)(V6O16)4H2O) 3.-5S9*granulite facies

Appalachians 4:74fcomposition 3:404continental collision tectonics 3:404fdefinition 3:387tmineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399*; 3:400f, 3:401fpressure-temperature conditions 3:403fregional metamorphism 3:396/", 4:409f,

4:410,4:413temperature-depth diagram 3:412fvolatile components 3:407f

graphiteSee carbon (C)

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:357-367background information 2:357Climacograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366Dendroidea 2:361, 2:362fDictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f, 2:364fDiplograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366ecological structures l:262tEocephalodiscus 2:357-359Eorhabdopleura 2:357-359evolutionary history 2:357, 2:358f,

2:365, 2:365fgraptoloids 2:360f, 2:363fliving colony hypothesis 2:364f, 2:365

Monograptusrhabdosomes 2:361, 2:361fspeciation 2:366, 2:366fstructure 2:361-362, 2:363ftransverse section 2:3 61 f

morphology 2:358foccurrence 2:363Ordovician index fossils 4:175-184palaeoautecology 4:142, 4:143fParakidograptus acuminatus 4:185Parakidograptus ascensus 4:185periderm structure

bandaging 2:361 fKozlowski's classic interpretation

2:360flayered structure 2:360ftransverse section 2:361fultrastructure 2:359

preservation 2:363, 2:363/", 2:364fPseudoclimacograptus 2:364f, 2:365Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363frhabdosomes 2:361sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359fSilurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187fstolon system

dendroids 2:357, 2:3S9fgeneral discussion 2:357graptoloids 2:360ftuboids 2:357, 2:360f

stratigraphic use 2:366synrhabdosomes 2:361thecae 2:358f

grasshoppers 2:297f, 2:298f, 2:300tgrasslands 5:483gravel, classification systems 4:645f9 4:646tgravel, physical properties l:483tgravity measurements 1:92-107

applicationscrustal spreading centres 1:101,1:101 fdensity contrasts l:99f, 1:99isostasy 1:98, 1:98 flithospheric strength 1:97f, 1:98, 1:98fmagnetic anomalies 1:101, 1:101 fmantle convection 1:97f, 1:98sedimentary basins l:103f, 1:103,

l:104fseismic surveys 1:101-103, l:102fsmall-scale surveys 1:104submarine topography l:96f, 1:97,

1:98 fcorrection measurements 1:95Earth 1:92, l:94fextraterrestrial gravity fields 1:106formulae l:93tgradiometry 1:105, I:105f9 l:106fgravity anomalies

Bouguer gravity anomalyChicxulub crater, Mexico l:105fOuachita Mountains 4:67, 4:68fPennsylvania, United States l:100fUralide orogeny 2:92-94, 2:93f

density contrasts 1:99fFaroe-Shetland Basin, United

Kingdom l:103f, 1:103-104,l:104f

free-air gravity anomalyChicxulub crater, Mexico 1:105fgeneral discussion 1:95mantle convection 1:97fsatellite imagery l:96fsedimentary basins l:103f,

1:103-104, l:104fspreading centres 1:101 fsubmarine topography 1:97, l:98f

general discussion 1:95Hawaii 1:98 fmantle convection 1:97fsatellite imagery l:96f

gravity anomaly map l:96fmeasurement techniques 1:93mineral exploration 3:619*Newton, Isaac 1:92Ouachita Mountains 4:67, 4:68f, 4:69fpetroleum exploration 4:296, 4:299fsatellite applications 1:95, 1:96f

Gray, Francis Calley 2:175Great Artesian Basin 1:242Great Bahama Bank 4:503f, 4:505f, 4:507,

4:508fGreat Barrier Reef, Australia 4:103Great Bombardment 5:270-271Great Dyke 4:95Great Hungarian Plain 2:152Great Lakes 4:21Great Meteor Seamount 3:315f, 3:316*,

5:457Great Oxidation Event 4:351, 4:366Great Red Spot 5:282Great Salt Lake 4:552, 4:553fGreat Sand Dunes, Colorado 4:540-541Great Slave Lake, Canada 4:22fGreat Smoky Group, Appalachians

4:73-74Greece 5:462Green, A. H. 3:476-477greenhouse world 1:206, 1:340,

3:5,4:131Greenland

Archaean cratons 4:16burrowing bivalves 4:224Caledonian Orogeny 2:68, 2:69/", 2:71f,

3:239Eocene 5:466, 5:471extinction events 4:220Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663*, 4:664/",

4:664, 4:664*Holocene2:148Isua Supracrustal rocks, Greenland

4:351,5:39Palaeocene 5:461-462Permian 4:216Permian-Triassic boundary 4:219fphysiography 4:22fPrecambrian crust 4:11Triassic 3:344vegetation 4:224zeolites 3:598

Green Mountains massif 3:157fgreenockite (CdS) 3:575*Greenough, George Bellas 2:222-223, 3:61

INDEX 677

greenschist faciesAppalachians 4:74fcomposition 3:403continental collision tectonics 3:404fdefinition 3:388tmineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401fParis Basin 2:84pressure-temperature conditions 3:403fregional metamorphism 3:396f, 4:409,

4:409f, 4:410, 4:413temperature-depth diagram 3:412fvolatile components 3:407f

greenstone belts l:243f, 3:261, 3:264,4:459f, 5:39

greenstone, definition 3:388tGreererpeton 2:474f, 2:475gregoryite 3:221?, 3:225-226greigite (Fe3S4) 3:574, 3:580fGrenville Front Tectonic Zone 3:162Grenville orogeny 3:155-165

anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG) suite 3:155-156,3:159f, 3:160, 3:161f

Argentina l:156f, 1:161-163Australia 4:352characteristics 3:155geographic distribution 3:155, 3:156f,

3:157f,3:158fLaurentia 3:155, 4:16Northern Appalachians 4:83-84southern Cordillera 4:50tectonic evolution

Appalachian inliers 3:163Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:15'8f,

3:159fFlinton Group 3:159f, 3:160general discussion 3:157Grenville Province 3:158fOttawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162,

3:163 fplate tectonics 3:164, 3:164fpost-Elzevirian activity 3:160post-Ottawan activity 3:159f, 3:162

greywackesaggregates 1:35classification 5:27?, 5:2 8fgeotechnical properties 3:102t

Griesbachian stage 3:345, 3:345fGriffith criterion of tensile fracture

5:354-355, 5:355fGriffith, Richard 3:179Griggs, David 3:189, 3:192grikes 4:680, 4:682fGrimes Graves, England 1:434Groenlandibelus 2:394grospydites 3:253Gross, Hans 2:261grossular (Ca3Al2Si3O12) 3:561Gros Vente Landslide 4:688, 4:689Groth, P. von 3:500-501ground penetrating radar 1:488, 1:49It,

1:493f, l:495f, 1:497, l:498fgroundwater

anthropogenic hazards 1:519

Atlantic Margin 4:105-106, 4:107fbrewing process 3:80chalk beds 5:48composition 3:80tenvironmental geochemistry 2:21-25

acidification 2:23, 2:24fenvironmental restoration 2:23, 2:24?organic contaminants 2:23trace elements

abundance 2:22?bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

environmental geology 2:28fEurope 3:80Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:424ground subsidence 2:11, 2:13landfill monitoring 2:14-21

carbon dioxide formation 2:14,2:15f

dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17,2:19 f

gas formation 2:14, 2:14fgovernment regulation 2:14isotopic analyses

carbon isotope concentrations 2:16,2:17,2:18f

data interpretation 2:17deuterium concentrations 2:16,

2:1792:18fgeneral discussion 2:16oxygen isotope concentrations 2:16,

2:17,2:18fpH2:15, 2.-15/"redox level 2:17, 2:19fseasonal variations 2:19, 2:19fin situ passive sampling 2:17thermal surveys 2:15volatile organic compounds 2:15,

2:15fmeteoric water 3:107phreatic zone 4:684fresource management 2:28, 2:28fsite classification 2:3?site investigation techniques 1:590,

l:591furban geology 5:558vadose zone 4:684fSee also permeability; porosity

Grube Messel, Germany 3:310?, 3:312grunerite 3:504-505Gruner, Johann Samuel 3:476grykes 1:5 SOfGrypania spiralis 4:357Gryphaea 3:356-357Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, United

States 4:216-217Guadalupian series 4:214, 4:215?, 4:219f,

4:221, 4:221 f, 5:511/", 5:517fGuadalupian stage 4:209fGuadelupe Seamount Chain

3:315f93:316tguanine 2:161, 2:162f

guanoclassification 5:26?occurrence 5:35, 5:35fphosphate deposits 5:126

Guatemala 3:7?, 5:445fgudmundite (FeSbS) 3:575?guerinite 3:509?Guerrero superterrane 4:54Guettard, Jean-Etienne 3:172, 3:174,

3:175, 5:542Guinness, A. 3:80Gulf Coast, United States 5:460-461Gulf of Aden 1:17, 1:148, l:149f, l:150f,

5:481-482Gulf of Aqaba 1:17, 1:148Gulf of California 4:48, 4:58Gulf of Guayaquil l:119f, l:121f, 1:131Gulf of Guinea 3:315f, 3:316?Gulf of Maine 4:88-89, 4:93f, 4:96fGulf of Mexico 3:346, 4:22f, 4:23f,

4:52-53, 4:95Gulf of Suez 1:17Gulf Stream 4:644Gunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f, 4:367-368Gunnerus Ridge 3:315f, 3:316?Gunz stage 5:493Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270, 3:27IfGutenberg, Beno 3:192, 3:195Guyana 1:311Guyanas Shield l:306fguyot 4:481, 5:436fGwernfelen Formation 4:186f, 4:188gwihabaite ((NH4,K)NO3) 3:556?Gymnocodium 2:434gymnosperms 2:443-454

Araucaria mirabilis 2:45OfAraucarioxylon 2:448fArchaeopteris hibernica 2:445, 2:445fCarboniferous

biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCalamopityales 2:447Callistophytales 2:449Cordaitales 2:449Cycadales 2:448, 2:449fgeneral discussion 2:446Hydraspermales 2:447Lyginopteridales 2:448Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fVoltziales 2:449

characteristics 2:444classification 2:444, 2:444?conifer phylogeny 2:448fCretaceous

Bennettitales 2:453f, 2:453biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fCzekanowskiales 2:451general discussion 2:446, 3:370Pentoxylales 2:452

Cycadeoidea microphylla 2:453 fdefinition 3:351Devonian

Calamopityales 2:447general discussion 2:445, 4:194Hydraspermales 2:447

678 INDEX

gymnosperms (continued)palaeoecological reconstruction

4:195/Elkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446fgeneral discussion 2:443Ginkgo gardneri 2:452fGlossopteris 2:451fJurassic

biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCorystospermales 2:452Czekanowskiales 2:451Pentoxylales 2:452terrestrial flora 3:359Voltziales 2:449

major groupsBennettitales 2:453, 2:453fCalamopityales 2:447Callistophytales 2:449Caytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451fCordaitales 2:449Corystospermales 2:452Cycadales 2:448, 2:449fCzekanowskiales 2:451Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452fGlossopteridales 2:450, 2:4SlfGnetales 2:453Hydraspermales 2:447Lyginopteridales 2:448Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fPeltaspermales 2:452Pentoxylales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

Mesozoic 2:422-423Metasequoia 2:45IfNeuropteris heterophylla 2:447forigins 2:445Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:451 fPermian

biodiversity 1:262-263,1:263 f

Cordaitales 2:449Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452fGlossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fMedullosales 2:448, 2:449fPeltaspermales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

phylogenetic relationships 2:445fSagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fTriassic

Bennettitales 2:453, 2:453fbiodiversity 1:262-263, l:263fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450Corystospermales 2:452general discussion 2:446Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:4SlfGnetales 2:453Peltaspermales 2:452

Trigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449fWalchia piniformis 2:447fXenotheca devonica 2:446fZamites gigas 2:453f

Gympie belt 1:242, 1:250gypcrete 1:562, 5:588

gypsum 3:572-573classification 5:26?crystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal vents 5:394tkarst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572porosity l:552tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

Gyracanthides 2:464fGzhelian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511f,

5:517f

H

HaagNunataks l:134f, 1:136Hadean

Earth origins 1:427-429, 4:364fmicroorganisms l:280fplanetary comparisons 1:427f

Hadrocodium 2:528f, 2:531-532Hadronector 2:464fHaeckel, Ernst

See Walther, Johanneshaematite (Fe2O3)

Australia 1:218 f, 1:221carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223tgleyed soils 5:195, 5:198fgranites 3:242hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tironstones 5:98-99magnetic properties 4:149tphysical properties 4:149?, 4:149fstability 3:580f

hafnium (Hf)carbonatites 3:223?crustal composition 5:174tgranitic rocks 3:245lava/lava flows 3:224fpartitioning behaviour 3:639tradiometric dating 1:88tzircon 3:601

Hagenowia 2:352fhagfishes 2:455, 2:459Haikouichthys 1:351, 2:455, 2:462Haiti 5:445^Halimeda 2:432, 2:432fhalite (NaCl)

Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80carbonatites 3:221tclassification 5:26tdensities 5:32Ifevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610, 4:610ffluid inclusions 5:97geotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629?karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559fpetroleum geology 4:229-230phase diagram 5:37If

porosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

Halle Volcanic Complex 2:96fHalley, Edmund 3:171-172, 5:224Hall, James, Jr. 2:194-200

Albany laboratory 2:196biographical background 2:195expert testimony 3:40fossil collecting 2:196mountain-building theory 2:198, 2:199f,

3:182New York Survey 2:195personality 2:196photograph 2:196fstate geological survey activities 2:197stratigraphic classification 2:195Vulcanism 3:174

halloysite 1:360?, 1:363, l:363f, 3:631-632Hall's Creek Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:212-213,

1:239 fHalobia 3:350Halycorne 2:433Hamilton, Edwin 3:198Hamiltonichthys 2:463-465Hamilton, Warren 1:402Hangenberg bioevent 4:197, 4:197fHantkenina 5:472-473Haptodus 2:488-489haptophyta 2:430, 2:431fhardgrounds 5:44, 5:48f, 5:49harmotome 3:593?Harnagian substage 4:183 fharzburgite 3:253-254, 3:257fHarz Mountains 2:75, 2.-96/J 2:98hashemite (BaCrO4) 3:533?Hastarian subdivision 4:202fHauer, Franz von 2:234Hauterivian stage

Atlantic Margin 4:104fbolide impact craters 3:363?Brazil 1.-322/", 1:325 fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3.-370/", 3:383f

Haiiy, Rene Juste 3:171, 3:178, 3:500Hawaii

Cretaceous 3:363gravity measurements 1:98fKilauea volcano 3:328, 3:329f, 4:357?Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 1:200?Mauna Loa, Hawaii 1:343f, 1:343-344,

5:575seamounts 3:363zeolites 3:591f

INDEX 679

Hawaiian-Emperor Seamountsbathymetric map 4:479fgravity measurements 1:98flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f.,

3:316tmantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424,

3:335-336, 3:336f, 4:348spatial arrangement 4:476-477

Hawaiian-type volcanoes 5:56#*, 5:570thawleyite (CdS) 3:575*Hawthorne, Frank 5:121haycockite (Cu4Fe5S8) 3:575*, 3:577fHayden, Ferdinand V. 2:196Hayford, John 3:183hazards, site classification of 2:4*, 2:6*Hazen permeability formula 5:186HAZUS (software) 4:427Headonian land mammal age 5:473fHearne craton 4:16, 4:17fheart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355Heathcote blueschists, Australia 1:246fheatwaves 1:5171heazlewoodite (NiS2) 3:575*Hebrew Scriptures 1:253

Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua)1:256

earthquakes 1:256Exodus

Moses Strikes the Stone to ProduceWater 1:256

Plagues 1:255Red Sea crossing 1:255Tablets of Stone 1:256

GenesisAngel with the Flaming Sword 1:253background information 1:253Flood 1:254, 3:170Sodom and Gomorrah 1:255

Hebridean terrane 2:59hechtsbergite (Bi2(VO4)(OH)) 3:589thectorite 1:369hedenbergite 3:567hedyphane 3:508fHeezen, Bruce 3:198Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Heim, Albert 2:238, 2:248, 3:62, 3:182Heinrich events 4:644heinrichite 3:508fHeirtzler, James 3:203Helicoprion 2:465heliosphere 5:214helium (He)

atmospheric concentrations 1:1971,1:198, l:199f

Helium Partial Retention Zone 1:50-51mantle sources 3:228natural occurrences 3:553*solar composition 5:209uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He

dating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127Helium Partial Retention Zone 1:50-51Hellenic Terrane 5:4S8f, 5:458-459Hellenic Trench 4:353f, 5:430*, 5:430f,

5:433Hellenides 2:135-146

Helsby Sandstone, England4:546, 4:547f

Helvetic nappes 2:126f, 2:128f, 2:129,2:131f, 2:134f

hemichordates 2:335Hemingfordian stage 5:478, 5:479fHemipedina 2:352fHemphillian stage 5:478, 5:479fhendersonite (Ca1.3(V6O16)-6H2O) 3:559*Hennig, Willi L-266/; 1:267Henodus 2:506Henslow,John2:184Hercynian Belt, Europe 3:237*Hercynian Orogeny

Arabia 1:151China l:346f, 1:352Gondwana 2:102Mongolia 1:356North Africa l:149l:16fPangaea 4:225See also Variscides Orogeny

herderite 5:121-122, 5:124-125Herodotus 3:168Herrerasaurus 2:492Herschel, John F.W. 2:198Herschel, William. 5:289herzenbergite 3:582fHeschelaria 2:504Hesperian Period 5:279Hesperornis 2:499Hess Deep 5:406fHess, Harry 3:198-199Hess Rise 3:315f, 3:316tHeterocentrotus 2:352f, 2:353fheterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599fheteropolymolybdates 3:551-552heterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459Hettangian stage 3:352*, 3:354f, 5:506f,

5:517fheulandite 3:593*, 3:593-594, 3:594fhewettite (Ca(V6O16)-9H2O) 3:589tHexapods

See insectshexastannite (Cu2Fe2SnS6) 3:575*heyite (Pb5Fe2O4(VO4)2) 3:589tHidaka Metamorphic Belt, Japan

3:240-241hidalgoite 3:508fhighwalls 4:399, 4:401 fHikurangi Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*Hill End Metamorphic Complex l:246fHimalayan Mountains

geology 3:293, 3:294fgranitic rocks 3:237*, 3:239lithotectonic units 3:295Miocene tectonics 1:354, 3:295-296,

5:481Oligocene 5:477Palaeozoic 3:295Pliocene 5:488sedimentation processes 3:295sediment fluxes 5:22, 5:22ftectonic processes 3:295, 5:420, 5:422fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:536f, 5:538, 5:539

Hindeodus parvus 4:219Hippeastrum (Amaryllis) 2:449Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182, 4:191fHirnantian stage 4:183f, 4:187fhistory of geology

creationism 1:381-386Creation science 1:385Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,

2:182,2:224-225Fundamentalism 1:383gap theory 1:383radiometric dating 1:386Scriptural Geology 1:383Seventh Day Adventists 1:384static versus dynamic theories 1:382

Cuvier, Georges 2:179-184Darwin, Charles 2:184-187, 3:180earth system science 1:432geological research (1780-1835)

3:173-179background information 3:173Biblical geology 3:176catastrophism 3:176crystallography 3:178geological controversies 3:174mineralogy 3:178mountain-building processes 3:177Neptunism 3:174palaeoecology 3:175palaeontological reconstructions

3:176petrology 3:178Smith, William 3:173uniformitarianism 3:177, 5:297-298volcanism 3:178Vulcanism 3:174

geological research (1835-1900)3:179-185

Dana, James D. 3:182Earth's age 3:183evolution 3:180geomorphology 3:181glaciation 3:181isostasy 3:182mountain-building theory 3:182,

3:183 fnational geological surveys 3:179petrology 3:184stratigraphy 3:179

geological research (1900-1962)3:185-196

background information 3:185CIPW normative classification 3:186Earth

age determination 3:186internal structure 3:194, 3:194f

economic geology 3:192engineering geology 3:192exploration geophysics 3:190geochemistry 3:187geomorphology 3:189glaciation 3:189-190global views 3:192igneous petrology 3:186, 3:187fimpact craters 3:195, 5:179

680 INDEX

history of geology (continued]International Geophysical Year,

1957-1958 3:196metamorphic petrology 3:187palaeogeography 3:190palaeontology 3:188petroleum geology 3:190radiometric dating 3:186sedimentology 3:188stratigraphy 3:188structural geology 3:189

geological research (post-1962)continental drift theory 3:204East Pacific Rise 3:198, 3:203-204Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203magnetic field reversals 3:202ocean basin exploration 3:197plate tectonics

current research 3:205extraterrestrial planets 3:206general discussion 3:197magnetic anomalies 3:200, 3:201fmilestone research efforts 3:204plate boundries 3:206f

sea floor spreading 3:198transform faults 3:202, 3:203f

geological research (pre-1780)3:167-172

alchemy 3:168ancient studies 3:167Christian viewpoints 3:168, 3:170controversies 3:170Enlightenment 3:170Medieval studies 3:168Renaissance 3:169

Hall, James, Jr. 2:194-200Hutton, James 2:200-206Smith, William 2:221-226See also Biblical geology

histosols 5:196*Hjulstrom-Sundborg diagram 4:588,

4:588fH0' landa 4:83fHoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443, 4:444/",

4:445fHole-in-the-Ground, Oregon 5:571, S:573fHolkerian subdivision 4:202fHolland 2:148, 3:361, 3:372, 4:192-193,

5:506fHolland, Heinrich 3:2hollandite5:lS3*Hollmann, Christian 3:172Holmes, Arthur

convection model 3:193fcrustal deformation processes 1:407-408geological time-scale 5:516fplate tectonics 1:399-400, 3:193, 3:200radiometric dating 1:81-82, 3:186Wollaston Medals 3:62

holmium (Ho) 3:223*, 3:224/", 3:242fHolocene 2:147-160

alluvial environments 4:493background information 2:147Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2:152f, 2:153f,

2:155-159, 2.-156/", 2:159*

climate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159tdating methods 2:147Early Holocene Shield Trap Cave,

Montana, United States 3:308environmental periods 2:159tGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:S06fGondwana 3:131fhuman activity

environmental conservation 2:154environmental effects 2:152historical developments 2:159tindustrialisation effects 2:155, 2:156fNeolithic period 2:152phosphate concentrations 2:156f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

neotectonics 5:425-428active tectonics 5:425definition 5:425glacial isostatic adjustment 5:427global perspective 5:428global tectonics 5:426

North Africa 1:25palynology 3:464-465Pangaea3:131/"sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150f,

2:151f,2:154f,2:155fvegetation 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f, 2:153f,

2:155 fvolcanism 3:657

Homerian Stage 4:186f, 4:187%4:188-189, 5.-511/", 5:517f

hominids 2:541-545background information 2:541early hominids 2:541, 2:542fEast African Rift 1:31Homo erectus 2:542, 2:543fHomo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543fHomo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo sapiens 2:543Pliocene 5:457*, 5:491, 5:491*, 5:492f

Homo erectus 2:542, 2:543fHomo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543f, 5:491tHomo heidelbergensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo (Homininae) 5:486, 5:491Homo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo rudolfensis 5:491tHomo sapiens 2:543Honduras 3:7*Honey Brook upland 3:157fHooke, Robert 3:97Hooper Orogeny l:211f, 1:212hopeite 5:121-122Hopkins, William 2:215Horda platform 5:44IfHorizon (ship) 3:197hormosinana 3:451fhornblende

carbonatites 3:23Ifcharacteristics 3:505chemical variations 3:505fgranites 3:235*, 3:242metamorphic rocks 3:397, 3:398f,

3:401f, 3:403

pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fhornesite 3:508fhornfels l:545t, 3:102t, 3:388t, 3:406,

3:412fhorns 4:670, 4:672fHorseshoe basin 4:96fhorseshoe crabs 2:277f, 2:280Horsford, Eben2:195horsts 5:386f, 5:431f, 5:434-435, 5:437Morton, Robert 3:189hotspots

See mantle plumes (hotspots)hot springs 3:105-117

carbonate sedimentation 3:523fchert 5:59ecology 3:105geothermal systems 3:105mineral deposits 3:628, 3:634nonvolcanic-related processes

Bath, England 3:113t, 3:113f,3:114

commercial applications 3:116doublet system 3:114fgeneral discussion 3:114geochemical analysis 3:113tgeothermal utilization 3:115fheat output 3:113tParis Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115fseafloor activity 3:115spas/thermal baths 3:113f, 3:116,

3:116foccurrence 3:105volcanic-related processes

bioherms 3:109energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:111 f

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

3:lllfpower installation 3:110fsoffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109fwater temperature variations 3:11 Ofworldwide utilization rates 3:112*

general discussion 3:106hot- water waterfall 3:106fsinter 3:108stromatolites 3:109travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f

Houghton, Douglas 2:195Houldjinian land mammal age 5:473fHoward, E. 5:229howardevansite (NaCu(Fe,Al,Mn)2(VO4)3)

3.-5S9*howardites 5:23 Ithowlite (Ca4Si2B10O23-5H2O) 3:512*,

3:513*Howqua blueschists, Australia 1 :246/i

1:249-250Hox genes 2:166Hoxnian stage 5:496fHoyle, Fred 2: 172-1 73Hsandgolian land mammal age 5:473fhsianghualite 3:593*

INDEX 6S1

Huang Ho River 5:19tHuayquerian stage 5:479, 5:479fHubbert, M. King

Hubbert's peak 4:302, 4:305flaboratory techniques 3:188petroleum reserve predictions 4:302,

4:336, 4:336fhubnerite (FeWO4) 3:587, 3:587tHudson Bay, Canada 4:22f, 4:23 fHudson Highlands 3:157fHudsonian Orogeny 4:16Hudson Shelf Valley and Canyon 4:107,

4:93-94, 4:94fhuemulite (Na4Mg(V10O28)-24H2O)

3:589*Huene, Freiderick von 2:170humberstonite

(K3Na7Mg2(N03)2(S04)6.6H20)3:556*

Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fHumboldt, Alexander von 3:171humid tropical zone soils 1:560hummerite (K2Mg2(V10O28) -16H2O)

3:589*hummocky cross-stratification

sediment deposition processes 4:574f,4:576/", 4:578f

storm deposits 4:581-582, 4:582f,4:5 84f, 4:585f, 4:599f

Hungary 2:152, 3:345-346, 5:506fHunsriick Slate, Germany 3:310*,

3:312-313Hunter-Bowen Orogeny 1:242, 1:250hurlbutite 5:124-125Hurley, Patrick 3:204Husid plot 1:505, 1:505fHutton, James 2:200-206

early career 2:200Earth's density 1:92, l:94fgeological investigations 1:257, 2:202geological societies 3:60, 3:73-74geostrophic cycle 2:201, 2:202 f,

5:296-297, 5:542, 5:544, 5:547heat theory 2:204unconformities 2:203, 2:203f, 3:175,

3:175f, 5:542, 5:543funiformitarianism 1:430, 2:205,

5:296-297Vulcanism 3:174See also Old Red Sandstone

Huxley, Thomas Henry 1:295Hydaspis Chaos 5:277, 5:277fHydraspermales 2:447hydroboracite (CaMgB6Oir6H2O) 3:512*,

3:513*hydrocarbons

See natural gas; oil; petroleum geologyHydroconozoa 2:321hydrogen (H)

atmospheric concentrations 1:1971isotopes

dendrochronology 1:391deuterium 2:16, 2:17, 2:18fhydrothermal activity 5:366, 5:366flandfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18f

natural occurrences 3:553*solar composition 5:209solar system occurrences 1:200fterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200*hydrogeology

engineering geology 1:445, 3:38geochemical analysis 3:618*geotechnical engineering 3:104military geology 3:479rift valleys 5:439site classification 2:3*

hydrombobomkulite((Ni,Cu)Al4[(N03)2,(S04)](OH)i2-12-14H2O) 3:556*

Hydrophiidae 2:505hydrosphere 1:43 Ifhydrothermal activity 5:362-372

background information 3:628chlorinity 5:370-371, 5:371*classification 3:192components

fluid sourcescirculation system 5:367fracture/faulting effects 5:367,

5:368fgeochemical thermometers 5:369isotopic ration measurements 5:366,

5:3 66 fmeteoric water line 5:366, 5:366fore deposits-fossil hydrothermal

systems 5:369permeability 5:364/", 5:367, 5:368,

5:3 68 fporosity 5:367, 5:368ftemporal variations 5:364f, 5:368,

5:369,5:370*water/rock chemical reactions 5:369

heat sourcesgeothermal gradient 5:365magmatic heat 5:365serpentinization 5:365

single-pass circulation model 5:362,5:3 64 f

early Earth 1:200-201evaporite deposits 5:95future directions 5:371global distribution 5:363fhydrothermal vents 5:388-395

background information 5:388biological habitats 5:388f, 5:392black smokers

chlorinity 5:3 71 *East Pacific Rise 5:366f, 5:388,

5:3 88 fecology 3:105growth stages 5:392f, 5:393fmineral deposits 3:491, 3:628,

5:388occurrence 3:115, 5:365structure 5:39Of

chimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393fdeposit size 5:390edifices 5:390, 5:390/formation locations

fast-spreading ridges 5:389general discussion 5:389intermediate-spreading ridges 5:389slow-spreading ridges 5:389

fossil record 5:394growth stages 5:391, 5:392f, 5:393fhyperthermophiles 1:202, 4:363-365,

4:365*; 4:365-366mid-ocean ridges 5:373-375mineral deposits 3:491mineralogy 4:363-365, 5:391, 5:394*morphology 5:390, S:393forigin of life 4:128structure 5:390, 5:390fwhite smokers 5:365, 5:390f,

5:390-391metamorphism 3:393nonvolcanic-related processes

Bath, England 3:113t, 3:113f, 3:114commercial applications 3:116doublet system 3:114fgeneral discussion 3:114geochemical analysis 3:113tgeothermal utilization 3:115fheat output 3ill3tParis Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115fseafloor activity 3:115spas/thermal baths 3:113f,3:116,

3:116fore bodies 3:628-637

alteration products 3:631epithermal deposits 3:634fluid sources

general discussion 3:632geothermal gradient 3:635, 3:636fmagma-heated waters 3:634, 3:635fmagma-hydrothermal fluids 3:632,

3:633fgangue minerals 3:630gemstone deposits 3:11gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,

3:630*, 3:635fhydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629*hydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630*,

3:630f, 3:631f, 5:388porphyry ore deposits 3:633f, 5:369stratiform ores 3:634

sodium chloride (NaCl)/water (H2O)phase diagram 5:37If

submarine environments 5:362,5:370-371,5:371*

terrestrial environmentsgeneral discussion 5:362heat flux 5:3 63*two-phase flow 5:370

two-phase flow 5:369, 5:370fvolcanic-related processes

bioherms3:109energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:111 f

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

3:lllfpower installation 3:110f

6S2 INDEX

hydrothermal activity (continued)soffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109fwater temperature variations

3:110fworldwide utilization rates 3:112t

fumaroles 3:107, 3:628, 3:634general discussion 3:106geysers 3:107, 3:107f, 3:108f, 3:628,

3:634hot springs 3:106, 3:628, 3:634hot-water waterfall 3:106fmofettes 3:107mud pots 3:628, 3:634sinter 3:108, 3:628solfataras 3:107stromatolites 3:109travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f,

3:628zeolites 3:404, 3:591, 3:591f, 3:599

hydroxylapatite 5:123hydroxylherderite 5:121-122, S:122fHydrozoa

anatomy 2:321 fclassification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:322

Hylonomus 2:481-482Hymenoptera

See insectsHynerpeton 2:472, 2:472fHyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f, 4:468hyperpycnal oceanic flows 4:582-583,

4:644hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t, 4:438fhypersthene 3:404hyperthermophiles 1:202, 4:124-125,

4:363-365, 4:365f, 4:365-366hyphae 2:441-442Hyposaurus 2:504Hypsilophodon 2:493f

I

lanthasaurus 2:488lapetognathus fluctivagus 4:176lapetus Ocean

Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64,2:65f, 2:67

Cambrian 4:17OfDevonian 2:78, 2:79East European Craton 4:458-459Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:83fOrdovician 4:182, 4:1 S2/"

Ordovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,4:155/j 4:155-156

Precambrian 4:3 53 fSilurian 2:78, 4:193tectonic evolution 2:73 f

lapetus (Saturn) 5:287t, 5:287f, 5:288lapo formation, South America 3:129Iberia 2:59, 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f, 2:96f,

3:129,4:193,5:466-468

Iberian Massif 2:75, 3:648-649, 3:654,3:654f

Ibexian subdivision 4:177-178Ice Age 2:176, 5:493-499ice bugs 2:300?ice caps 4:665fIceland

Askja volcano 4:3871Eocene 5:466gravity measurements 1:101 fHeimaey volcano 3:330Krafla volcano 5:575Surtsey volcano 4:3871zeolites 3:598, 3:598f

Iceland-Greenland-Scotland Ridge 3:315f,3:316t

Icelandic hotspot 3:337, 3:337f, 5:466Icelandic-type volcanoes 5:568tice, physical properties 1:483tice sheets 4:664, 5:473-474ichnofabric 5:520-532

chalk 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47fdefinition 5:520-521environmental indicators

endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f,5:530f

ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531fichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528finfaunal ecospace 5:529palaeo-oxygenation 5:531

ichnotaxons 5:521, 5:522fIchthyornis 2:499Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f, 3:358,

3:380Ichthyostega

cladogram 2:47OfDevonian 4:196global distribution 2:472flimbs 2:471fphysical appearance 2:469skeletal material 2:47If

Idaho Batholith, United States 3:237?,4:216

Idaho, United States 4:39-42, 5:480-481idaite (Cu3FeS4) 3:575?, 3:582f, 5:394?Iddings, Joseph 3:186-187igneous processes 3:209-217

Appalachians 4:73, 4:75fdifferentiation processes

assimilation 3:216fractional crystallization 3:215, 3:215fgeneral discussion 3:215glossary information 3:216magma mixing 3:216

lava/lava flows 3:323-330a'a lava 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326f,

5:567-569, 5:571fbackground information 3:323block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571fcarbonatites 3:218tcharacteristics 5:567clays 1:545-546clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326feffusion rate 3:324eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324f

flood basalts 3:328flow speed 3:324flow volume 3:324geotechnical properties 1:544-545,

l:546figneous processes 3:209komatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260eruption characteristics 3:262flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262fgreenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmagnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262f, 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-

Cu-PGE) mineralization 3:266occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f,

3:264fwater content 3:266zirconium content 3:264f

lava domes 3:326lava fountains 3:323magnetization process 4:148-149mid-ocean ridges 5:382-383Moon 5:270natural hazards

general discussion 3:328, 5:573Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328,

3:329fmitigation methods 5:576?Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329

pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,3:326f, 5:567-569, 5:571f

Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98pillow lavas 3:327,3:327f, 5:373-375,

5:382-383, 5:567-569, 5:571fstructure

cooling joints 3:327, 3:328fcrazing 1:546 flava tubes 3:327pipes 1:546 fsubaerial lava 3:325, 3:325f, 3:326funderwater flows 3:326, 3:327f

temperature 3:323Venus 3:232fviscosity 3:323zeolites 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598f

magma transportdiapirism3:213/", 3:214dike injection 3.-213/", 3:214eruptions 3:214general discussion 3:212porous flow 3:213f, 3:214

mantle plumes (hotspots). See mantleplumes (hotspots)

melting processesconduction heating 3:212

INDEX 683

igneous processes (continued)decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:209pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

pyroclastic deposits 4:386-397background information 4:386characteristics

block and ash flows 4:394, 4:394ffall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392tgeneral discussion 4:389ignimbrites 4:388f, 4:391-393,

4:393f, 4:395, 4:397fparticle size 4:3 9Otpyroclastic density currents 4:391,

4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396fpyroclastic types 4:390ttransport mechanisms 4:394,

4:396f, 4:397feruption plumes 4:388, 4:388f, 4:389fexplosive eruption characteristics

4:386, 4:387t, 4:388f, 4:389generation mechanisms 4:386zeolites 3:597, 3:597f

tectonic processes 3:209See also volcanism

igneous rocksaggregates 1:35andesites

Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:123f, 1:126Andes Mountains 1:128, 1:157explosive eruption characteristics

4:387tgeotechnical properties 1:545tlava/lava flows 3:325, 3:325/", 3:327Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:241 ftridymite 3:571

banded ironstone formations (BIFs) 5:40basalts

Andes Mountains 1:157Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315'f,

3:316?, 5:480geotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546/r,

3:102?komatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260eruption characteristics 3:262Fennoscandian Shield 2:39flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262fgreenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmagnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262f, 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-

Cu-PGE) mineralization 3:266occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f,

3:264fwater content 3:266

zirconium content 3:264flava/lava flows. See lava/lava flowsmagnetization process 4:148-149northern Cordillera 4:36-47oceanic basalts 1:397physical properties l:483tseamounts 4:475sulphide minerals 3:642ftitanomagnetite 4:148-149

carbonatites3:21S?classification 4:453 £

anomalies 4:454differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452lava flows 4:454

dacitesAltiplano-Puna Plateau 1:123 f, 1:126Andes Mountains 1:128, 1:157explosive eruption characteristics

4:387tlava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:325f,

3:327-328Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98sulphide minerals 3:493tridymite 3:571

feldspars 3:536gabbros 2:98, 3:550gemstones

extrusive rocks 3:10general discussion 3:10hydrothermal fluids 3:11intrusive rocks 3:10obsidian 3:271, 3:275^pegmatites 3ill, 3:1 If

geological research (1835-1900) 3:184geotechnical properties 1:544, l:545tgranites 3:233-247

associated rock types 3:237?background information 3:233batholiths

alkali-lime index 3:235fassociated rock types 3:237templacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238fNew Zealand 4:4f, 4:6plate tectonics theory 1:440f

biotite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:550carbonatites 3:218tclassification schemes

alkali-lime index 3:235falumina saturation index 3:235?general discussion 3:234oxidation state 3:234-235, 3:235f

composition 3:237?densities 5:321femplacement mechanisms 3:236enclaves 3:238f, 3:239, 3:240?formation processes 3:233, 3:234ffractional crystallization 3:242gemstones 3:10geochemical analysis 3:242f, 3:243fgeotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546f9

3:102?

graphic granite 1:256, 1:256fisotope analysis 3:244, 3:244fmagmatism time-scales 3:245, 3:246fmineral deposits 3:492, 3:493fmineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241fmuscovite 3:550occurrence 3:236, 3:237?origins 4:455pegmatites 5:124, 5:124fPermo-Carboniferous basins 2:98petrogenic studies 3:242, 3:242fpetrology 3:238fphosphate minerals 5:124, 5:124fphysical properties l:483tplutonic shape 3:236pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fquartz (SiO2) 3:571rare earth element plots 3:242fSouth-east Asia 1:187ftextures 3:240zircon crystals 3:245, 3:245f

igneous petrology 3:186, 3:187fintrusive igneous rocks 3:492, 3:493flarge igneous provinces (LIPs)

3:315-323age dating 3:318composition 3:317continental flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,

3:322Cretaceous 3:363?Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383crustal structure 3:317environmental effects 3:320, 3:320fglobal distribution 3:315f, 3:317mantle dynamics 3:319mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:318,

3:318fmantle roots 3:317mass extinctions 3:321f, 3:322, 3:383occurrence 3:315, 3:316?ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315,

3:318,3:322origins 3:320seamounts 3:316?, 3:318, 3:322subduction zones 3:3 IS/", 3:319,

3:319fsubmarine ridges 3:318, 3:320, 3:322tectonic setting 3:317, 3:317ftime distribution 3:318-319, 3:319ftypes 3:317volcanic passive margins 3:318, 3:320,

3:322volcanism 3:317

lava/lava flows. See lava/lava flowslunar rocks 5:268magmatism time-scales 3:246fmicas 3:550mineral deposits 3:491obsidian 3:267-277

artefactsoccurrences 3:272tracing methods 3:272trade routes 3:276ftransport paths 3:276f

6S4 INDEX

igneous rocks (continued]background information 3:267composition 3:268, 3:269*historical background 3:267occurrences

California 3:270, 3:272f, 3:273f,3:274f

Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f,3:270f

Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270,3:271 f

Newberry Caldera, Oregon, UnitedStates 3:270, 3:271f

Obsidian Cliff, YellowstoneNational Park, Wyoming,United States 3:268, 3:269*

as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:275fpegmatitic crystallization 3:599plagioclase 3:538quartz (SiO2) 3:571rhyolites

Argentina 1:161characteristics 5:567-569explosive eruption characteristics

4:387tlava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:326Mono Craters, California, United

States 3:270, 3:272fPermo-Carboniferous basins 2:98quartz (SiO2) 3:571sulphide minerals 3:493tridymite 3:571

site classification 2:3*stratification 4:454sulphide minerals 3:584trachyte 3:571, 4:387t, 5:567-569,

5:571fweathering l:546fzircon 3:602See also magma; silicate minerals;

volcanismignimbrites

Altiplano-Puna Plateau 1:123 f, 1:126Argentina 1:161characteristics 4:393fgeneral discussion 4:391-393geotechnical properties 1:546-547North German Basin 2:98Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Plinian volcanoes 4:388fradiometric dating 4:202ftopography 4:395, 4:397f

iguanas 2:505Iguanodon 2:493fijolite3:219/; 5:569-571Ilfeld Basin 2:96f, 2:98-99Illinois Basin 4:33fIllinois, United States 4:207-208,

4:211illite

bentonite illitization 5:65cation exchange capacity 1:3 60tcementation 5:143, 5:143tclaystones 5:30crystallinity 5:65

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f,

5:145 fferric illite 3:548formation processes 1:363hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*layer type 1:361, l:361tpotassium-argon (K-Ar) dating 5:69sandstones 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fsharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f, 5:65fsolonization 5:200structure l:360fvine nourishment 3:88

Illyrian stage 3:345filmenite (FeTiO3)

carbonatites 3:221tgranites 3:234-235kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256*magmatic ores 3:641physical properties 4:149fplacer deposits 3:489-490

ilmenorutile (FeTi2O5) 4:149fIlustre Colegio Oficial de Geologos 3:75,

3:77*, 3:78Imandra-Varzuga belt 2:44fimbricate thrust slices 5:432impactites 3:388timpact metamorphism 3:393impact structures 3:277-285

Alamo impact event 4:199Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:98fbackground information 3:277bolide impact craters 3:363*, 3:383,

4:95, 4:98fChicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, 1:105f,

3:283, 3:363*, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,5:453-454

Cretaceous 3:363*, 3:383Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:277, 3:283Devonian 4:199, 4:199fdiscovery rates 3:278feconomic deposits 3:284Eocene 5:467f, 5:468Flynn Creek impact event 4:199global distribution 3:278fimpact craters

Earth 3:195geological research (1900-1962)

3:195shock metamorphism 5:179, 5:182fVenus 5:246, 5:247f, 5:248f

Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,United States 3:279/", 3:571

Moon 3:283, 5:267morphology

complex craters 3:279f, 3:280fgeneral discussion 3:278simple craters 3:279*"

Oligocene 5:473origin of life 4:128planetary evolution 3:283quantity 3:278f

shock metamorphismdiaplectic minerals 3:281-282, 3:282ffused minerals 3:281, 3:281fgeneral discussion 3:280high-pressure polymorphs 3:282impact melting 3:281, 3:281 fplanar microstructures 3:282, 3:282fpressure-temperature diagram 3:280fshatter cones 3:282, 3:282f

Siljan impact event 4:199terrestrial impact record 3:277

Imperial Institute 1:370Inari terrane 2:44finceptisols 5:196*, 5:198f, 5:199, 5:200inclination (magnetic) 3:334incompatible lithophile elements 3:638f,

3:639, 3:639*, 3:640finderborite (CaMgB6OirllH2O) 3:512*,

3:513tinderite (Mg2B6Oir 15H2O) 3:512*, 3:S12fIndia-Australia Rift Zone 3:142-147,

3:146fIndia-East Antarctica-West Australia

Craton 3:128, 3:132fIndian Ocean 3:362fIndian Sub-Continent 3:285-296

background information 3:285Carboniferous glaciation 4:208fCretaceous volcanism 3:383economic geology 3:286Eocene 5:468fault systems 3:292, 3:293fgemstones 3:7*, 3:8, 3:8fgeological map 3:287fGondwana 3:128Gondwana Supergroup

classification 3:289, 3:292*definition 3:289Gondwana breakup event 3:292sedimentary basins 3:290

Indian Shield 1:238f, 3:285, 3:286fIndo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP)

3:285, 3:296large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363*mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:292, 3:293fmeteorites 5:228-229, 5:280mountain-building processes 3:293,

3:294fneotectonics 3:296Oligocene 5:476-477orogenic belts 3:164fPalaeocene 5:462Permian 4:215-216physiographic provinces 3:286fPrecambrian crust

Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:287f,3:288, 3:291*, 3:291^

Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286,3:287f9 3:289f

characteristics 3:285cratonic basins 3:289Dharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f,

3:288t, 3:288fEastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f,

3:289

INDEX 685

Indian Sub-Continent (continued]geological map 3:287frock types 3:29ItSinghbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f,

3:290f,3:291tSouthern Granulite Terrain 3:287f,

3:288, 3:288ftectonostratigraphical zones 3:291t

pterosaurs 2:513-514Quaternary sediment accumulations

3:296Sundarban Delta 3:296Thar Desert 3:296Triassic 3:350, 5:506fzeolites 3:598See also Asia; Himalayan Mountains

indium (In) 3:553;, 3:554Indochina 5:445?, 5:446-447indochinites 5:445/", 5:446-447Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP) 3:285,

3:296Indonesia 3:8, 3:123, 3:344, 4:192-193,

5:445/", 5:445?, 5:446-447Indosinian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348, 1:349 f,

1:352, 1:356Induan stage

chronostratigraphy 3:345fextinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f, 4:224Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 3:345, 5:506f, 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fsea-level variations 3:347fvegetation 3:349f

Indus River 5:19tindustrial minerals 1:434, 1:437, 1:43 8t,

l:438f, 3:489-490, 3:496, 3:510-511infrared wavelengths 4:436Inner Piedmont, Appalachians 4:74,

4:76-77, 4:78-79Inoceramus 3:367-368, 4:384finsecticides 5:128insects 2:295-300

Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300?arthropod relationships 2:297'fbiodiversity 1:263,1:263 f, 2:296f, 2:29 8 fCarboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,

2:299/i 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297 f, 2:300?collection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:3Sl,3:381fDevonian 2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300?Jurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299f

Phanerozoic 2:298fPterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?taxonomy 2:295?Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,

3:350Instant Field of View 4:432-433, 4:433fInstitute of Geologists of Ireland 3:75,

3:77?Insubric Line 2:129, 2:134fInsular Mountains 4:45Integrated Global Observing Strategy

(IGOS) 4:426interdunes 4:541, 4:541fInterior Plains System 4:37, 4:37fIntermontane Plateau System

accretion terranes 4:42economic deposits 4:44evolution 4:44mountain building 4:43

bedrock features 4:39crustal thickness 4:39fphysiography 4:37, 4:37f, 4:45

Intermountain seismic belt 4:60International Association of Geological

Sciences 3:75International Association of

Hydrogeologists 3:75International Commission on Stratigraphy

(ICS) 4:201International Geological Congress 3:64International Geological Correlation

Programme (IGCP) 5:98International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958

3:196International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) 1:448, 1:454International Quaternary Association 3:64International Society of Rock Mechanics

1:452International Society of Soil Mechanics

1:452International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fInternational Union of Geological Sciences

3:64interstratal karst 4:686intrusive igneous rocks 3:492, 3:493finvertebrates 4:179

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425classification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359extraction methods 3:473late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356/", 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419 f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:42If

processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422fwall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426f, 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fpreservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426/", 4:191

ammonites 2:396-407aptychi 2:398, 2:399farchitecture 2:396background information 2:396bathymetry 2:404, 2:405fblack shales 4:497, 4:499fbuoyancy 2:402, 2:403fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380ffeeding habits 2:404growth stages 2:399habitat 2:404, 2:406fhydrostatics/hydrodynamics 2:402,

2:403f, 2:405fJurassic 3:309, 3:352, 3:357longevity 2:399Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

3:3 75 fmigration 2:404morphology 2:396, 2:397forganism reconstruction 2:402, 2:403fphylogenetic relationships 2:398,

2:400fpoise 2:402, 2:403fpost-mortem drift 2:404predators 2:404pyritized fossils l:377f, 3:312septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401sexual dimorphism 2:400-401, 2:401fstability 2:403fsutures 2:398, 2:399/i 2:401

arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-281amber 2:274-275, 2:275fchitin 2:274-275classification 2:276Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367f, 3:368,

3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fDevonian 4:196ecdysis 2:275exoskeletons 2:274-275feeding strategies 2:278flight ability 2:277fossil record 2:276horseshoe crabs 2:277f, 2:280insects 2:295-300

Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?arthropod relationships 2:297fbiodiversity 1:263, l:263f, 2:296f,

2:298fCarboniferous 1:204-206,

2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?

686 INDEX

invertebrates (continued)collection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fDevonian 2:296-298, 2:299f,

4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300*Jurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299fPhanerozoic 2:298fPterygotes 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300*taxonomy 2:295*Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,

3:350morphology 2:274ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463

applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454*Cretaceous 3:460f, 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures 1:262*ecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460/", 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556life cycle 3:457morphology 3:455, 3:455/i 3:456/i

3:457f, 3:45 8f, 3:459fMyodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,

3:458f, 3:460fOrdovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa. See PodocopaQuaternary 3:460f, 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f,

3:462f, 4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

podomeres 2:274, 2:275relevance 2:279reproduction 2:278respiration 2:277Silurian 4:191terrestrialization 2:276-277trace fossils 2:279visual systems 2:279, 2:280f

bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:369-378adaptive radiation 2:377

black shalesfossil assemblages 4:497, 4:498fpaper pectens 4:497

brachiopods 2:301-310affinities 2:303Cambrian 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification 2:303, 2:304*, 2:305fCraniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,

2:306fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fDevonian 4:194ecological structures 1:262*ecology 2:303end-Permian extinctions 4:220extinction events 2:309, 2:309fgeographic distribution 2:305Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182Jurassic 3:356life styles 2:307fLinguliformea 2:301, 2:302f,

2:304*, 2:306^modern brachiopods 2:310morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,

2:304*, 2:305/Ordovician 4:179origins 2:303palaeocommunities 2:307fPermian 4:216phylogenetic relationships 2:306fradiation patterns 2:309Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302,

2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f,2:309^

shell structure 2:302, 2:303fSilurian 1:173f, 1:177f, 4:185-186South-east Asia 1:173 f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306 ,

2:309, 2:309fstratigraphic ranges 2:304*Triassic 3:349 f, 3:350

classificationAnomalodesmata 2:376*Cryptodonts 2:376*general discussion 2:376Heterodonta 2:376*Palaeoheterodonta 2:376*Palaeotaxodonta 2:376*Pteriomorphia 2:376*subclasses 2:376*

ecologyattachment processes 2:373, 2:375fboring bivalves 2:375, 2:375fburrowing bivalves 2:373, 2:374fbyssate attachment 2:373-374cemented attachment 2:375ecological structures 1:262*free living bivalves 2:375, 2:375fgeneral discussion 2:372swimming bivalves 2:375,

2:377-378Eopecten 4:141, 4:141fevolutionary history 2:377, 2:377ffamily diversity 2:377fgeneral discussion 2:369

Inoceramus 4:3 84fJurassic 3:356-357life habits 4:141fmorphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375fpalaeoautecology 4:140, 4:141fpalaeosynecology 4:146f, 4:146-147phylogenetic relationships 2:376predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 fshell morphology

dentition 2:374fgeneral discussion 2:370growth bands 2:370f, 2:371fhinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376*internal structure 2:373fmicrostructures 2:372fmusculature 2:371, 2:373f, 2:376*

soft part anatomy 2:371, 2:373fTriassic 3:349

bryozoans (Bryozoa) 2:310-320anatomy 2:310, 2:31 Ifbryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fCarboniferous 4:212chalk 5:44, 5:45f, 5:46fclassification

Cheilostomes 1:274f9 2:315, 2:315*,2:316f92:319f

Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f,2:318, 2:319f

Ctenostomes 2:315,2:315*, 2:319f

Cyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,2:319f

Cystoporates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,2:319 f

Fenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,2:319f

general discussion 2:314Gymnolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*Phylactolaemata 2:314-315,

2:3151, 2:319fprimary groups 2:315*Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317,

2:317/f,2:319/f

Trepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,2:319 f

colonial variations 2:313colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f,

2:313 fcompetition 4:144-145Cretaceous 1:272f, l:274f, 1:274-276,

3:367, 3:367fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379ecological structures 1:262*end-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469evolution 1:274 ffeeding habits 2:310geological range 2:315*Jurassic l:274f, 1:274-276, 3:356morphology 2:315*nervous system 2:312occurrence 2:318Ordovician 4:179Palaeocene 5:462

INDEX 6S7

invertebrates (continued)palaeoecology 2:320polymorphism 2:313punctuated equilibrium 1:268-269,

1:271 fradiations 1:272 freproduction 2:312skeletons 2:314Triassic 3:349f, 3:350

Carboniferous 4:210cephalopods 2:389-396

background information 2:389classification

Actinoceratids 2:391f, 2:392background information 2:390Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f,

2:394fColeoidea 2:392Decabrachia 2:394, 2:395fEndoceratids 2:392Nautiloidea 2:391, 2:391fNautiloids 2:392, 2:396Octobrachia 2:394, 2:395fOrthoceratids 2:392

Devonian 4:194ecological structures 1:262tJurassic 2:389f, 3:357morphology 2:389, 2:390fSilurian 4:191stratigraphic ranges 2:389f

chitinozoans (Chitinozoa)3:428-440

applicationsbiostratigraphy 3:434palaeobiogeography 3:439palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439f

biological affinity 3:432carbon isotopic ratios 3:439classification

Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,3:435f

Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431/",3:435f

Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431/",3:435f

Operculatifera 3:430Ordovician 3:430Prosomatifera 3:430

evolutionary trends 3:434extraction methods 3:473intervesicle adjustments

3:429, 3:430fMargachitina 3:434morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,

3:436fpalynology 3:468Pterochitina 3:434Silurian 4:191structure 3:428vesicle linkages 3:43 Of

Cnidariansanatomy 2:321, 2:321fAnthozoa

anatomy 2:324fclassification 2:321

life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

Carboniferous 4:212classification

Anthozoa 2:321Ceriantipatharia 2:323-324Hydroconozoa 2:321Hydrozoa 2:321Octocorallia 2:323-324Scyphozoa 2:321Zoantharia 2:323-324

corals 2:321-334anatomy 2:324/", 2:326fclassification 2:324, 2:325fcomparative features 2:332?Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fDevonian 4:198ecology 2:329, 2:331fEocene 5:469Florida-Bahamas shelf region

4:506f, 4:507glossary information 2:332Jurassic 3:356life cycle 2:322fMiocene 5:482north-eastern Atlantic Ocean

4:512f, 4:512-513Ordovician 4:179Palaeocene 5:462palaeoecology 2:329, 2:33IfPhanerozoic 2:323reef environments 4:562Rugosa 2:324, 2:325/", 2:326f,

2:328f, 2:330, 2:331fScleractinia 2:324, 2:325f, 2:326f,

2:327f, 2:329, 2:330f, 2:331f,3:356

structure 2:327symbioses 4:146Tabulata 2:324, 2:325f, 2:329f,

2:330, 2:331ftaxonomy 2:327Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

Hydrozoaanatomy 2:321fclassification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:322

Precambrian 2:321, 2:323fScyphozoa

classification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

crustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f^ 1:278,3:357

diatomsbiogenic silica 4:500, 4:556, 5:52Cretaceous 3:366, 3:366fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75textraction methods 3:473forensic geology 2:270-271, 2:272flacustrine deposits 4:556

Oligocene 5:476siliceous sediments 5:35

dinoflagellatesCretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fextraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:462

echinoderms 2:334-341Ambulararia 2:335Cambrian 4:171characteristics 2:334Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380fCrinoidea 2:342-350

Aethocrinea 2:344-345, 2:347fAethocrinus moorei 2:346, 2:346fanatomy 2:342anoxic environments 2:349arms 2:343/", 2:344, 2:345fArticulata 2:344-345calyx 2:343/i 2:344Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347fCarboniferous 4:212Cladida 2:344-345, 2:347fcolumnal articulations 2:342-344,

2:343fDisparida 2:344-345, 2:347fecological structures l:262tecology 2:348encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fend-Permian extinctions 4:220evolution 2:355, 2:347ffeeding position 2:348fFlexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347fJurassic 3:358morphology 2:342P entacrinites fossilis 2:345fphylogenetic relationships 2:347fpseudoplanktonic crinoids 2:349stratigraphic distribution 2:347ftaphonomy 2:348Triassic 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350

Deuterostoma 2:335Echinodermata

Asteroidea 2:335, 2:336fcarpoids 2:335, 2:336fCrinoidea 2:335, 2:336fEchinoidea 2:335, 2:336fHolothuroidea 2:335, 2:336/~, 2:355Ophiuroidea 2:335, 2:336f

echinoids 2:350-356Arbacioida 2:352/", 2:355, 2:356fburrowing 2:354Cassiduloida 2:355, 2:356fCidaroida 2:351f, 2:355, 2:356fclassification 2:355Clypeasteroida 2:352f, 2:355,

2:356/", 5:469Diadematoida 2:355, 2:356fEchinoida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fEchinothurioida 2:355, 2:356fecological structures 1:262t

688 INDEX

invertebrates (continued)end-Permian extinctions 4:220Eocene 5:469feeding 2:354geological history 2:355heart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355Holasteroida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fHolectypoida 2:355, 2:356flocomotion 2:354morphology 2:350, 2:351f, 2:352,

2:352f9 2:353fpalaeobiology 2:354Pedinoida 2:352f, 2:355phylogenetic relationships 2:355,

2:356fpredation and defence 2:354reproduction 2:355Salenioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356fsand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355sea urchins 2:350skeletons 2:350Spatangoida 2:351f, 2:352f, 2:355,

2:356fstratigraphic ranges 2:356fTemnopleuroida 2:35'2/j 2:355,

2:356fEleutherozoa 2:335geological history 2:335Jurassic 3:358morphological evolution l:276f, 1:278Ordovician 4:179Palaeocene 5:463Pelmatozoa 2:335phylogenetic relationships 2:335,

2:33 6fstereom 2:334, 2:335fstratigraphic ranges 2:336ftaxonomy

asteroids 2:336f, 2:339, 2:340fblastozoans 2:339carpoids 2:337edrioasteroids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339helicoplacoids 2:337holothurians 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340f,

2:341fisophorids 2:338f, 2:339ophiocistioids 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340fophiuroids 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340fstromatocystitids 2:338f, 2:339

end-Permian extinctions 3:348fEocene 5:469foraminifera 3:448-453

allogromids 3:45Ofammodiscana 3:45Ifastrorhizana 3:45Ifastrorhizata 3:45Ifastrorhizids 3:45OfBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction

(BFE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470buliminids 3:45Ofclassification 3:449, 3:45Ofdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f,

5:74, 5:74f, 5:75tEocene 5:468extraction methods 3:471

favusellids 3:450ffusulinids 3:45Ofgeneral discussion 3:448globigerinids 3:45Ofhormosinana 3:451finvoluntinids 3:45OfJurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556lagenids 3:45Oflagynana 3:45Iflituolids 3:45Ofloftusiids 3:45Ofmiliolana 3:451fmiliolata 3:451fmiliolids 3:45Ofnodosariana 3:45Ifnodosariata 3:451fOligocene 5:473, 5:476Palaeocene 5:462Permian 4:216rank 3:449robertinids 3:45Ofrotaliana 3:451frotaliata 3:451frotaliids 3:45Ofshell morphology 3:451f, 3:452fsilicoloculinids 3:45Ofspirillinana 3:45Ifspirillinata 3:45Ifspirillinids 3:45Oftextulariana 3:45Iftextulariids 3:45Of

gastropods (Gastropoda) 2:378-388anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 fBellerophontida 2:381f, 2:385, 2:387characteristics

anatomy 2:378ontogeny 2:379, 2:386fshell morphology 2:379f

classification 2:383, 2:385f, 2:386fCretaceous 3:367, 3:367fecological structures l:262tEocene 5:469evolution

Cenozoic 2:387freshwater gastropods 2:387general discussion 2:385Mesozoic 2:387origins 2:385Palaeozoic 2:386terrestrial gastropods 2:387

Jurassic 3:357Mimospirina 2:381f, 2:385occurrence 2:378Opisthobranchia 2:383-384, 2:385Ordovician 4:179Orthogastropoda

Archaeogastropoda 2:384Caenogastropoda 2:384-385Heterobranchia 2:385Neritimorpha 2:384

Palaeocene 5:463Patellogastropoda 2:380-381, 2:384phylogenetic relationships 2:385fpredation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 f

Prosobranchia 2:383-384pteropods 4:646t, 5:72f9 5:74, 5:75?Pulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385shell

coiling direction 2:380, 2:381,2:382f, 2:384f

colour patterns 2:379f, 2:380,2:383f

general discussion 2:380heterostrophic shells 2:382fhomeostrophic shells 2:382fmorphology 2:379f, 2:381fmuscle scars 2:383operculum 2:380protoconch stage 2:380, 2:382fstructure 2:380, 2:383fteleoconch stage 2:380, 2:382f

symbioses 4:146Triassic 3:348f, 3:350

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:357-367background information 2:357Climacograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366Dendroidea 2:361, 2:362fDictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362/",

2:364fDiplograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366ecological structures l:262tEocephalodiscus 2:357-359Eorhabdopleura 2:357-359evolutionary history 2:357, 2:358f,

2:365, 2:365fgraptoloids 2:360f9 2:363fliving colony hypothesis 2:364f,

2:365Monograptus

rhabdosomes 2:361, 2:361fspeciation 2:366, 2:366fstructure 2:361-362, 2:363ftransverse section 2:361 f

morphology 2:358foccurrence 2:363Ordovician index fossils 4:175-184palaeoautecology 4:142, 4:143fParakidograptus acuminatus 4:185Parakidograptus ascensus 4:185periderm structure

bandaging 2:361 fKozlowski's classic interpretation

2:3 60 flayered structure 2:360ftransverse section 2:361 fultrastructure 2:359

preservation 2:363, 2:363/i 2:364fPseudoclimacograptus 2:364f, 2:365Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363frhabdosomes 2:361sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359fSilurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187fstolon system

dendroids 2:357, 2:359fgeneral discussion 2:357graptoloids 2:360ftuboids 2:357, 2:360f

stratigraphic use 2:366synrhabdosomes 2:361

INDEX 6S9

invertebrates (continued]thecae 2:358f

insects 2:295-300Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tarthropod relationships 2:297fbiodiversity 1:263, l:263f, 2:296f,

2:298fCarboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,

2:299f, 4:210-211classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tcollection methods 2:298Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:3S1/"Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299/",

4:195-196documentation 2:298Eocene 5:469extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298fgeological history 2:296, 2:300?Jurassic 3:358life cycles 2:298fMesozoic 2:296-298occurrences 2:295origins 2:296palaeodiversity 2:297fPermian 2:296-298, 2:299fPhanerozoic 2:298fPterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300ttaxonomy 2:2951Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299fTriassic 2:296-298, 2:298 f, 2:299f,

3:350Miocene 5:482molluscs 2:367-369. See also ammonites;

bivalves (Bivalvia); cephalopods;gastropods (Gastropoda)

classification 2:367Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/~, 3:368,

3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fEocene 5:469Jurassic 3:356life habits 4:141-142morphology 2:367Oligocene 5:476Ordovician 4:179palaeoautecology 4:141-142Palaeocene 5:463reproduction 2:368shell morphology 2:367shorelines and shelves 4:511-512Triassic 3:349, 3:349f

nannofossils 3:471, 3:472fpalaeopathology 4:160porifera (Porifera) 2:408-417

anatomy 2:408, 2:409fbiogenic silica 5:52Cambrian 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification

Archaeocyatha 2:408, 2:416, 2:416fCalcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414fchaetetids 2:413, 2:416f

Demospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412fgeneral discussion 2:408Heteractinida 2:408, 2:413, 2:415fHexactinellida 2:408,2:411,2:413f,

2:414fSclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413,

2:415f, 2:416fstromatoporoids 2:413, 2:415f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:379, 3:380f

environmental settings 2:408hypercalcified sponges 2:412Jurassic 3:356megascleres 2:408, 2:410fmicroscleres 2:408, 2:411 fnodular cherts 5:57fspicules 2:408, 2:41 Of, 2:41 If, 5:57fstructural grades 2:409f

radiolariansallopatric-speciation 2:163biogenic silica 4:500, 5:52Cretaceous 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?extraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:464phyletic gradualism 1:270fradiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsiliceous sediments 5:35

trilobites (Trilobita) 2:279f, 2:281-295activities

digging 2:288feeding strategies 2:278, 2:288swimming 2:288, 2:290fwalking 2:288

anatomical features 2:286, 2:287f,2:290f

background information 2:281biostratigraphy 2:294, 2:294fCambrian

biogeographicaldistribution 4:173 f

first appearance 4:164, 4:171stratigraphic correlation 4:167f,

4:169 fXystridura templetonensis 4:174f

cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f9

2:284fclassification

Agnostida 2:29ItAsaphida 2:291?Corynexochida 2:291tgeneral discussion 2:276, 2:291Lichida 2:291 fmajor orders 2:292fPhacopida 2:291?Proetida 2:291tPtychopariida 2:291?Redlichiida 2:291*

Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 fecdysis 2:286-287ecological structures l:262t

end-Permian extinctions 4:220enrolled trilobite 2:282fenvironmental settings 2:291exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f, 2:282f,

2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292fextinction 2:281, 2:293geographic distribution 2:291growth stages 2:286, 2:288f, 2:289flimbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288morphology 2:281Mucronaspis 4:180-181Ordovician 2:164, 4:176-177, 4:179,

4:181fpalaeoautecology 4:142pygidium 2:282/, 2:283, 2:284frelevance 2:279, 2:288Rochester Shale, New York 4:189Silurian 4:185thorax 2:282f, 2:283Triassic 3:348fvisual systems 2:279, 2:283, 2:285f,

2:286f, 2:290finvoluntinids 3:45Ofinyoite (Ca2B6Oir13H2O) 3:512?, 3:513?lo 5:283, 5:284t, 5:284f, 5:577/i 5:578iodine (I) 3:501?, 3:502?, 3:553?, 3:554Ionian Sea 2:135-146ionosphere 5:217fIowa, United States 2:472Ipswichian stage 5:496fIran 3:7?, 3:344, 4:215-216, 5:462,

5:466-468iranite(Pb10Cu(CrO4)6(SiO4)2(F,OH)2)

3:533?Ireland

beer brewing process 3:78-81Carboniferous 4:211non-amniote tetrapods 2:472Ordovician 4:182Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96fPotato Blight 2:153Precambrian crust 4:11Silurian 4:191-192, 4:192-193zeolites 3:598

irghizites 5:451iridium (Ir)

natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*partitioning behaviour 3:639?world production rates 1:438?

iriginite (UO2(Mo2O7)-3H2O) 3:552?Irish geological societies 3:63-64iron (Fe)

berthierine 3:542?, 5:99carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223?crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174?diagenetic processes 5:145fferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:119, 5:76, 5:77fgeothermal systems 3:113?glauconite 3:542?goethite (Fe2O3-H2O)

dendrites 4:382, 4:383fgleyed soils 5:195, S:198f

690 INDEX

iron (Fe) (continued)hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tironstones 5:98-99Liesegang banding 4:382, 4:383fmagnetic properties 4:1491physical properties 4:149t

haematite (Fe2O3)Australia 1:218f, 1:221carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223tgleyed soils 5:195, 5:198fgranites 3:242hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tironstones 5:98-99magnetic properties 4:149tphysical properties 4:149fstability 3:S80f

hydrothermal fluids 3:629?hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tilmenite (FeTiOs)

carbonatites 3:22Itgranites 3:234-235kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256?magmatic ores 3:641physical properties 4:149fplacer deposits 3:489-490

ilmenorutile (FeTi2O5) 4:149fkimberlites 3:248tlimonite 5:98-99magmatic ores 3:641magnetite (Fe3O4)

carbonatites 3:221thydrothermal ore deposits 3:630thydrothermal vents 5:394tmagmatic ores 3:641physical properties 4:149?, 4:149fstability 3:580f

mineral analysis l:108tnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554nuclide binding energy 1:198, l:198fobsidian 3:269?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tpartitioning behaviour 3:639?pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5) 4:149fpyrrhotite (Fe7S8) 4:149tshock metamorphic effects 5:1#0?,

5:183tsiderite (FeCO3)

carbonatites 3:221tchemical diagenesis 1:394classification 5:26?diagenetic processes 5:145fgrain analysis 5:31ironstones 5:99occurrence 5:108, 5:10St

South-east Asian deposits 1:195ulvospinel (Fe2TiO4) 4:149fVenus 5:247?world production rates 1:438twustite (FeO) 4:149f

ironstones 5:97-107background information 5:97banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:37-42

ancient sedimentary rock associations3:494_495

Archaean 4:351, 5:40background information 5:37banding 5:38, S:38fbanding continuity 5:39classification 5:37definition 5:37economic deposits 1:438-439future research 5:41global distribution 5:39Indian Sub-Continent 3:286, 3:287lithologic associations 5:40metamorphism 5:39mineralogy 5:38nomenclature 5:37occurrence 5:33-34origins 5:40tectonic processes 5:39temporal distribution 5:39Vendian 4:372weathering processes 3:489

blackband ironstonesdiagenesis 5:102ferruginization process 5:103, 5:104fgeneral description 5:99occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

bog iron ores 5:101, 5:102classification 4:454, 5:26?claystone ironstones

diagenesis 5:102, 5:102fferruginization process 5:103, S:104fgeneral description 5:100photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

definition 5:98depositional environment 5:101diagenesis 5:102fferruginization process 5:103, 5:104/1,

5:105fferruginous peloids 5:101, 5:103glossary information 5:106lithification 5:101mineralogy 5:98nodules 4:385nomenclature 5:98occurrence 5:33ooidal ironstones

background information 5:97-98diagenesis 5:102-103ferruginization process 5:103-105,

S:WSfgeneral description 5:100occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:35f9 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:101f

stratigraphic record 5:106tectonic setting 5:106verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545/",

3:547,5:101Irrawaddy River 5:19?Irwin,J. 5:266?Isacks, Bryan 3:205Isan Orogeny 1.-213/", 1:218-219Isaqueena Superterrane 4:74f

island arcsCordillera 4:54Fiji 4:120New Caledonia 4:116New Zealand 4:5foceanic island arc belts 5:418ocean trenches 5:431Papua New Guinea 4:109, 4:lllfplate tectonics theory 1:440fseamounts 4:479Siberian craton 4:464Solomon Islands 4:112Tonga 4:120Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:88, 2:88f, 2:89f,

2:91f, 2:92fVanuatu 4:116

Islas Orcadas Rise 3:315f, 3:316?Isle of Arran 2:202-203, 2:203f, 3:84-85,

3:175, 3:175f, 5:542, 5:543fIsle of Wight, United Kingdom 5:468fisoprenoids 4:248-250isostasy 1:98, l:98f, 1:407, l:407f, 1:408fIsrael 3:344Issendalenian stage 4:169fIsthmus of Panama 5:481, 5:487-488,

5:489Istiodactylus 2:510Isua Supracrustal rocks, Greenland 4:351,

5:39Italy

Cretaceous 5:506fElba Island 3:238 f, 3:599Eocene 5:466-468, 5:506^Eocene-Oligocene boundary 5:466,

5:472-473Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f9

3:270fgemstones 3:7?Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100, 2:134f,

3:244-245meteorites 5:229Miocene 5:478, 5:506fMount Etna, Sicily 1:200?, 3:329,4:389f,

5:575Oligocene 5:506fPalaeocene 5:462Permian-Triassic boundary 4:219fPermo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96fPleistocene 5:493, 5:506fPliocene 5:506fpterosaurs 2:513-514Sicily 5:478, 5:486, 5:487, 5:506fSilurian 4:193Stromboli volcano, Italy 4:3871Suess, Eduard 2:237, 2:238Triassic 3:345-346, 5:506fVesuvius, Italy 4:3S7?, 5:575zeolites 3:599

Ivanovia 2:434Ivorian subdivision 4:202fIvory Coast tektites 5:445, 5:445?, 5:445/",

5:447fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100, 2:134f, 3:244-245

INDEX 691

Izhma Zone 2:52, 2:52f, 2:53f, 2:55Izu-Bonin Trench 5:430?, 5:43 OfIzu-Ogasawara Arc 4:479-480

Jackfork Group, Ouachita Mountains 4:63,4:66f

Jacksonian stage 5:473fjade 1:196jadeite 1:196, 3:7?, 3:567, 5:533, 5:S33fJaeger, John 3:192jahnsite 5:122James, H. 3:476Jameson, Robert 2:184, 3:171, 3:174,

5:542Jan Mayen Ridge 3:315f, 3:316tJapan 3:297-305

accretion terranes 3:297, 3:300-302arc-trench system 3:297, 3:298fbackground information 3:297biota 3:302earthquakes 3:298, 3:300fgemstones 3:7tgeology 3:300, 3:301fgold deposits 3:122, 3:122fHidaka Metamorphic Belt, Japan

3:240-241liquefaction 1:525, l:525f, l:526f,

1:531 f, 1:533 f, 1:55 6f, 3:94palaeogeographic reconstruction 3:304fPermian-Triassic boundary 4:221-222Sanbagawa belt 1:243-244strike-slip fault systems 3:304fsubduction zones 3:297, 3:298f,

3:303-304tectonic processes

pre-Neogene terrains 3:300, 3:302ftectonic evolution 3:302, 3:303f

topography 3:297, 3:299fTriassic 3:344volcanism 3:297, 3:299f, 3:300fzeolites 3:598

Japan Trench 3:298f, 5:429f, 5:430?,5:431f, 5:436f

Jaramillo Magnetic Reversal 5:445-446jarosite 5:394?jasper 3:570Jatoba Basin 3:129javaites 5:445/", 5:446-447jawed fish 2:462jawless fish 2:454-461

agnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462background information 2:454conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448evolutionary relationships 2:460fgaleaspids 2:458origins 2:455ostracoderms

Astraspis 2:457, 2:457^Cephalaspis utahensis 2:458fdecline 2:459Devonian 2:457, 2:458fEriptychius 2:457Errivaspis waynensis 2:458f

heterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459Ordovician 2:457reconstruction drawings 2:456fSilurian 2:457thelodonts 2:459, 2:459fThelodus macintosh! 2:459fTuberculaspis elyensis 2:458f

phylogenetic relationships 2:455, 2:459Jeanne d'Arc basin 4:95, 4:96f, 4:98, 4:105Jefferson, Thomas 3:60Jeffreys, Harold 3:193, 3:201-202Jeholornis 2:497Jeletzkyteuthis 2:395fjellyfish 2:321f, 2:321-322, 2:322f, 2:323fJequie/Rio Das Velhas/Aroense

thermotectonic event l:308tJerangle Metamorphic Complex

1:240-242, l:246fjimboite (Mn3(BO3)2) 3:S12fJinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348, 1:349f,

1:350Johns Valley formation, Ouachita

Mountains 4:63, 4:66fJohn the Baptist Hypothesis 5:145-146joints, definition of 3:390?jokulhlaups

cycle 4:633fdeep water processes 4:644definition 4:632flood deposits 4:640fflood flow 4:634fgeomorphic impacts 4:638foutwash plain 4:637frip-up clast deposits 4:636ftunnel inlet 4:634f

Joly, John 3:183-184Jones Mountains, Antarctica l:133f, 1:137Jones, Owen Thomas 3:62Jones, T. Rupert 3:476-477, 3:477fJopling, Alan 3:189jordanite 5:394?Juan de Fuca Plate 4:9-11, 4:37f, 4:39f,

4:58-60, 4:59f, 5:479-480, 5:480fJuan de Fuca Ridge

crustal thickness 5:416feruption frequency 5:383hydrothermal vents 5:3 711linear anomalies 3:203-204magma-lens reflections 5:416fRaff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:398,

5:399fseamounts 4:479seismic structure 5:411-412

Juan Fernandez Archipelago 3:315f,3:316?

Juan Fernandez Ridge l:119f, l:120f,1:15 5 f

Juanian stage 5:473fJujuyaspis 4:177Jukes, Joseph 3:62, 3:181Julian stage 3:345fJunggur Basin, China 3:344Jupiter

hydrogen concentrations 1:200flinear gaseous zones 5:283f

orbital frequencies 1:41 Itphysical characteristics 5:282, 5:282?satellite system

Amalthea 5:284?, 5:285Callisto 5:284?, 5:285characteristics 5:284?Europa 4:13f, 4:14-15, 5:283, 5:284?,

5:284fGanymede 5:284, 5:284?lo 5:283, 5:284?, 5:284/", 5:577f, 5:578outer icy satellites 5:285

spacecraft missions 5:283?volcanoes 5:577f, 5:578

Jura Mountains 2:125, 2:126f, 2:128f,2:238, 3:352

Jurassic 3:352-360Aalenian stage 3:352?, 3:354f, 5:506f,

5:517fMps2:131f,2:132famphibians

albanerpetontids 2:525, 2:526ffossil assemblages 2:516Lissamphibia

caecilians 2:521f, 2:522Eocaecilia micropodia 2:521 ffrogs 2:521-522Karaurus sharovi 2:521 fsalamanders 2:52 I f , 2:522

temnospondyls 2:519fAndes Mountains 1:128angiosperms 2:422/", 2:423anoxic environments 3:355, 4:499Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136, 1:137Arabia 1:142f, l:144fAraucaria mirabilis 2:45OfArctic Sea 2:108Atlantic Margin evolution 4:95, 4:102,

4:103 f,4:104fAustralia l:229f, 1:235background information 3:352Bajocian stage 3:352?, 3:354/", 5:506f9

5:517fBaltimore Canyon trough 4:104fBathonian stage 3:352?, 5:506/, 5:517fbiodiversity 1:262-263, l:263fbiota

acritarchs 3:418-428algae, benthic 3:355algae, planktonic 3:356ammonites 2:400-401, 2:401f, 3:352,

3:357arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277birds (Aves) 3:358-359bivalves (Bivalvia) 3:356-357brachiopods 2:306f, 3:356bryozoans(Bryozoa)3:356cephalopods 2:389/", 3:357corals 2:325f, 3:356crinoids 2:346-347, 2:347/", 3:358crustaceans (Crustacea) 3:357dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:492, 3:358,

3:359fechinoids 2:354fish 3:358foraminifera 3:356

J

692 INDEX

Jurassic (continued)gastropods 2:386f, 2:387gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:357Ichthyosauria 2:503, 2:503f, 2:507f,

3:358insects 3:358mammals 2:538marine reptiles 3:358molluscs 3:356ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:357oysters 2:164-165, 3:356-357pectenids 3:356-357porifera (Porifera) 2:408-417, 3:356protists 3:356tetrapods 2:165'fvertebrates 3:358

bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141, 4:141f, 4:146f,4:146-147

Ersizill:317f,l:318f,l:320fbryozoans (Bryozoa) l:274f, 1:274-276calcareous algae 2:428f, 2:430fCallovian stage 3:352;, 3:353-354,

3:354f, 3:355, 5:506f, 5:517fcarbon dioxide concentrations l:206fChina 1:347fchronostratigraphy 3:352, 3:352*,

4:25fcontinental evolution 3:354, 3:354fCycadeoidea microphylla 2:453fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38f,

4:460-461Entrada Sandstone, Utah 4:546, 4:547fEurope 2:108fish 2:463^geochronology 3:353, 3:354fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglacial/interglacial periods 3:347fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

geological evolution 1:1 SI*, 1:186Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?Jurassic, early 3:147Jurassic, end 3:147palaeogeographic reconstruction

I:188f,3:151f93:152afterranesl:170/", l:172f,

1:175 f,3:131fgymnosperms

biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCorystospermales 2:452Czekanowskiales 2:451Pentoxylales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

Hettangian stage 3:352*, 3:354f, 5:506f,5:517f

insects 2:299/i 2:300*, 3:358International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106Japan 3:302, 3:303fKimmeridgian stage 3:352*, 3:354f,

4:54-55, 5:506f, 5:517fLagerstatten

ammonites 3:307-308

conservation deposits 3:310, 3:311geographic distribution 3:310*Solnhofen Limestone 3:311

mammalian diversification 2:532Navajo Sandstone, Arizona 4:547fNew Caledonia 4:116North Africa 1.-14/", l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,

1:23 fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25/", 4:26f, 4:32fnorthern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40f, 4:41fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460/", 3:461Oxfordian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354,

3:355, 4:54-55, 5:506f, 5:517foxygen concentrations 1:206fPage Sandstone, Colorado Plateau

4:545-546, 4:547fPagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45Ifpalaeoclimate 3:354Pangaea 3:131fParana basin l:320fPliensbachian stage 3:352*, 3:354/",

3:355, 5:506f, 5:517fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33IfPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

4:3 84 freef environments 4:567, 4:567fSagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fsea-level changes 4:2 6fshorelines and shelves 4:507Siberian craton 4:462Sinemurian stage 3:348, 3:352*Solnhofen Limestone

Archaeopteryx 2:497arthropods (Arthropoda)

2:274-275Cnidarians 2:323dendrites 4:3 83 fdepositional environment 3:311general description 3:310*Liesegang banding 4:3 83 fPterodactylus 2:509, 2:509fstratiform deposits 3:311Walther, Johannes 2:244

South-east Asiageological evolution 1:18It, 1:186,

l:188fStratigraphic correlation l:183f,

1:185 fsouthern Cordillera 4:52, 4:54stages 3:352*terrestrial flora 3:359Tethys Ocean 2:108tetrapod radiations 1:273ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTithonian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354,

5:506f,5:517fToarcian stage 3:352*, 3:354/", 3:355,

5:506*; 5:517fTriassic-Jurassic boundary

3:345-346Uralide orogeny 2:87f, 2:88fUzbekistan 1:167Zamites gigas 2:453fzone concept 3:352

K

Kaapvaal craton, South Africa 1:132-135,l:280f, 1:429, 5:39

Kadavu Islands 4:120kaersutite 3:505Kalahari craton 3:164, 3:164fKalahari Desert 1:555-556kalborsite 3:593*Kalihari pans 4:615, 4:615fkamacite 3:553*, 3:554kamafugite 3:220*Kamchatka 4:470, 4:47 Of, 5:461kamenitzas

See solution pans (kamenitzas)Kamennogorsk anticline 2:51kames 3:95/i 4:676Kanimbian contraction 3:139Kanimblan contraction 3:140fKanin Peninsula 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52f, 2:55kankite 3:505*Kanmantoo Group 1:240, 1:242, 1:245Kansas, United States 2:504-505, 4:29/~,

4:30f, 4:31f, 4:32, 4:36f, 5:230fKaokoBeltl:2/; 1:9kaolin

claystones 5:30definition 1:366-367layer type 1:360, l:361tworld production rates 1:43 8t

kaoliniteAtterberg Limits 5:187tcation exchange capacity 1:360*cementation 5:143, 5:143*ceramics industry 1:368classification 5:26*deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76definition 1:366-367depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes

mudrocks 5:65, 5:66fpseudomorphs 5:66-67sandstones 5:66, 5:66fsedimentary rocks 5:145*"vermicules 5:66f

formation processes 1:363, l:363f,5:33f

humid tropical zone soils 1:561hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632layer type 1:360, 1:361*occurrence 5:32physicochemical properties 1:368-369

Karakoram range 5:421, 5:422f, 5:423Kara Kum Desert 1:166Kara Plate 4:464, 4:464fKararan Orogeny l:212f, 1:213f,

1:217-218Kara, Russia 3:363*Kara Sea 2:50f, 2:52fKara Shelf 2:53Karaurus sharovi 2:521 fKarelia 2:39, 2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 4:456,

4:459fKarnataka Craton 5:39Karoo 3:315*; 3:316*

INDEX 693

Karoo Basin, South Africa 1:319f,3:142-147, 3:146f, 3:347, 4:219 f,4:220, 4:224

Karpinsky Swell 2:35f, 4:471karst landscapes 4:678-687

biokarst 4:679, 4:681fcaves (endokarst)

carbonate sedimentation 3:523fcave features 4:684fgeneral discussion 4:684paragenetic canyons 4:684f,

4:684-685, 4:685fscallops 4:685, 4:686fspeleothems 4:686, 4:686fvadose canyons 4:684f, 4:685f

classification scheme 4:683fclimatic effects 5:585clints 4:680, 4:682fcone karst 4:682-683cryokarst 4:679dissolution processes 1:550-551, 1:551 /",

4:679drainage 4:683exhumed karst 4:679fluviokarst 4:682geophysical techniques 1:49It, 1:493,

1:49 5 fglaciokarst 4:682, 4:682fgrikes 4:680, 4:682fground subsidence 2:10interstratal karst 4:686landscape development 4:683palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686fpetroleum reservoirs 4:235, 4:237fpseudokarst 4:679relict karst 4:679, 4:683frunnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681 f,

4:682fsolution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680,

4:680f, 4:682fsolution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680, 4:682fsurface karst (exokarst)

dolines 4:682f, 4:684fgeneral discussion 4:680lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681flarge-scale karst (karst landscapes)

4:682limestone pedastals 4:681 fmedium-scale karst (karst landforms)

4:681small-scale karst (karren) 4:680,

4:680fsolution pits 4:68If

tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683fweathering processes 5:583

Kashmir 3:344Kasimovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511 f,

5:517fKaskaskia sequence, North America 4:25,

4:26f, 4:27f, 4:28Kattegat 2:98, 2:150katydids 2:300;Kazakh-Mongol arc 4:466Kazakhstan

borate deposits 3:517

Cambrian 1:173 fCarboniferous l:182f, I:184f9 4:201Devonian 1:182fgeology 1:164Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511fKokchetav Massif 5:533, 5:535-536,

5:536f, 5:537Ordovician 1:173 fPermian l:184f, 5:511fSilurian l:173f, 4:191-192tektites 5:451terranes 3:13OfTien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165fTriassic l:184f, 3:344Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89

kazakhstanite (Fe5(V15O39)(OH)9-9H2O)3:589t

Kazakhstan-Khingan domain 4:467,4:467f

Kazanian stage 4:208f, 4:209fKeeling curve 1:343fKeichousaurus 2:506Keivy domain 2:44fKellwasser bioevent 4:197, 4:197fkelp 5:482Kelso, Washington 4:688, 4:688fKelut, Indonesia 5:575;Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552f,

5:552-553Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord 1:81,

1:257,3:183-184Kenya 3:12, 5:204f, 5:491tKenya, Mount 1:3OfKenyanthropus 2:541Kenyanthropus platyops 5:49ItKeraterpeton 2:473fKerguelen Plateau 3:315 f, 3:316;,

5:473-474Kerguelen Plume 3:292Kermadec Trench 5:430;, 5:43 Ofkernite (Na2B4O7-4H2O) 3:512;, 3:512f,

3:513tkerogenous sediments

classification 4:454, 5:26;nomenclature 4:274foptical analytical methods 4:272,

4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,

4:277f, 4:278f, 4:279foccurrence 5:33, 5:34fSee also natural gas; oil; petroleum

geologyKerr Basin 4:67Kestelek mining district, Turkey

See ore bodies, borateskesterite (Cu2ZnSnS4) 3:575;Keuper formation, Germany 3:344Khangai-Khentei superterrane 4:465Khanka arc 4:466Khramov, A.N. 3:331Kick-Em-Jenny seamount

4:479-480kidwellite 5:126Kielmeyer, Karl Friedrich 2:179

Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 1:200;, 3:328,3:329f, 4:387t

KilihigokBasin4:17Kilimanjaro, Mount 1:3OfKimban Orogeny 1.-209/", 1.-211/", l:212f,

1:215-216Kimberella 4:373-374Kimberley Craton, Australia 1:21 Of, 1:212,

1:239 fkimberlites 3:247-260

background information 3:247Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:1 Ifchemical composition 3:248;definition 3:247depth distribution 3:255, 3:257fdiamonds

Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:1 Ifgeochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f,

3:24fmineral deposits 3:492mineral suites 3:255, 3:256;prospecting methods 3:256provenance 3:255Russia 4:473uncut diamond 3:258f

Du Toit, Alexander 2:190geotectonic setting 3:249, 3:252fglobal distribution 3:256, 3:258fintrusion types

diatremes 3:248, 3:249;, 3:249/",3:250f, 3:251f

dykes 3:249interrelationships 3:249, 3:251fsills 3:249

kimberlite indicator minerals 3:22, 3:23f,3:24f

magmatic system 3:25Ifmantle sampling technique 1:398megacrysts 3:255mineralogy 3:256;mining techniques 3:257, 3:258fphlogopite 3:550prospecting methods 3:256radiometric dating 3:250, 3:252f, 3:253fRussia 4:463f, 4:473temperature ranges 3:254-255, 3:255fupper mantle associations 3:255, 3:257fweathering processes 5:588xenoliths 3:252, 3:254f, 3:255f

Kimmeridgian stage 3:352;, 3:3 54f, 4:54-55Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

S:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99f

Kinderscoutian subdivision 4:202fKing, Clarence 3:184King, Haddon 3:192King Leopold Orogeny 1:211, I:215f9

l:239f,3:132fKing, Lester 3:193-194Kinneya 4:377Kipchak arc 4:466Kircher, Athanasius 3:169

694 INDEX

Kirka mining district, TurkeySee ore bodies, borates

Kirkidium knightii 4:189Kirsch solution 4:45Ifkirschsteinite 3:557-558Kirwan, Richard 3:178Klamath Mountains 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:54Klaproth, Martin 3:178Klippen nappe 2:132, 2:132fKnight, Richard 3:61Knoxisporites stephanephoms 3:464fKobe, Japan 1:525, l:525f, 1:531 f, l:533f,

3:94Koch, Johan Peter 2:246koechlinite (Bi2MoO6) 3:552?Kofels Landslide 4:690-691Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan 5:533,

5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537, 5:539Kola Peninsula 2:44 f, 2:45, 2:50, 3:599,

4:456Kolbeinsey Ridge 1:101 fKolguev Island 2:51, 2:S2fKoli Nappe Complex 2:65/", 2:67kolovratite (NixZny(VO4)z-nH2O) 3:589tKolvitsa belt 2:44fKomandorsky Islands 4:38komatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260East European Craton 2:38eruption characteristics 3:262Fennoscandian Shield 2:39flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262fgreenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmagnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262f, 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group

(Ni-Cu-PGE) mineralization 3:266occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f, 3:264fwater content 3:266zirconium content 3:264f

kombatite (Pb14O9(VO4)2Cl4) 3:589tKonglingiphyton erecta 4:361 fKootenay terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46Kopanina Formation 4:189Koppen, Wladimir 2:246Koro Islands 4:118Koryak Mountains 4:456, 4:470, 4:470^Korzhinskii, Dmitrii 3:187Kostov, Ivan 5:121kotoite (Mg3B2O6) 3:512?, 3:512fkottingite 3:508fKoyukuk terrane 4:40 f9 4:42, 4:46Krafla volcano, Iceland 5:575Krakatau, Indonesia 5:575?krennerite 3:129?krettnichite (PbMn2(VO4)2(OH)2) 3:589tKrige, Daniel 4:323kriging 4:323

Krumbein, William 3:189Krynine, Paul 3:188krypton (Kr) 1:197?, 1:198, l:199f, 3:553?Kuark belt 1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246fKuban foredeep 4:471Kuenen, Philip 3:197Kuenen, Phillip 3:188Kufra Basin 3:129, 3:137fKuiper Belt 5:220-221, 5:223, 5:294Kukri Peneplain 1:135kulanite 5:125-126Kula Plate 5:461, 5:466, 5:480Kullenberg, B. 5:71-72Kungurian stage 4:208f9 4:209 f, 4:215?,

4:468, 5:511/", 5:517fKurile Islands 4:470, 4:47OfKuril Trench 5:430?, 5:430fkurnakovite (Mg2B6Oir15H2O) 3:512?,

3:513?Kuroshio Current 4:644Kuskowim Mountains 4:45Kuwait

See ArabiaKuznetsk-Teletskoye strike-slip fault

system 4:466Kvarkush anticline 2:51, 2:55, 2:90kyanite

characteristics 3:562industrial minerals 3:496kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?metamorphic facies 3:397, 3:398f9

3:400f, 3:412f, 4:411 f, 4:412?phase diagram 3:562fpressure-temperature diagram 3:243fweathering processes 3:489f

Kyrgyzstan 1:167, 2:513Kyzyl Kum Desert 1:167

Labelle shear zone 3:158fLabrador 3:155, 4:11-12, 5:461-462,

5:466Labrador Current 4:643-644labradorite 3:534f9 3:535lacewings 2:297f, 2:300?lachatelierite 5:447Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia 3:237?, 3:238f9

3:241 f, 3:244fLachlan Orogeny 1:237-251

back-arc basin closure 1:247, 1:248 f9

1:249 fbackground information 1:237, 1:240characteristics 1:240?deformation processes 1:242evolution

Andean-type margin development1:250

back-arc basin closure 1:249back-arc basin formation 1:247

geological map I:239f9 1:241 flithofacies 1:242magmatism 1:244, 1:247fmetamorphic complexes 1:244, 1:246fsubduction events 1:250

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:239turbidites 1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:243f

Lacian stage 3:345fLacroix, Alfred 5:443Lacus Mortis 5:267?Lacus Somniorum 5:267?Ladinian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517flagenids 3:450flager 3:80-81Lagerstatten 3:307-315

amphibians 2:523concentration deposits

general discussion 3:307stratiform deposits 3:307traps 3:308

conservation depositsbacteria 3:311decay experiments 3:309, 3:309fgeographic locations 3:310?preservation importance 3:308soft tissue preservation 3:308stratiform deposits

anoxia 3:311obrution 3:310, 3:31 IfOpabinia3:311scavengers 3:309soupy substrates 3:310stagnation 3:311

taphonomy 3:308traps 3:309

definitions 3:307Holzmaden, Germany 2:503palaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146soft tissue mineralisation

apatite 3:312, 3:312fcalcium carbonate 3:313clay minerals 3:313general discussion 3:312Leancholia 3:313fnodules 3:313, 3:314fNotelops 3:312fOffacolus kingi 3:314fpycnodont fish 3:314fpyrite 3:312, 3:313fsilica 3:313temporal trends 3:313

See also Burgess Shale; Rhynie chert;Solnhofen Limestone

lagoons 1:528?, 1:540, 3:524f9 4:564,4:571f

lagynana 3:45Iflahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f, 5:576?,

5:576f, 5:577fLake Baikal 4:471, 4:472f9 4:550, 4:558Lake Balkash 1:164Lake District terrane 2:60Lake Ladoga 2:40Lake Magadi 1:30, l:31fLake Malawi 4:551-552, 4:557Lake Michigan 4:558fLake Nyos, Cameroon 5:575?lakes 4:550-561

alkaline lakes 3:596, 3:596f

L

INDEX 695

lakes (continued)biological processes

biogenic silica 4:556calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:556diatomite 4:556organic matter 4:557

borate deposits 3:517calcium carbonate (CaCC^) 3:523f,

4:556, 4:557, 4:SS8fchemical processes

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:557evaporites 4:557, 4:559fmarl 4:557

chert 5:53, 5:58clay occurrences 1:364general discussion 4:550hydrothermal processes 4:558lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681fpetroleum reservoirs 4:2351physical processes

anoxic environments 4:550-551beaches 4:552, 4:SS4f, 5:135currents 4:552flacustrine deltas 4:552, 4:553fliquefaction 1:5 28tmass failure 4:554river inflow 4:552, 4:552fseiche 4:SSlf, 4:551-552spits 4:554fsubsurface currents 4:552f, 4:554,

4:555fsurface currents 4:554thermocline 4:551 fturbidites 4:552f, 4:554-556, 4:555fvarves 4:554, 4:555fvertical mixing 4:550, 4:55Ifwater-column structure 4:550

playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517rift valleys 5:440f, 5:440-441sediment analysis 3:21, 3:22fsequence stratigraphy 5:167tectonic processes 4:558, 4:560fzeolites 3:596, 3:596f

Lake Tanganyika 4:551-552,4:556, 4:558

Lake Turkana l:28f, 1:31 f, 5:481-482Lake Victoria l:26fLake Zaysan 1:164-165, l:166fLaki, Iceland 3:322, 5:575?Lakshmi Planum, Venus 5:257, 5:261fLamarck, Jean-Baptiste 2:160-161,

2:181-182, 2:208-209, 3:176, 4:123Lambert-Beer Law 1:64Lambic beers 3:81Lamington, Papua-New Guinea 5:575?Lament Geological Observatory, Columbia

University 3:197lampreys 2:455, 2:459lamproites 3:257, 3:259flamprophyre 3:220?, 3:237?landfills

clays. See claysgroundwater monitoring 2:14-21

carbon dioxide formation 2:14,2:15f

dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17,2:19 f

gas formation 2:14, 2:14fgovernment regulation 2:14isotopic analyses

carbon isotope concentrations 2:16,2:l7,2:18f

data interpretation 2:17deuterium concentrations 2:16,

2:17,2:18fgeneral discussion 2:16oxygen isotope concentrations 2:16,

2:17,2:18fpH2:15, 2:15^redox level 2:17, 2:19fseasonal variations 2:19, 2:19fin situ passive sampling 2:17thermal surveys 2:15volatile organic compounds 2:15,

2:lSfmade ground 1:538sanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30f

Land Mammal Age 5:472, 5:473fLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383flandslides 4:687-692

ancient landslides 4:690 f, 4:691angle of repose 4:688, 4:692Atlantic Margin 4:94f, 4:94-95catastrophic floods 4:632classification 4:688, 4:689fcreep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691fdebris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573,

5:576?, 5:576fdebris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690fearthflows 4:690earthquakes 3:93feconomic losses 4:688, 4:688fengineering geomorphology l:476f,

1:476-478, 1:477fGeographical Information Systems (GIS)

4:426, 4:426f, 4:428?hazard analysis

earthquakes 3:93f, 5:327frequency 1:517?hazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523fmortality rates 1:517?, 1:51 #?, 4:688quantification analysis 1:516

lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f

lidar topography 3:93fmitigation methods 4:692Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691fmud flows 4:689occurrence 4:687quick clay landslides 4:690rainfall 5:17, 5:19frockfalls 4:689, 4:689frotational slides 4:689, 4:690fslope stability studies 4:688slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690fsturtzstroms 4:690-691submarine landslides 4:644-645Tadzhikistanl:518/"talus 4:689

topples 4:689translational slides 4:689volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f

Langhian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,5:479/",5:506/",5:517/'

Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27IfLangsettian subdivision 4:202flanthanum (La)

carbonatites 3:223?, 3:224?, 3:224fcrustal composition 5:174?granitic rocks 3:242flava/lava flows 3:224fmineral analysis 1:108?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114?lapilli, accretionary 4:3S7?, 4:390?, 5:572?Lapland-Kola orogeny 2:38, 2:41f, 2:42f,

2:43f, 2:44fLappajarvi, Finland 3:363?Lapparent, Auguste de 3:190Lapworth, Charles 2:218, 3:62, 3:180,

4:176,4:185Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f, 5:460-461Larapintine Sea 3:128, 3:134f, 3:135flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315-323

age dating 3:318composition 3:317continental flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,

3:322Cretaceous 3:363?Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383crustal structure 3:317environmental effects 3:320, 3:320fglobal distribution 3:315f, 3:317mantle dynamics 3:319mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:318, 3:318fmantle roots 3:317mass extinctions 3:321 f, 3:322, 3:383occurrence 3:315, 3:316?ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,

3:322origins 3:320seamounts 3:316?, 3:318, 3:322subduction zones 3:318f, 3:319, 3:319fsubmarine ridges 3:318, 3:320, 3:322tectonic setting 3:317, 3:317ftime distribution 3:318-319, 3:319ftypes 3:317volcanic passive margins 3:318, 3:320,

3:322volcanism 3:317

Lariosaurus 2:506larnite 3:557-558Lashly formation 3:147, 3:150fLast Glacial Maximum 1:140, 4:626f9

4:646last universal common ancestor (LUCA)

4:124laterites

classification 5:26?formation processes 3:488-489, 3:489f,

5:33f, 5:588occurrence 1:560-561, 5:31-32palaeoclimate 4:134

696 INDEX

Latest Palaeocene Thermal Maximum(LPTM) dissociation hypothesisl:342f

Latimeria chalumnae 2:466Latonia gigantea 2:524latosols 1:561Lau Basin 4:53-54, 5:371t, 5:411-412,

5:416flaueite 5:124-125Laue, M. von 3:501Lau Islands 4:120laumontite 3:397, 3:593*Laurasia

amphibians 2:516, 2:517, 2:518,2:521-522, 2:524

biozones 3:438Carboniferous 4:204, 4:212China 1:352chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:438Cretaceous 3:360, 3:362, 3:362, 3:362f,

3:365definition 4:225Devonian 2:79, 3:438DuToit, Alexander 2:191flora 3:348, 3:349fgeographic location 4:226fHercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16f, 4:225mammalian diversification 2:532mammals 2:532, 2:533, 2:536-537Pangaea 2:79, 4:225Permian 1:182, 4:214-215Smith, William 2:225synapsids 2:485tectonic processes 4:214-215Triassic 3:346, 3:348, 3:349fVariscides Orogeny 2:79vegetation 3:348, 3:349f

LaurentiaAlleghanian orogeny 4:79Appalachians 4:72, 4:73Australia 1:213 f, 1:215fCaledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64-74Cambrian l:173f, 2:56, 4:164, 4:169f,

4:170fCarboniferous l:182f, 1:184fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:436, 3:439Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fcontinental margin 2:65f, 2:67Devonian l:182f, 2:78, 2:79Du Toit, Alexander 2:191general discussion 4:81Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80fGrenville orogeny 3:155, 4:16, 4:19magmatic arcs 4:76fnorthern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40fNotre Dame subzone 4:85Nuna 4:14f9 4:16Ordovician

accretion terranes l:173fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

4:181-182passive margin development 4:76,4:76ftectonic evolution 2:56Variscides Orogeny 2:78

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,4:15'Sf; 4:156

passive margin development 4:76, 4:76fPermian l:184f, 4:215-216plate tectonics 3:164, 3:164fPrecambrian 4:8, 4:9, 4:352-354, 4:353fProterozoic orogenic events 4:17Rodinia breakup 4:8sharks 2:463-465Silurian l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192southern Cordillera 4:48Suess, Eduard 2:238, 2:240fsupercontinents 4:14f, 5:177-178tectonic evolution 2:73, 2:73f, 4:9, 4:12,

4.-13/; 4:19, 4:89tectonostratigraphic relationships 4:83fterranes 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457fTriassic 1:184f, 3:346trilobites (Trilobita) 2:291, 2:293

Laurus 2:419fLaurussia

Caledonian Orogeny 2:58-59Carboniferous 4:204definition 4:225geographic location 4:226fGondwana

Hercynian Orogeny 2:102Mesozoic 3:129-139Permian 3:139, 3:142Saar-Nahe Basin 2:97Tibetan Plateau 5:420Variscides Orogeny 2:100

Palaeocene 5:463Pangaea 3:128, 4:225, 4:226f,

4:227-228Permian basin formation 2:97, 2:100Silurian 4:193terranes 1:222, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458fTimanide Orogeny 2:50Variscides Orogeny 2:78

lava/lava flows 3:323-330a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f9

5:567-569, 5:S71fbackground information 3:323block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571fcarbonatites 3:218tcharacteristics 5:567clays 1:545-546clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326feffusion rate 3:324eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324fflood basalts 3:328flow speed 3:324flow volume 3:324geotechnical properties 1:544-545,

l:546figneous processes 3:209komatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260eruption characteristics 3:262flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262f

greenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmagnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262f, 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group

(Ni-Cu-PGE) mineralization3:266

occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f, 3:264fwater content 3:266zirconium content 3:264f

lava domes 3:326lava fountains 3:323magnetization process 4:148-149mid-ocean ridges 5:382-383Moon 5:270natural hazards

general discussion 3:328, 5:573Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328, 3:329fmitigation methods 5:576*Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329

pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326,3:326f, 5:567-569, S:S71f

Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327f, 5:373-375,

5:382-383, 5:567-569, S:S71fstructure

cooling joints 3:327, 3:328fcrazing 1:546 flava tubes 3:327pipes l:546fsubaerial lava 3:325, 3:325f, 3:326funderwater flows 3:326, 3:32 7f

temperature 3:323Venus 3:232fviscosity 3:323zeolites 3:591f9 3:598, 3:598f

Laventan stage 5:479, 5:479fLavinia Planitia, Venus 5:253fLavoisier, Antoine 3:175lawsonite 3:397, 3:398fLaxmi Ridge 3:315f9 3:316tlayer/layering, definition of 3:390*Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221f,

4:224, 5:469lazulite 5:125-126lead (Pb)

carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*, 3.-225/J3:226f

crustal composition 5:174thydrothermal fluids 3:629*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*mineral analysis 1:108tnatural occurrences 3:553*oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tradiometric dating l:88t, 3:20, 3:604,

4:202^,5:518soil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*world production rates 1:43 8tzircon crystals 3:604

INDEX 697

Leancholia 3:313flearned societies 3:60Lebombo monocline 3:151flechatelierite 3:281Legendrelepis 2:462-463Legget, Robert 1:445-446, 3:192legrandite 3:508tLeHave platform 4:96f, 4:100Leidy, Joseph 2:196Leigh Creek Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150fLeine graben 3:653-654Leintwardine Formation 4:186f9 4:189Leiosphaeridia 4:357Lemuria 2:249Lena River 5:19tleningradite (PbCu3(VO4)2Cl2) 3:588-589,

3:589tlenticular bedding 4:599Leonardian stage 4:209fLeonian stage 4:167fLeopold, Luna 3:189Le Pichon, Xavier 3:203, 3:204-205Lepidesthes 2:352-353, 2:353flepidocrocite 5:394tLepidodendropsis 4:204, 4:206flepidolite 3:548, 3:549-550Lepidoptera

See insectsLepidosauromorpha 2:483Lepisosteus 2:176Lepontine uplift 2:134flepospondyls 2:475, 2:478Leptolepis koontvarri 2:466flessivage 5:194, 5:194f9 5:195f9 5:196f9

5:198, S:198fLethiscus 2:473fLetbiscus stocki 2:473-474, 2:474fleucite 3:540, 3:540f9 3:541, 3:541f9 3:593tleucogranites 3:238fleucophosphite 5:124-125Levinson modifiers 3:500Levorsen, Arville Irving 5:545levyne 3:593tLewis and Clark line 4:36, 4:37fLewisian Gneiss Complex 4:11Iherzolite 3:253-254, 3:257fLiassic Series 2:503Libby, Walter 3:186libethenite 5:122Libya 1:12-25, 5:236Libyan desert glass 5:450lice 2:297f, 2:300tlichens

fossil lichens 2:441glossary information 2:442hyphae 2:441-442Nematophytes 2:441Rhynie chert 2:441-442symbiotic relationships 2:441

lidar 4:414, 4:415fLiebniz, Gottfried 2:228, 3:170, 3:73Liesegang banding 4:382, 4:383flife, origin of 4:123-130

atmospheric evolution 1:202biomolecular processes 4:124, 4:124f

biospheric evolution 4:363, 4:364fearliest lifeforms 4:123extraterrestrial organic molecules

4:127-128glossary information 4:129hyperthermophiles 4:124-125origination location 4:128Pilbara craton, Australia 4:123RNA world

development process 4:127fDNA-RNA proteins 4:125molecular structures 4:127forigins 4:126prebiotic organic molecules 4:127RNA precursors 4:126

theory development 4:123tree of life l:203f, 1:279, I:280f9 4:124,

4:125f,4:365fLightfoot, John 3:170lignite

classification 4:454, 5:26tNorth American continental interior

4:3 Ofpalaeoclimate 4:134South-east Asian deposits 1:195

Ligurian Sea 2:126f, 3:654,3:655f, 3:656

Liguria-Piemont ocean 2:125Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea

1:441-442, 1:442f, 4:112likasite (Cu3NO3(OH)5-2H2O) 3:556tLimagne graben 3:653-654limestones 5:107-113

aggregates 1:35A\ps2:131fbrewing process 3:80bryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fchemical diagenesis 1:394classification 4:454, 5:110, 5:26tcomparison with sandstones 5:107densities 5:321 fdepositional environment 5:110, 5:110f,

5:lllfdiagenesis 5:112dissolution processes 1:550, 1:5 5 Ofdolomitization 5:107-108, 5:112economic importance 5:112encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fgeotechnical properties 1:549, I:549t9

I:550f93:102tgrain analysis 5:30, 5:30f9 5:107, 5:108,

5:109fground subsidence 2:10karst landscapes 1:550-551, 1:5 51 f,

4:679matrix composition 5:110mineralogy 5:108, 5:108tnomenclature 5:110nummulitic limestones 1:24, 1:24 fOrdovician4:lS2/"Pagoda Limestone 4:178-179petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235physical properties l:483tporosity l:549t, 4:234f, 5:107-108Proterozoic 4:351

shorelines and shelves 4:505-506, 5:110,5:111 f

stromatolites 1:430, 1:43 Iflimonite 5:98-99lindgrenite (Cu3(MoO4)2(OH)2) 3:552tLindgren, Waldemar 3:192linear dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f,

4:621flinear gullies 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535flineation, definition of 3:390tLine Islands 3:315 f9 3:316t, 4:479Lingula 3:356, 4:223-224linnaeite (Co3S4) 3:575tLinnaeus, Carl 3:500, 4:157-158Liopleurodon 3:358, 3:358fliquefaction 1:525-534

accelerograms 1:527fbasic principles 1:525California I:530f9 l:532f, 1:533fChina 1:5 5 6fcontractive behaviour 1:525, l:526fcyclic resistance ratio 1:528cyclic shear stress ratio 1:528damage effects 1:532, I:532f9 l:533fdilative behaviour 1:525, l:526fhazard analysis

deposition environment 1:528tearthquakes 1:457, 1:500-501,

I:556f93:9495:32595:328fflow chart 1:527fgeneral discussion 1:527liquefaction potential evaluation 1:528permanent ground deformation

bearing failure 1:531, l:531fflow failure 1:530general discussion 1:529ground oscillation 1:530lateral spreading 1:530, 1:53Ofresidual shear strength 1:531,1:531 fsettlement 1:530, l:531f

shear anlysis 1:528, 1:529f9 1:530fsusceptibility criteria 1:527, l:528t

Kobe, Japan 1:525, I:525f9 I:526f9

I:531f9l:533f93:94mitigation methods 1:457, 1:533Niigata, Japan 1:53I f , l:556foccurrences 1:525post-depositional sedimentary structures

convolute lamination 4:606deforming forces 4:604, 4:605foverturned cross-bedding 4:606

quicksands 1:555, 1:5 5 6fsand boils 1:526, I:526f9 l:533fSodom and Gomorrah (Genesis) 1:33-34stress/strain analyses 1:525, l:526fTurkey 1:532fvoid redistribution 1:526, l:526fSee also earthquakes

liquid chromatography 4:250Liquine-Ofqui fault system I:124f9 1:127liroconite 3:508tLissamphibia

albanerpetontids 2:521f9 2:523, 2:525,2:526f

caecilians 2:521f9 2:522, 2:525

698 INDEX

Lissamphibia (continued)Celtedens ibericus 2:521 fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521ffrogs 2:521, 2:521f, 2:524, 2:524f,

2:525fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521Karaurus sharovi 2:521 forigins 2:468salamanders 2:521f, 2:522, 2:524,

2:525fShomronella jordanica 2:521 fTriadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 fValdotriton gracilis 2:522f

Litanaia 2:432lithification 1:393lithium (Li)

carbonatites 3:223?hydrothermal fluids 3:629?lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639partitioning behaviour 3:639?

lithofacies 4:485-486lithophile elements 3:638f, 3:639?lithosphere

biogeochemical cycles 1:431description 1:403, 4:340, 4:343fearth system science 1:430, 1:431 fgravity measurements 1:97f, 1:98, 1:98fheat flux 5:363?, 5:363flithospheric flexure 5:428-437melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

mid-ocean ridges 5:383Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:656, 3:657fnorthern Cordillera 4:39focean trenches 5:428-437Permo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:100propagating rifts 5:396-405strength analysis 5:335, 5:336fTasman Orogenic Belt l:224fthermal gradients 3:41 Ifthermal metamorphism 5:499, 5:500fvolcanism 5:565

Lithothamnion 2:429fLithuania 2:41-44Little Ice Age 2:148, 2:148f, 2:153-154,

2:259?Littorina transgression 2:150-151,

2:155-159lituolids 3:450fLivoniana 2:469, 2:470flixiviation 5:198lizardite 3:559, 3:566, 3:566fLlandellian stage 4:183 fLlandovery Series 4:84f, 4:87f, 4:185,

4:186f, 4:187f, 4:188f, 5:51 If, 5:517fLlano orogenic belt 3:164fLlano Uplift 3:157Llanvirnian subdivision 4:76, 4:84f, 4:87f,

4:175-176, 4:178-179, 4:179-180Lobaria 2:442

lobe-finned vertebrates 2:469, 2:470fLocard, Edmund 2:261Lochkov Formation 4:189Lochkovian stage

Appalachians 4:87fbackground information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fcarbon dioxide concentrations 4:196extinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana 3:129, 3:137fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:194-195

locusts 2:297f, 2:300?loellingite (FeAs2) 3:575?, 3:576floess l:528t, 1:555-556, l:556f, 3:94,

4:28f, 4:616, 4:617f, 5:445floftusiids 3:450^Logan, William 1:370Lolen Formation 3:129, 3:137fLoma Blanca mining district, Argentina

See ore bodies, boratesLondon Basin 5:493Longfengshania stipitata 4:358, 4:359fLong Island platform 4:9 6f, 4:100Longobardian stage 3:345fLong Range inlier, Newfoundland

3:157f,4:12longshore drift 4:572, 4:573fLongvillian substage 4:183flonsdaleite 3:282Lonsdale, W. 2:218-219, 3:476looting 5:328Lootsbergian faunachron 3:345flopezite (K2Cr2O7) 3:533?Lophelia 4:512f, 4:512-513, 4:569lophophorates 3:380fLopingian series 4:214, 4:215?, 4:219f,

4:221f,5:511f,5:517fLord Howe Rise Seamounts 3:315f, 3:326?,

4:116Lord Rayleigh

See Rayleigh, John William Strutt,Baron

Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM C131/C535) 1:40, 1:568

Louisville Ridge 3:315f, 3:316?lovdarite 3:593?Lovelock, James 3:1-6Lovelock's hypothesis

criticisms 3:4Daisyworld model 3:3, 3:3fdefinition 3:4four components 3:3

Love waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334fLowell, James Avory 2:175Lowell, Percival 5:293LUCA (last universal common ancestor)

4:124Lucas Craton, Australia l:210f, 1:213Luc, Jean-Andre de 3:176

Lucy 2:541, 2:542fLudfordian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,

5:511 f,5:517fludlamite 5:124-125, 5:125fLudlow Bone Bed 4:185, 4:186f, 4:189Ludlow Series 4:87f, 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:lS9,5:511f,5:517fludwigite ((FeMg)4Fe2B2O7) 3:522?, 3:512fLueckisporites 4:220LufilianArcl:2/; l:7,l:8fLuliangian Orogeny 1:348Luna 3 5:266-267Luna 9 5:266-267lunar maria

See MoonLunar Prospector 5:265lunettes 4:618-620, 4:619flungfishes 2:467Lungwangmiaoan stage 4:167fLunokhods 5:266-267Lupeosaurus 2:487-488Lutetian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:52 7flutetium (Lu) l:88t, 3:223?, 3:224f,

3:242fLycopods 4:206f, 4:209flycopods 4:204lycopsids 5:206fLydekkerina huxleyi 2:517fLyell, Charles 2:206-210

Agassiz, Louis 2:175, 2:177-178biozones 1:295caricature 5:299fcreationism 1:382Darwin, Charles 2:185, 2:209, 5:298early career 2:206evolutionary studies 2:209evolution theory 2:160-161French geology 2:208-209geological investigations 1:257geological societies 3:73-74Geological Society of London 2:208Hall, James, Jr. 2:195, 2:196Huttonian theory 2:207Lyell Medals 3:62metamorphic rocks 3:178Murchison, Roderick 2:211palaeoecology 3:175Pleistocene 5:493Pliocene 5:486portrait 2:206fpublications 2:207rock classification 5:25-26species/fossil theory 2:207, 2:208fstratification 1:430Stratigraphic subdivisions 5:478Tertiary subdivisions 5:466unconformities 5:542uniformitarianism 2:207, 3:177,

5:297-298Wollaston Medals 3:62

Lyginopteridales 2:448lyonsite (Cu3Fe4(VO4)6) 3:589?

INDEX 699

Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517flysocline 5:73, 5:73flysorphids 2:478Lystrosaurus 1:352, 3:350, 4:224, 4:227,

4:22 7f

M

maars 5:571, 5:5Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375fbackground information 3:372biostratigraphy 3:373/", 3:374chronostratigraphy 3:373fElvis taxa 3:377-378fossil record 3:377flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363tLazarus taxa 3:377-378marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378, 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381fpseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377terrestrial invertebrates 3:381, 3:381 fterrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382fvegetation 3:382, 3:383f

Maastrichtian stageAtlantic Margin 4:104fbolide impact craters 3:363tBrazil 1.-322/", 1:325 fchronostratigraphy 3:361fflying reptiles 2:508Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLaramide Orogeny 5:461fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fpalaeogeography 3:362fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364, 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369f, 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:37Of, 3:383f

Macaubas rifting event 1:3 08tMacCulloch, J. 3:476Macculloch, John 3:179MacDonald, Gordon 3:201-202MacKenzie, Dan 3:204Mackenzie Mountains 4:44-45, 4:50Mackenzie River 5:19tmackinawite 3:574, 3:575*, 3:580fmacquartite(Pb7Cu2(CrO4)4(SiO4)2(OH)2)

3:533*macroevolution

See evolutionMadagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7f, 2:79, 3:7*,

3:363*Madagascar Flood Basalts 3.-315/", 3:316*Madagascar Ridge 3:315 f, 3:316*Madagascar Traps 3:363*, 4:216made ground 1:535-542

applications 1:538collapse compression 1:541-542compaction 1:540-541, l:541fcreep compression 1:541, l:541fdefinition 1:535embankment dams 1:536, 1:538-539examples 1:537*fill placement 1:539, 1:539/", l:540ffill properties 1:540, 1:541 ffuture directions 1:541historical background 1:535, 1:535flagoons 1:540, 1:540 flandfill 1:538land reclamation 1:537liquefaction 1:528*mine wastes 1:538modern applications 1:536physical properties 1:483*Silbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:537*,

1:537fMadeira Rise 3:315f, 3:316*mafic rocks 1:243 f, 2:41, 2:99, 3:240*,

3:394-396, 3:396/i 3:397, 3:398fMagdalena River 5:19*Magellan orbiter 5:244-245, 5:260-261,

5:262-263Magellan Rise 3:315f, 3:316*Magellan Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*Maghrebides 2:135-146magma

continental margin 3:41 Ifexplosive eruption characteristics 4:386,

4:387*, 4:388figneous processes

differentiation processesassimilation 3:216fractional crystallization 3:215,

3:215 fgeneral discussion 3:215glossary information 3:216magma mixing 3:216

general discussion 3:209magma transport

diapirism3:213/; 3:214dike injection 3:213f, 3:214eruptions 3:214general discussion 3:212porous flow 3.-213/", 3:214

lava/lava flows 3:323-330a'a lava 3:325/i 3:326, 3:326*;

5:567-569, 5:571fbackground information 3:323block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, S:571fcharacteristics 5:567, 5:571fclinker 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326feffusion rate 3:324eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324fflood basalts 3:328flow speed 3:324flow volume 3:324natural hazards

general discussion 3:328, 5:573Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328,

3:329f

mitigation methods 5:576*Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329

pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,3:326f, 5:567-569, 5:S71f

pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327/", 5:567-569,5:571f

structurecooling joints 3:327, 3:328flava tubes 3:327subaerial lava 3:325,

3:325f, 3:326funderwater flows 3:326, 3:32 7f

temperature 3:323viscosity 3:323

mid-ocean ridges 5:372, 5:375, 5:378f,5:382f

plagioclase 3:538pyroclastic deposits 4:386-397

background information 4:386characteristics

block and ash flows 4:394, 4:394ffall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392*general discussion 4:389ignimbrites 4:388f, 4:391-393,

4:393/i 4:395, 4:397fparticle size 4:390*pyroclastic density currents 4:391,

4:393/", 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396fpyroclastic types 4:39Ottransport mechanisms 4:394,

4:396/i 4:397feruption plumes 4:388, 4:388f, 4:389fexplosive eruption characteristics

4:386, 4:387*, 4:388/", 4:389generation mechanisms 4:386zeolites 3:597, 3:597f

magmatic arcsAleutian-Wrangell system 4:38Canada 3:157-160, 3:159fGondwanan margin 1:250Japan 3:297Laurentia 4:76fMarie Byrd Land 1:137metamorphic facies 3:411, 3:412fnorthern Cordillera 4:41f, 4:44ocean trenches 5:431Pechora Basin 2:54fSouth-east Asia 1:190southern Cordillera 4:53Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247temperature-depth diagram 3:412fThurston Island 1:137

magmatic ore deposits 3:637-645carbonatites 3:640chromite deposits 3:640elemental composition 3:638felemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639*fundamental processes 3:637, 3:638fimmiscible oxide liquids 3:641incompatible lithophile elements 3:638/,

3:639, 3:639*, 3:640flithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639magnetite 3:641

700 INDEX

magmatic ore deposits (continued)niobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640fsulphide minerals

base metal depositscharacteristics 3:644templacement mechanisms 3:643,

3:643fgeneral discussion 3:643

general discussion 3:641magmatic concentrations 3:642fpartitioning behaviour 3:639?precious metal sulphide deposits

3:642, 3:642f, 3:644, 3:644fmagmatism

Andes Mountains 1:118, 1:128carbonatites 3:228, 3:232fChina 1:353Europe 2:96/", 2:97, 2:101f, 2:102, 3:657Grenville orogeny 3:161fmafic magmatism 4:14fsouthern Cordillera 4:55, 4:58, 4:59fsupercontinents 4:14fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:244, 1:247f,

1:249 fUralide orogeny 2:89See also lava/lava flows; mantle plumes

(hotspots); volcanismmagnesite (MgCO3)

carbonatites 3:23Ifhydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tlimestones 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:31, 5:108, 5:108tultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533fmagnesium (Mg)

brewing process 3:79, 3:80tcarbonatites 3:223?crustal composition L-406?, 5:174tevaporites 5:94geothermal systems 3:113tglauconite 3:S42thydrothermal fluids 3:629?kimberlites 3:248tkomatiites 3:260, 3:261, 3:262/", 3:263fmid-ocean ridges 5:376, 5:380fmineral analysis 1:108tobsidian 3:269?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tVenus 5:247?

magnetic fieldBrunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal

5:506fEarth

auroras 5:218, 5:219fbasic principles 4:147, 4:148fgeneral discussion 1:423geomagnetic fluctuations 5:218geomagnetic storms 5:217magnetic field reversals l:424fmovement trends 1:425fschematic diagram 1:425fsolar wind 5:217, 5:218fVine-Matthews anomalies 4:346

Jupiter 5:282Mercury 5:241mineral exploration 3:619tpalaeoterranes 5:456-457Raff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:399fSun 5:210Uranus 5:290

magnetite (FesO^carbonatites 3:221thydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?, 5:394?magmatic ores 3:641physical properties 4:1491, 4:149fstability 3:580f

magnetometers 3:333-334magnetosphere 5:217, 5:217f, 5:218fmagnetostratigraphy 3:331-335

analytical techniques 3:333Appalachians 4:76fapparent polar wander paths 1:85'/",

4:153, 4:153fapplications 1:84, 1:8 6fBrunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal

5:506fcycle charts 5:169fEast Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA)

4:95, 4:96f, 4:99fEocene 5:467ffield sampling 3:333gauss 3:333-334general discussion 5:303geomagnetic polarity time-scale l : 8 1 f ,

l:83f, 3:331, 3:332fhistorical background 1:82-83Jurassic 3:353large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fmagnetic anomalies l:83f, 1:101, l:101f,

2:37f, 3:200, 3:201fmagnetic field reversals l:424f, 3:202magnetostratigraphical correlation

3:333/i 3:334methodology 1:84normal polarity 3:331Palaeocene 5:460fpetroleum exploration 4:296, 4:299fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33IfRaff-Mason magnetic

anomaly 5:399fremnant magnetization 3:332reversed polarity 3:331secular variation 3:334

Magnitogorsk-Tagil zone 2:86, 2:87f,2:90-91, 4:467

Magnolia 2:419fMagnus, Albertus 3:169Mahanadi Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fMaine, United States 4:91majorite 5:183tMakran Trench 5:430?, 5:430fMaksutovo Complex 2:88f, 2:88-89malachite 3:13Malaysia 4:192-193, 5:445?, 5:445f,

5:446-447Mallet, Robert 2:237-238malt whisky 3:82Malvinokaffric Province 2:293

mammaliaforms 2:527, 2:528fMammalian Neogene Reference Level

System 5:478, 5:479fmammals

Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fEutheria 2:535-540Mammalian Dispersal Event

(MDE) 5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f,5:471

Mesozoic 2:527-534background information 2:527diversifications 2:532evolutionary features

brain size 2:530diphyodont dental replacement

2:531general discussion 2:527inner ear cochlea 2:530jaw hinges 2:528mammaliaforms 2:528fmiddle ear 2:528phylogenetic relationships 2:528f

marsupials 2:528f, 2:533monotremes 2:528f, 2:533placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f

MioceneAfrica 5:484Australia 5:484Eurasia 5:484general discussion 5:483North America 5:483South America 5:484

Oligocene 5:475placental mammals 2:535-540

anatomy 2:535artiodactyls 2:536-537, 2:539bats 2:539Carnivora 2:539classification 2:535, 2:537fedentates 2:537/", 2:538Eocene 5:469-470epitheres 2:538evolutionary relationships 2:537f,

2:538Glires 2:539hominids 2:541-545

background information 2:541early hominids 2:541, 2:542fHomo erectus 2:542, 2:543fHomo babilis 2:541-542, 2:543fHomo neanderthalensis 2:542,

2:544fHomo sapiens 2:543

marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538mesonychids 2:539-540Mesozoic 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533fmolecular evolution 2:536Palaeocene 5:463, 5:465Perissodactyla 2:540physiology 2:535primates 2:538-539reproduction 2:535Rodentia 2:539

INDEX 701

mammals (continued)taxonomy 2:535tethytheres 2:540ungulates 2:539whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,

2:539-540, 5:469Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f

Mammoth Hot Springs terraces,Yellowstone, Wyoming, United States3:108 f

Mammut americanum 4:161 fMammuthus 5:498fmanganese (Mn)

anoxic environments 4:496-497carbonatites 3:223tcrustal composition 5:174tglauconite 3:542thydrothermal fluids 3:629?hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tkimberlites 3:248tmineral analysis l:108tobsidian 3:269?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:113-120compositional variability

Atlantic Ocean 5:119general discussion 5:117Indian Ocean 5:119Pacific Ocean 5:117, 5:118f

distributionAtlantic Ocean 4:105, 5:117buried nodules 5:117general discussion 5:115geographic distribution 5:116fIndian Ocean 5:117Pacific Ocean 5:116

economic potential 5:119elemental abundances 5:114tferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:76, 5:77f, 5:119historical background 5:113internal structure 5:114, 5:115f,

5:116foccurrence 5:113tertiary diagram 5:llSf

pyrolusite (MnO2) 4:382, 4:383fVenus 5:247?world production rates 1:43 8t

mangroves 3:524f, 3:530, 4:505-506,4:506f

Mangyshlak Peninsula,Kazakhstan 3:344

Manhattan earthquake, Kansas, UnitedStates 4:32

Manihiki Plateau 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:480man-made earthquakes 5:329Mansan, United States 3:363?mansfieldite 3:508fMantell, G. 2:509Mantiqueira orogenic system 1:307f^

l:313f, 1:315mantle 1:397-403

accretion models 1:400fcarbonatites 3:227, 3:227f, 3 : 2 3 I f ,

3:232f

compositionconvection 1:401-402, 1:402 fgeneral discussion 1:399mineralogy 1:401 fpyrolite hypothesis 1:399, l:401f

convection model 3:142, 3:143f, 3:193f,4:348

discontinuities 3:338internal structure 1:397, l:398f, 1:423,

1:423fkimberlites 3:255, 3:257f, 4:8-9, 4:llf,

4:473mantle keel 4:8-9melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

mid-ocean ridges 5:376-377, 5:378fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:647fplate tectonics 1:402properties 1:424?sampling techniques

chemical-equilibrium studies 1:397,1:398 f, 1:399 f

kimberlites 1:398meteoritic analogies 1:398, 1:400foceanic basalts 1:397peridotites 1:397, 1:399seismology 1:397

seismic imagesD" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338, 4:14ftransition zone 3:338, 3:338fupper mantle 3:337, 3:337f

stable isotope studies 3:228, 3:229fsubducted slabs 1:402tomography 1:402

mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:335-343carbonatites 3:228, 3:232fColumbia River Flood Basalts 5:480Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 3:383definition 3:335geochemical analysis 3:339global distribution 3:206fIndian Sub-Continent 3:292, 3:293flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:318,

3:318fmelting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

Palaeocene 5:461-462palaeoterranes 5:457petrological analysis 3:339plate tectonics 1:424, 4:348plume formation dynamics 3:341, 3:341fpropagating rifts 5:398, 5:399fseamounts 4:477seismic images

D" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338, 4:14f

transition zone 3:338, 3:338fupper mantle 3:337, 3:337/

superplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461surface expression 3:335, 3:336fvolcanoes 5:566f

Manuel del Rio, Andres 3:171Maochuangian stage 4:167fmapping

See field mapping; geological mapsMarasuchus 2:492, 2:493fMarathon Uplift 4:23f, 4:61, 4:64f, 4:66f,

4:68fmarble 3:102?, 3:387?, 3:396f, 5:534f,

5:535-536marcasite (FeS2)

crystal structure 3:575?, 3:576fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:630f, 5:394?nodules 4:385phase transformation diagram 3:580f

Mare Australe 5:267?Mare Crisium 5:267?Mare Fcecunditatis 5:267?Mare Frigoris 5:267?Mare Humboldtianum 5:267?Mare Humorum 5:267?Mare Imbrium 5:267?Mare Nectaris 5:267?Mare Nubium 5:267?Mare Orientale 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,

5:270-271Mare Serenitatis 5:267?Mare Smythii 5:267?Mare Tranquillitatis 5:267?Mare Vaporum 5:267?Margachitina 3:434margaritasite

((Cs,K,H)2(U02)2(V04)2-H20) 3:589?Margerie, Emmanuel de 2:238maria, lunar 5:267?Mariana Trench 4:344Marianian stage 4:167fmaricopaite 3:593?Marie Byrd Land l:133f, l:134f, 1:137,

3:129,3:139marine geology

See ocean trenches; oceansMariner 10 mission 5:238marine reptiles 2:502-508

Askeptosaurus 2:504Augustasaurus 2:506axial swimmers 2:503Clarazia 2:504Coniasaurus 2:504-505Corosaurus 2:506Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:380, 3:381fCrocodylus porosus 2:504Cyamodus 2:506Dakosaurus 2:504Dermochelys 2:505fDolichosaurus 2:504-505Dyrosaurus 2:504general discussion 2:483, 2:502Geosaurus 2:504

702 INDEX

marine reptiles (continued)Globidens 2:505Henodus 2:506Heschelaria 2:504Hyposaurus 2:504Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f,

3:358,3:380Keichousaurus 2:506Lariosaurus 2:506locomotion mechanisms 2:502-503mesosaurs 2:249, 2:479Mesosaurus 2:503fMetriorhynchus 2:504Mosasauroidea 2:504f9 2:504-505Mosasaurus 2:504-505Neusticosaurus 2:506nothosaurs 2:484Nothosaurus 2:506occurrences 2:502Ophtbalmosaurus 2:503-504Paraplacodus 2:506paraxial swimmers 2:505, 2:505fPistosaurus 2:506Placodontia 2:484, 2:506Placodus 2:506Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f, 3:358Plesiosaurus 2:506Pliosaurus 2:506Psephoderma 2:506Rhomaleosaurus 2:507fSauropterygia 2:484, 2:506Simosaurus 2:506Sphenisciformes 2:507Steneosaurus 2:504Stenopterygius 2:503f, 2:503-504Styxosaurus 2:506Teleorhinus 2:504Thalassiodracon 2:506Thalattosauria 2:504Thalattosuchia 2:504Trinacromerum 2:506-507Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505

Marion Plume 3:292marls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401f, 4:557Marquesas Islands 3:315f, 3:316tMarriotte, Edme 3:171-172Mars 5:272-281

aeolian processes 5:273asteroid bombardment 4:363-365atmosphere 1:197*, 1:200, 5:273climate variability 5:274cratering record 5:274crustal thickness 5:275, 5:275fdust storms 5:273, 5:274fEl Capitan 5:281fexploration missions 5:280, 5:281fgeneral discussion 1:421geological time-scale 5:274fglobal hemispheric dichotomy 5:275,

5:2 75 fgravity measurements 1:106Hydaspis Chaos 5:277, 5:277finterior structure 5:273, 5:273flarge-scale features 5:278meteorites 5:182-183, 5:234, 5:280

mineralogy 5:275obliquity 5:274Olympus Mons 5:278-279, 5:279/",

5:565orbital frequencies 1:41 Itorigin of life 4:128petrology 5:275, 5:276fphysical characteristics 5:272, 5:2 73 £planetary comparisons 1:426, 1:427fplate tectonics 3:206polar terrain 5:254f, 5:279properties l:422tsatellites 5:280Shergottite-Nakhlite-Chassigny (SNC)

meteorites 5:23 It, 5:234, 5:234f,5:280

Tharsis uplift 5:278Valles Marineris 5:279volcanoes 5:565, 5:577/~, 5:578water concentrations

general discussion 5:277gully formation 5:277-278hydrogen concentrations 5:278,

5:2 80 foutflow channels 5:277, 5:277fvalley networks 5:277, 5:278f

Marsdenian subdivision 4:202fMarshall Gilbert Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tMarshbrookian substage 4:183fmarshes 4:571fmarshite 3:554Marsh, O. C. 2:509, 3:180-181marsupials 2:528f, 2:533, 2:535-536,

2:538, 5:463, 5:465, 5:484Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, United

States 5:444, 5:445t, 5:445fMaryland, United States 3:147, 4:73fMascarene-La Poile back-arc basin 4:88,

4:91Mascarene Plateau 3:315f, 3:316tMaskelyne, N. 1:92maskelynite 3:281-282Mason, Brian 1:399-400Massachusetts, United States 5:444, 5:445tmass extinctions

Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BEE)5:462, 5:468, 5:470

carbon dioxide concentrations 4:223,4:223f

Carboniferous 4:212Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:372-385amphibians 2:523background information 3:372causal mechanisms

bolide impact craters 3:383large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383multiple events 3:384sea-level changes 3:383

impact structures 3:277, 3:283-284Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375fbackground information 3:372biostratigraphy 3:374Elvis taxa 3:377-378

fossil record 3:374, 3:377fhistorical background 3:373Lazarus taxa 3:377-378marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378, 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381fpseudoextinction 3:375-376,3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377,

3:377fstratigraphy 3:373fterrestrial invertebrates 3:381,

3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382fvegetation 3:382, 3:383f

Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501fstratigraphy 3:373ftektites 5:453

Deccan Traps 3:383, 4:198-199Devonian 1:264f9 4:194, 4:196, 4:197,

4:197f, 4:198Elvis taxa 3:377-378end-Cretaceous extinction 2:355end-Guadalupian extinction event 4:217,

4:221, 4:223, 4:223fend-Ordovician extinction 4:180end-Permian extinctions 4:219-225

amphibians 2:516causes

extraterrestrial impact 4:221general discussion 3:348global warming 4:222, 4:223fmarine invertebrates 3:348fvolcanism 4:222

definition 4:219general discussion 4:217Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,4:22 If

bivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317crinoids 4:220extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221fgastropods 2:387general discussion 3:348, 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221fmarine extinctions 4:220palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567Siberian Traps 4:222

Frasnian/Famennian (F/F) massextinction 4:197, 4:197f

Hangenberg bioevent 4:197, 4:197fKellwasser bioevent 4:197, 4:197flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321f,

3:322Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221f

INDEX 703

mass extinctions (continued]Oligocene 5:473, 5:476Pleistocene 5:497-498pseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377, 3:377fsuperanoxic event 4:499Vendian 4:379

Massif CentralCarboniferous 4:202fgranitic rocks 3:237?Palaeocene 2:117Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:98,

3:657Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:80, 2:83-84volcanic centres 2:120

mass wasting processes 3:93Mastodonsaurus 2:477f, 2:517fMathematicians Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tMather, William W. 2:195Mathilde 5:221, 5:22It, 5:223fMatlockian stage 5:473fMatterhorn2:133/"Matthews, Drummond 3:200-201Mattingly, T. 5:266?Mauchline basin 2:96f, 2:98Maud Rise 3:315f, 3:316?, 5:451f,

5:473-474Mauna Loa, Hawaii l:343f, 1:343-344,

5:575Maures Massif 2:75Mawson Continent 1:132-135Maxwell, Arthur 3:198Mayer, Josef 5:443mayflies 2:297f, 2:300tMayoan stage 5:479, 5:479^Mayr, Ernst 1:266, l:266fMazon Creek 2:274-275mazzite 3:593?mbobomkulite((Ni,Cu)Al4[(NO3)2,(SO4)]

(OH)12-3H20) 3:556?mcallisterite (Mg2B12O20-15H2O) 3:513tmcbirneyite (Cu3(VO4)2) 3:589?mccrillisite 5:121-122McGee,WJ. 2:196McKelvey formation 3:147, 3:150fMcLaren, Digby 3:195Mcmurdodus 2:463-465Mcnamaraspis 2:464f, 2:465fmeandering river systems 4:656/1, 4:657f,

4:659fMecca 5:228-229Medicine Bow orogeny 4:48-50Medieval climatic optimum 2:148f, 2:159?Mediterranean region

back-arc basins 3:654crustal structure 3:654eclogites 3:654Eocene 5:466-468fore-arc basins 3:654Holocene 2:148Mesozoic 2:135-146Miocene 5:481erogenic events

Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 3:654, 3:655f

cross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 2:135, 3:654, 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654^

Pliocene 5:486sedimentary basins 2:144subduction zones 2:136, 2:13 7f, 2:141 /,

2:142ftectonic processes 2:135-146

central Mediterranean 2:144eastern Mediterranean 2:144lithospheric thinning 2:136lithospheric westward drift 2:136,

2:141fpalaeogeodynamics 2:138f, 2:139 f,

2:140fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

2:135-136subduction zones 2:136, 2:13 7f,

2:141f, 2:142ftectonic evolution 2:141 fwestern Mediterranean 2:136, 2:140f,

2:141fTethys Ocean 2:135-146, 3:648Triassic 3:344Variscides Orogeny 2:135, 2:75

Mediterranean Sea 1:254, 2:151, 3:648,5:455,5:481

Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fMeek, Fielding B. 2:196Megalocephalus 2:473fMeghystrichosphaeridium reticulatum

4:361fMeguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fmeimechites 3:260Meishan, China 3:344, 3:345, 4:219,

4:224-225, 5:506fMeishucunian stage 4:167fMekong River 5:19?Melanesia

See Oceaniamelanization 5:199, 5:199fmelanovanadite (Ca(V4Oi0)-5H2O) 3:589?melanterite (FeSO4-7H20) 3:573melilitite 5:569-571melilitolite 3:220?melkovite(CaFeH6PO4(MoO4)4-6H2O)

3:552?melnikovite 5:394?Melonechinus 2:353fMelosh, H. Jay 5:449-450Menard, Henry 3:198Mendel, Gregor 2:161Mendocino escarpment 3:198Mendocino triple junction 4:58-60mendozavilite (Na(Ca,Mg)2Fe6(PO4)2

(PMo11O39)(OH,Cl)10-33H2O) 3:552?Merapi, Indonesia 5:575Mercury 5:238-244

atmospheric evolution 1:200general discussion 1:421historical background 5:238'horns' 5:23 8fimpact features 5:241magnetic field 5:241orbital frequencies 1:41 It

phases 5:23 8fphysical statistics 5:238planetary comparisons 1:426, 1:427fproperties 1:422?spacecraft missions

Bepi Colombo 5:242Mariner 10 5:238Messenger 5:242

surface terrain 5:239albedo 5:239-240Caloris Planitia 5:23 9fcraters

Bach 5:240fBeethoven 5:242fCopley 5:240fgeneral discussion 5:239Mena 5:241fTolstoj 5:240f

Rudaki plains 5:241 fTir Planitia 5:240f

volcanism 5:241Vulcan 5:238

mercury (Hg)hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?natural occurrences 3:553, 3:553?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114?soil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?world production rates 1:438?

merlinoite 3:593?Mertrud, Antoine 2:179Mesenosaurus 2:487Mesoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517fmesocataclasite 3:388?mesomylonite 3:388?mesonychids 2:539-540mesopause 1:201 fMesoproterozoic

Antarctica 1:132, l:134fAustralia 1:218boundary stratotypes 5:505Calymmian System 5:51 If, 5:517fEast European Craton 2:41 f, 2:48fEctasian System 5:511/", 5:517feukaryotes 4:356/", 4:357general discussion 4:350Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fPechora Basin 2:53fRodinia 1:218southern Cordillera 4:48Stenian System 5:51 If, 5:517fUral Mountains 2:49-56

mesosaurs 2:479Mesosaurus 2:249, 2:503fmesospherel:201f,5:217fMeso-Tethys Ocean 1:170f, 1:170-171,

1:175 fMesozoic

acritarchs 3:418-428amphibians 2:516-523, 2:524

background information 2:516

704 INDEX

Mesozoic (continued]Chroniosuchians 2:520end-Permian extinctions 2:516fossil assemblages 2:516Lissamphibia

caecilians2:527/; 2:522Celtedens ibericus 2:521fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521 ffrogs 2:521, 2:521fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521Karaurus sharovi 2:521 fsalamanders 2:521f, 2:522Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fTriadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 fValdotriton gracilis 2:522f

Rhytidosteroidea 2:517ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fBuettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fJurassic 2:520Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517fMastodonsaurus 2:517fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:5^ 7fSiderops kehli 2:519fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,

2:518 fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Andes Mountains 1:125angiosperms 2:418, 2:422fArgentina l:156f, 1:161bedded cherts 5:54birds (Aves)

Archaeopteryx 2:497Confudusornis 2:498fEnantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f,

2:500tevolutionary relationships 2:498fJeholornis 2:497Ornithuromorpha 2:498f, 2:499,

2:501fRahonavis 2:497Zhenzhoraptor 2:497

bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:377fbrachiopods 2:306fcarbon cycle 1:206corals 2:325fCretaceous

amphibians 2:516, 2:523Andes Mountains 1:128Arabia 1:142f, l:144fcalcareous algae 2:428f, 2:434fChina 1:347fclay occurrences 1:364

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary2:523

fossil assemblages 2:516insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:368, 3:369fLagerstatten 3:310tNorth Africa I:14f91:15f9 l:19f, l:22f,

1:23, 1:23 f, 1:24 fpredation 4:145-146Siberian craton 4:462southern Cordillera 4:52time-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508diagnostic characteristics 2:490,

2:491f, 2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495origins 2:492Ornithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493Thyreophora 2:493

physiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Reptilia 2:490Saurischia

general discussion 2:492f, 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:3Slf

Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350, 3:351fdolostones 5:91echinoderms 2:336f, 2:337echinoids 2:354fish 2:463fflying reptiles

pterosaurs 2:508affinities 2:513Anhanguera 2:515Austriadactylus 2:510body hair 2:511, 2:SllfCampylognathaides 2:513-514Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511,

2:513-514Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514,

2:515historical background 2:509integument 2:511Istiodactylus 2:5Wlocomotion 2:515origins 2:513palaeobiology 2:514phylogeny 2:513, 2:513fPreondactylus 2:513-514Pteraichnus 2:515-516Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515pterodactyloids 2:514Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:51 If,

2:515Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510

Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513,2:514,2:515

skeletal material 2:510, 2:51 Of,2:511 f

soft tissue 2:51 l,2:512ffossil fungi 2:438-440glauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fgymnosperms 2:422-423, 2:443, 2:446insects 2:296-298International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fJurassic

algae, benthic 3:355algae, planktonic 3:356ammonites 3:352, 3:357amphibians 2:516, 2:525, 2:526fAndes Mountains 1:128anoxic environments 3:355Antarctica l:134f, 1:135,

1:136, 1:137Arabia l:142f, l:144fAraucaria mirabilis 2:450fbackground information 3:352birds (Aves) 3:358-359bivalves (Bivalvia) 3:356-357, 4:141,

4:141f, 4:146f, 4:146-147brachiopods 3:356bryozoans(Bryozoa) 3:356calcareous algae 2:428fcephalopods 3:357China 1:347fchronostratigraphy 3:352, 3:352t,

4:25fcontinental evolution 3:354, 3:354fcorals 3:356crinoids 3:358crustaceans (Crustacea) 3:357Cycadeoidea microphylla 2:453fdinosaurs (Dinosauria) 3:358, 3:359fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38ffish 3:358foraminifera 3:356fossil assemblages 2:516gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:357geochronology 3:353, 3:354fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

geological evolution 1:18It, 1:186Indian Sub-Continent 3:292tJurassic, early 3:147Jurassic, end 3:147palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:188f,3:151f,3:152fterranes 1:170 f, 1:172f, 1:175 f,

3:131fgymnosperms

Corystospermales 2:452Czekanowskiales 2:451Pentoxylales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

Ichthyosauria 3:358insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:358

INDEX 705

Mesozoic (continued)International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fJapan 3:302, 3:303fLagerstatten3:310£marine reptiles 3:358molluscs 3:356North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,

1:23 fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:357, 3:460f,

3:461oysters 3:356-357Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45Ifpalaeoclimate 3:354pectenids 3:356-357porifera (Porifera) 3:356protists 3:356radiolarians 3:356reef environments 3:356Sagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fsea-level changes 4:26fSiberian craton 4:462southern Cordillera 4:52stages 3:352tterrestrial flora 3:359tetrapod radiations 1:273ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516fvertebrates 3:358Zamites gigas 2:453fzone concept 3:352

kimberlites 3:253fKyrgyzstan 1:167mammals 2:527-534

background information 2:527diversifications 2:532evolutionary features

brain size 2:530diphyodont dental replacement

2:531general discussion 2:527inner ear cochlea 2:530jaw hinges 2:528mammaliaforms 2:528fmiddle ear 2:528phylogenetic relationships 2:528f

marsupials 2:528f, 2:533monotremes 2:528f, 2:533placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f

marine reptiles 2:502Mediterranean region 2:135-146New Zealand 4:2f, 4:5fNorth Africa 1:16, l:16fnorthern Cordillera 4:44orogenic events 1:238'fpalaeoclimate models 4:135Pangaea3:131/; 4:225Papua New Guinea 4:109-110Parana basin l:320fplacental mammals 2:537fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417predation 4:145-146South-east Asia geological evolution

l:181tterranes 5:455, 5:457f

Triassicamphibians 2:516Andes Mountains 1:128Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136Arabia l:142f, l:144fAraucarioxylon 2:448fcalcareous algae 2:428f, 2:435fChina 1:347 fchronostratigraphy 4:25fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38fend-Permian extinctions 2:516fossil assemblages 2:516Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGondwana

geological evolution 1:181?, 1:184Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?late Triassic 1:184fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:184f, 3:148f, 3:149f, 3:150fterranes 1:170f, l:172f, 1:175f,

3:131fTriassic, early 3:147Triassic, late 3:147Triassic, middle 3:147

gymnospermsBennettitales 2:453, 2:453fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450Corystospermales 2:452general discussion 2:446Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fGnetales 2:453Peltaspermales 2:452

insects 2:300?, 3:350International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten 3:310tNorth Africa 1.-14/", l:15f,

l:19f,l:21ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:348f, 3:460fPangaea 4:226f, 4:227predation 4:145-146sea-level changes 4:26fSiberian craton 4:462southern Cordillera 4:52Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251time-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

Turkmenistan 1:166Uzbekistan 1:167vertebrates

conodonts 3:441, 3:447flying reptiles 2:508

weathering effects 5:589-590See also Cretaceous; Triassic

Messenger 5:242Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25, 5:481Messinian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fmeta-autunite 3:508f, 5:123fmetabasalts 3:405metadelrioite (CaSrV2O6(OH)2) 3:589tmetahewettite (Ca(V6O16)-3H2O) 3:589tmetal deposits 3:553metalodevite 3:508f

metamorphic rocksaggregates 1:35carbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399, 3:400fclassification 3:386-402, 4:453t

anomalies 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453,4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:453naming procedures 3:389f, 3:390nomenclature 3:386, 3:3871structural terminology 3:390?

densities 5:321ffeldspars 3:537formation processes

duration 3:392fluids 3:392general discussion 3:391geothermal gradient 3:392fGibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393flocal metamorphism 3:393mineral structures 3:394, 3:395fphysicochemical reactions 3:393,

3:393/i 3:394fpressure 3:392pressure-temperature diagram 3:393fregional metamorphism 3:392-393temperature 3:391

gemstonesemeralds 3:12general discussion 3:12rubies 3:12sapphires 3:12

geotechnical properties 3:102?gneiss

Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429,4:10f94:13f94:15f, 4:350

definition 3:387, 3:388?geotechnical properties 1:545?, 3:102?granitic gneiss 3:599Lewisian Gneiss Complex 4:11Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607 f, 3:607-608regional metamorphism 3:396f

Hidaka Metamorphic Belt, Japan3:240-241

mafic rocks 2:41, 3:240?, 3:394-396,3:396f, 3:397, 3:398f

marls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401fmetamorphic facies 3:402-409

allofacial conditions 3:407assemblages

amphibolite facies 3:403, 3:403/~,3:404f, 3:407f

blueschist facies 3.-403/", 3:404,3:404f, 3:407f

contact metamorphism 3:406eclogite facies 3:403f, 3:404, 3:404/",

3:407 fgeneral discussion 3:403granulite facies 3:403f, 3:404,

3:404/", 3:407fgreenschist facies 3:403, 3:403/~,

3:404f, 3:407fprehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:405,

3:405f

706 INDEX

metamorphic rocks (continued]sub-greenschist facies 3:403f,

3:404f, 3:405, 3:407fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

facies 3:405, 3:406fultrahigh-temperature metamorphic

facies 3:406, 3:406fzeolite facies 3:404, 3:405f

basic principles 3:402boundary transitions 3:407f9 3:408isofacial conditions 3:407metamorphic intensity 3:402mineral zones 3:408partial melting 3:407volatile components 3:406, 3:407fwater (H2O) 3:406, 3:407f

metamorphic petrology 3:187micas 3:550mineral assemblages

carbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399,3:400f

mafic rocks 3:397, 3:398fmarls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401fpelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f, 3:398,

3:400fquartzofeldspathic rocks 3:397,

3:399fultramafic rocks 3:396, 3:397f

mineral deposits 3:496New Zealand 4:4f, 4:6nomenclature

classification 3:386definitions 3:3 #7*main specific rock name 3:386, 3:387tminor specific rock name 3:386,

3:388tnaming procedures 3:389f9 3:390structural root names 3:387, 3:388tstructural terminology 3:390t

northern Cordillera 4:43pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f, 3:398,

3:400fplagioclase 3:538, 3:539fpressure-temperature-time (PTt) paths

3:409-417age determination 3:416anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,

3:416fbackground information 3:409basic principles 3:409, 3:410fclockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416fcontact metamorphism 3:406, 3:414,

3:415fcontrolling factors 3:410crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,

3:414fexhumation rates 3:409-410, 3:413,

3:416, 3:416fgeneral discussion 3:417Gibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393fas interpretative tool 3:416, 3:416fschematic diagram 3:415fstable geotherm 3:411, 3:411f9 3:415ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412f

protoliths 3:394, 3:396fquartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396, 3:396f,

3:397, 3:399fquartz (SiO2) 3:571schist l:545t, 3:102t, 3:387, 3:388tshock metamorphism 5:179-184

controversies 5:182damage effects 5:182fhydrocode calculations 5:181impact craters 5:179, 5:182fimpact structures

diaplectic minerals 3:281-282,3:282f

fused minerals 3:281, 3:281 fgeneral discussion 3:280high-pressure polymorphs 3:282impact melting 3:281, 3:281fplanar microstructures 3:282,

3:282fpressure-temperature diagram

3:280fshatter cones 3:282, 3:282f

melting 5:2 SO*, 5:2 S3*peak pressure magnitudes 5:180t,

5:183planar deformation features 5:183tshock metamorphic effects 5:182,

S:183tshock wave propagation 5:180vaporization 5:180t

silicate minerals 3:561-567chlorites

characteristics 3:564crystal structure 3:564firon/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratios

3:565foptical properties 3:565fserpentine 3:566f, 3:566

epidote mineral groupcordierite 3:235*, 3:240-241,

3:241f9 3:400f9 3:563general discussion 3:563tourmaline 3:7*, 3:563

garnetsaluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562fcharacteristics 3:561geographic distribution 3:7*granites 3:235*, 3:240-241kimberlites 3:254, 3:256*, 3:2S7fmetamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:399f,

3:400f, 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405mineral analysis l:108t, 1:117fmineral deposit formation 3:496pressure-temperature diagram

3:562fspectral data 1:111 fstaurolite 3:563thermodynamic diagram 3:562fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

rocks 5:534-535, 5:535fsite classification 2:3*slate 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:3S7*, 3:396fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533-540background information 5:533

coesite 5:533, 5:533/i 5:534;"exsolution effects 5:535/", 5:535-536formation mechanisms 5:538, 5:539fglobal distribution

Alps 5:536f, 5:537Bohemian Massif 5:535-536,

5:536f, 5:538, 5:539continent-continent collisions 5:539Dabie Shan, China 5:533,

5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:537general discussion 5:536Himalayan Mountains 5:53 6/",

5:538, 5:539Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan

5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536f,5:537, 5:539

Norwegian Caledonides 5:53 6f,5:537

occurrences S:S36fpolyphase aggregates 5:538fVariscides Orogeny 5:538

identification process 5:533metamorphic facies 3:405, 3:406fmineral assemblages 5:533Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:646-647pressure-temperature diagram 5:533f,

5:539fultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f, 3:394,

3:396, 3:396f, 3:397fzeolites 3:598zircon 3:602

metamorphismbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39contact metamorphism 3:393, 3:406,

3:414, 3:415fhydrothermal metamorphism 3:393impact metamorphism 3:393metamorphic facies 3:402-409

allofacial conditions 3:407assemblages

amphibolite facies 3:403, 3:403f9

3:404f9 3:407fblueschist facies 3:403 f9 3:404,

3:404f9 3:407fcontact metamorphism 3:406eclogite facies 3:403f9 3:404,3:404f9

3:407fgeneral discussion 3:403granulite facies 3:403 f, 3:404,

3:404f9 3:407fgreenschist facies 3:403, 3:403f,

3:404f, 3:407fprehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:405,

3:405fsub-greenschist facies 3:403f9

3:404f9 3:405, 3:407fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic

facies 3:405, 3:406fultrahigh-temperature metamorphic

facies 3:406, 3:406fzeolite facies 3:404, 3:405f

basic principles 3:402boundary transitions 3:407f9 3:408isofacial conditions 3:407metamorphic intensity 3:402

INDEX 707

metamorphism (continued)mineral zones 3:408partial melting 3:407volatile components 3:406, 3:407fwater (H2O) 3:406, 3:407f

ocean-floor metamorphism 3:392-393erogenic metamorphism 3:392-393pressure-temperature-time (PTt) paths

3:409-417age determination 3:416anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,

3:416fbackground information 3:409basic principles 3:409, 3:41 Ofclockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416fcontact metamorphism 3:414, 3:415fcontrolling factors 3:410crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,

3:414fexhumation rates 3:409-410, 3:413,

3:416, 3:416fgeneral discussion 3:417Gibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393fas interpretative tool 3:416, 3:416fmetamorphic facies 3:412, 3:412fschematic diagram 3:415fstable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f,

3:415'ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412fregional metamorphism 4:407-413

definition 3:392-393deformation processes 4:408metamorphic facies

amphibolite facies 3:412f, 4:409,4:409f, 4:410, 4:413

Barrovian-type metamorphiccomplex, Naxos, Greece 4:410,4:411/", 4:412*

blueschist facies 3:41 If, 4:409f,4:409-410

contact metamorphism 3:406,3:414, 3:41Sf

crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,3:414f

eclogite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,4:409-410

epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409,4:409f

facies diagram 4:409fgranulite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,

4:410, 4:413greenschist facies 3:412f, 4:409,

4:409f, 4:410, 4:413high pressure facies 4:409low pressure facies 4:410medium pressure facies 4:410petrologic studies 4:408temperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412fvery low grade facies 4:410

metasomatism 4:407mineral relationships 4:408prograde paths 4:408retrograde paths 4:408

subduction zones 4:407terranes 4:407

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:242, l:246fthermal metamorphism 5:499-502

geological settingsfluid-rock interactions 5:502lithospheric fragments 5:499, 5:500fmagmatic intrusions 5:500, 5:501f,

5:502fmineral zones 5:501, 5:501fregional scale processes 5:499thermal structure 5:499, 5:500fvolcanism 5:501

See also diagenesismetamunirite (NaVO3) 3:589tmetanovacekite 3:508fmetarossite (Ca(V2O6)-2H2O) 3:589tMetasequoia 2:45Ifmetasomatism 3:229, 3:232f, 4:407metatherians 2:528f, 2:533f, 2:533-534metatyuyamunite

(Ca(UO2)2(VO4)24H2O) 3:589tmetavanadates 3:589tmetavanuralite

(A1(U02)2(V04)2(OH)-8H20) 3:589*Metaxygnathus 2:472, 2:472fMeteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona, United

States 3:279f, 3:571meteorites 5:228-237

age determinationcosmic ray exposure 5:233formation age 5:233formation interval 5:233terrestrial age 5:231, 5:232f, 5:233f

Antarctica 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236, 5:236f,5:237f

Australia 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:232f, 5:236classification

achondrites 5:234fchondrites 5:23 Ofdifferentiated meteorites 5:23Itgeneral discussion 5:229iron meteorites 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:231*,

5:233tmeteorites within meteorites 5:230Shergottite-Nakhlite-Chassi

(SNC) meteorites 5:231*, 5:234,5:234f, 5:280

stony-iron meteorites 5:23Of, 5:23It,5:233t

stony meteorites 5:228f, 5:23It,5:233t

undifferentiated meteorites 5:2311cratering 5:235current discovery locations 5:236Earth origins 1:398, l:400f, 1:423,1:427fossil meteorites 5:235historical record 5:228hydrogen concentrations 1:200fMiddlesborough Meteorite 5:228fMoon 5:268-270Mundrabilla iron meteorites 5:232fMurchison meteorite 4:127-128occurrences 5:233*olivine 3:560

origin of life 4:127-128phosphorus occurrences 3:554provenance

asteroidal sources 5:233, 5:234flunar sources 5:235, 5:235fMartian sources 5:234, 5:234f

research areas 5:236shock metamorphic effects 5:182-183,

5:183tSikhot-Alin meteorite fall 5:228ftektites 5:235

meteorological hazards 1:516, 1:5171Meteor Rise 3:315f, 3:316tmethane (CHU)

accretionary wedges 5:312, 5:314fatmospheric concentrations l:197t,

1:207Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383extinction events 4:223, 4:223flong-term carbon cycle l:336fnatural gas content 4:258, 4:259*, 4:259foil composition 4:259fOligocene 5:475short-term carbon cycle 1:335See also gas hydrates

methanogenic bacteria 4:365, 4:367Methow terrane 4:40f, 4:46Metrarabdotus 1:268-269, l:271fMetriorhynchus 2:504Mexico

Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, l:105f,3:283, 3:363*, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,5:453-454

gemstones 3:7*, 3:11Miocene 5:480Oligocene 5:475, 5:476-477Ouachita Mountains 4:62pterosaurs 2:513-514southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:54, 4:58

meyerhofferite (Ca2B6Oir7H2O) 3:512*,3:513*

Mezen Basin 2:41f, 4:456micas 3:548-550

chemical composition 3:549crystal structure l:360f, 3:549, 3:549f,

3:5 5 Ofgeneral discussion 3:548granites 3:235*, 3:240-241hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632igneous rocks 3:550layer type 1:361, 1:361*metamorphic rocks 3:399f, 3:400f,

3:401 f, 3:550optical properties 3:550paragenesis 3:550physical properties 3:550pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fsandstones 5:143*sedimentary rocks 3:550vine nourishment 3:87f, 3:88

Michel-Levy, Auguste 3:184Michigan Basin 4:33fMichigan, United States 4:33-34Micraster 2:352f

70S INDEX

micntecarbonate matrices 3:525-526, 3:527fchemical diagenesis 1:394limestones 5:110

microbial mats 1:284, l:284f, 4:223-224,4:377

Microbrachis 2:476fmicrocline 3:88, 3:534fmicroevolution

See evolutionmicroflora 3:419, 3:420-421, 3:427fmicrofossils

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425Cambrian 4:169fclassification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359extraction methods 3:473late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:42Ifprocesses 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422fwall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426f9 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fpreservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f, 4:191

biodiversity 1:261biosediments 1:279-294

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

biofilms 1:283, 1:283 fbiomarkers 1:292, 1:293 fbiosignatures 1:285, 1:28 5tchemical fossils 1:293filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f,

4:368fossilization process 1:288geographic distribution l:280f, 1:282glossary information 1:294interpretive processes 1:288, 1:292fmicrobial effects

precipitation processes 1:284, l:284ttrapping and binding 1:285

microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,4:223-224, 4:377

oldest microfossils 1:291, 1:292fsignificance 1:282stromatolites

Archaean stromatolites. SeeArchaean; stromatolites

biosediments 1:285biosignatures 1:28 5tformation processes l:287f, l:288t,

3:109interpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556physical properties l:286fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

tree of life 1:279, I:280f9

4:124, 4:125fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:428-440

applicationsbiostratigraphy 3:434palaeobiogeography 3:439palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439f

biological affinity 3:432carbon isotopic ratios 3:439classification

Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:43If,3:435f

Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,3:43Sf

Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,3:435f

Operculatifera 3:430Ordovician 3:430Prosomatifera 3:430

evolutionary trends 3:434extraction methods 3:473intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:43OfMargachitina 3:434morphology 3:428, 3:429f9 3:435f,

3:436fpalynology 3:468Pterochitina 3:434Silurian 4:191structure 3:428vesicle linkages 3:43 Of

Coccolithophoridaechalk 4:556, 5:42, 5:43f, 5:44, 5:45f,

5:112Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72/",

5:74, 5:74f, 5:75tJurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476

conodonts 3:440-448anatomy 3:441, 3:441 f, 3:442fapparatus functions 3:446, 3:447farchitecture 3:443f, 3:446biological affinity 3:445, 3:445fbiostratigraphy 3:447characteristics 2:455cladogram 3:445fclassification

Belodellida 3:446Ozarkodinida 3:442-443, 3:446Panderodontida 3:443, 3:446Paraconodonta 3:447Prioniodinida 3:446Prioniodontida 3:442-443, 3:446Proconodontida 3:446Protopanderodontida 3:446

Clydagnathus 3:442fevolution 3:447extraction methods 3:472Hindeodus parvus 4:219internal structure 3:443, 3:443fmorphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,

3:444fOrdovician index fossils 4:175-184preservation 3:441Promissum 3:44IfSilurian 4:185-186soft tissue preservation 3:308South-east Asia 1:184fas thermal maturation index 3:448

diatomsbiogenic silica 4:500, 4:556, 5:52deep-ocean pelagic deposits

4:646t, 5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75,5:75t

extraction methods 3:473forensic geology 2:270-271, 2:272flacustrine deposits 4:556Oligocene 5:476siliceous sediments 5:35

dinoflagellatesCretaceous 3:366, 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fextraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:462

eukaryotes 4:354-363algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359fArchaean eukaryotes 4:357atmospheric evolution 1:202, 1:203biodiversity 1:261biomineralization 4:359-360carbonaceous compression 4:357,

4:358, 4:360general discussion 4:354heterotrophy 4:360Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,

4:357Neoproterozoic eukaryotes

early animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic

4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 4:362-363general discussion 4:358late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 f,

4:362fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360

Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,4:357

phylogenetic relationships 4:355ftestate amoeba 4:360tree of life l:203f,4:365f

foraminifera 3:448-453allogromids 3:450fammodiscana 3:451fastrorhizana 3:45Ifastrorhizata 3:45Ifastrorhizids 3:45OfBenthic Foraminiferal Extinction

(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470

INDEX 709

microfossils (continued]buliminids 3:450fclassification 3:449, 3:45OfCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75tEocene 5:468extraction methods 3:471favusellids 3:45Offusulinids 3:45Ofgeneral discussion 3:448globigerinids 3:45Ofhormosinana 3:45Ifinvoluntinids 3:45OfJurassic 3:356lacustrine deposits 4:556lagenids 3:45Oflagynana 3:45Iflituolids 3:45Ofloftusiids 3:45Ofmiliolana 3:45Ifmiliolata 3:45Ifmiliolids 3:450^nodosariana 3:45Ifnodosariata 3:451fOligocene 5:473, 5:476Palaeocene 5:462Permian 4:216rank 3:449robertinids 3:45Ofrotaliana 3:45Ifrotaliata 3:45Ifrotaliids 3:45Ofshell morphology 3:451 f, 3:452fsilicoloculinids 3:45Ofspirillinana 3:45Ifspirillinata 3:45Ifspirillinids 3:45Oftextulariana 3:45Iftextulariids 3:45Of

micropalaeontological techniques3:470-475

extraction methodsacid-insoluble microfossils 3:472acritarchs 3:473calcareous microfossils 3:471calcareous nannofossils 3:471,

3:472fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:473conodonts 3:472diatoms 3:473dinoflagellates 3:473foraminifera 3:471general discussion 3:470organic microfossils 3:473ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:471pollen 3:473radiolarians 3:473siliceous microfossils 3:473spores 3:473

sampling procedures 3:470separation/concentration methods

flotation 3:474magnetic separation 3:474

sieving 3:474specimen selection 3:475

nannofossils 3:471, 3:472fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463

applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454tCretaceous 3:460f, 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures 1:262tecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556life cycle 3:457morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,

3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459fMyodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457,

3:458/, 3:460fOrdovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa

classification 3:453, 3:454?ecology 3:457living examples 3:454fmorphology 3:455f, 3:456fshell morphology 3:457/~, 3:458f,

3:459fstratigraphic ranges 3:460f

Quaternary 3:460f, 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,

4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

palynology 3:464-469acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fbackground information 3:464biostratigraphy 3:465carbonization studies 3:469, 3:469fclimate variability 3:465coal seams 3:468-469geological research (1900-1962)

3:189interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fKnoxisporites stephanephorus 3:464fpalynological zonations 3:468fpeat deposits 3:468-469pollen 3:473pre-Quaternary palynology 3:468Quaternary 3:464spores 3:473vegetation reconstructions 3:466f

prokaryotes 4:363-370biochemical evidence 4:365biogenicity criteria 4:369filamentous microbes 4:367f, 4:368fossil evidence 4:352

general discussion 4:354origins 4:3 64fphylogenetic relationships 4:355fsilicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368stromatolites 4:367, 4:367fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366tree of life 4:3 65f

radiolariansallopatric-speciation 2:163biogenic silica 4:500, 5:52Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72/i 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?extraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:464phyletic gradualism 1:270fradiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsiliceous sediments 5:35

stromatolitesArchaean stromatolites

attributes l:286f, 1:289?columnar stromatolites 1:291 fconical stromatolites 1:291 fdomical stromatolite 1:290fgeneral discussion 1:285, 4:367geographic distribution 1:280fphotograph 4:367fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

biosediments 1:285biosignatures 1:285?formation processes 1:287f, 1:288?interpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556physical properties 1:286freef environments 3:524f, 4:565

Micropalaeontological Society 3:75micropalaeontological techniques

3:470-475extraction methods

acid-insoluble microfossils 3:472acritarchs 3:473calcareous microfossils 3:471calcareous nannofossils 3:471, 3:472fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:473conodonts 3:472diatoms 3:473dinoflagellates 3:473foraminifera 3:471general discussion 3:470organic microfossils 3:473ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:471pollen 3:473radiolarians 3:473siliceous microfossils 3:473spores 3:473

sampling procedures 3:470separation/concentration methods

flotation 3:474magnetic separation 3:474sieving 3:474specimen selection 3:475

Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:S20fMicroraptor 2:495

710 INDEX

microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476fmicrotektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f,

5:447-448, 5:45If, 5:452-453Microwave Imager 4:439microwave radiation 4:414Mid-Atlantic Ridge

crustal structure 5:412, 5:415fcrustal thickness 5:416fdivergent plate boundaries 4:342, 4:344ffractional crystallization 3:215f,

3:215-216heat flux S:363fhydrothermal vents 5:371?, 5:390magma supply 5:379seamounts 4:477?, 4:479seismic structure 5:412seismic velocities 5:415fshaded relief map 5:3 73 fspreading centre topography 5:3 74f

Middle America Trench 5:430?, 5.-430/",5:435f

Middlesborough Meteorite S:228fMidlands terrane 2:61Midland Valley terrane 2:60, 2:96f,

2:97-98, 2:99mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum 5:482,

5:483mid-ocean ridges 5:372-387

axial neovolcanic zone 5:380background information 5:372divergent plate boundaries 4:342,

4:343f, 4:344f, 5:374feruption frequency 5:383faulting processes

abyssal hills 5:384-386, S:386ffault scarps 5:384f, S:38Sfgeneral discussion 5:383transform faults 3:202, 3:203f, 5:375,

5:386fvolcanic growth faults 5:386f,

5:386-387fractional crystallization 3:215-216global distribution 3:206fgranitic rocks 3:237?heat flux 5:363fhydrothermal activity 5:362hydrothermal vents 5:388-395

background information 5:388biological habitats 5:388f, 5:392black smokers

chlorinity 5:3 711East Pacific Rise 5:366/", 5:388,

5:388fecology 3:105growth stages 5:392f, S:393fmineral deposits 3:491, 3:628,

5:388occurrence 3:115, 5:365structure S:390f

chimneys 5:390, 5:390/~, S:393fdeposit size 5:390edifices 5:390, 5:390fformation locations

fast-spreading ridges 5:389general discussion 5:389

intermediate-spreading ridges 5:389slow-spreading ridges 5:389

fossil record 5:394general discussion 5:373-375growth stages 5:391, 5:392f9 S:393fmineralogy 5:391, 5:394?morphology 5:390, 5:393forigin of life 4:128structure 5:390, 5:390fwhite smokers 5:365, 5:390f,

5:390-391magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmantle convection 4:348mantle plumes (hotspots). See mantle

plumes (hotspots)melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

propagating rifts 5:396-405bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, 5:404fcausal mechanisms 5:398, 5:399fcontinental propagators 5.-402/", 5:403,

5:403f, 5:404fevolution 5:396implications 5:403microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401foceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396/",

5:397^pseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f

ridge segmentationaxial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:3 78f,

5:379faxial variations 5:381fcharacteristics 5:376?discontinuities 5:374f, 5:375, 5:376?,

5:377/",5:37S/;5:379/general discussion 5:375geochemical correlations 5:380fhierarchies 5:377fmagma supply 5:375, 5:378f, 5:382fmantle upwelling 5:376-377, 5:378ftransform faults 5:375, 5:386f,

5:396frift valleys 5:438seamounts 4:475, 4:477?, 4:479sea water chemistry 5:96seismic structure 5:405-417

axial magma chambercharacteristics 5:408f, 5:409f,

5:410, 5:414fcrustal structure 5:411fearly research 5:407schematic diagram 5:413fseismic profile 5:409fseismic velocities 5:410, 5:411f

background information 5:405crustal thickness 5:415f, 5:416fmagma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity

characteristics 5:412, 5:414fgeneral discussion 5:412schematic diagram 5:413f

seismic layer 2Acharacteristics 5:407, 5:408f, 5:409fcrustal structure 5:41 If, 5:415fcrustal thickening 5:41 Ofearly research 5:406geological significance 5:407seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f

structural variations 5:414, 5:415f,5:416f

shaded relief map 5:373fspreading centres

Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:97faxial depth profiles 5:3 75faxial variations 5:381ffaulting processes 5:385fgravity measurements 1:101, l:101fheat flux 5:363fmagnetic anomalies 1:83fmorphology 5:373overlapping spreading centres 5:374f,

5:375, 5:396-405Pangaea 3:143fpropagating rifts 5:396-405sea floor spreading

astronomically calibratedtime-scales 1:83 f

continental drift theory 3:204-205Cretaceous 3:362-363early research 3:198Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203Eocene 5:466

topography 5:374f, 5:384-386thermal metamorphism 5:501volcanoes 5:566f

Mid-Pacific Mountains 3:315f, 3:316?Migliorini, Carlo 3:188migmatites 1:242-243, 3:238f, 3:388t,

3:396f, 3:407Migneintian stage 4:183fMilankovich cycles 1:410-421

chalk sea 5:48eustatic cycles 5:170, 5:270?geological time-scale 5:516historical research 5:494orbital variations 1:413/, 4:131palaeoclimate 1:206, 4:131, 4:208Pliocene 5:457?, 5:489tidal forces 1:422Triassic 3:345-346

Milankovich, M. 1:410, 4:131, 5:494miliolana 3:45Ifmiliolata 3:45Ifmiliolids 3:450fmilitary geology 3:475-487

engineering geologydugout construction map 3:483ftunnelling 3:481, 3:482fWorld War II 3:481

geophysical techniques 1:495-496,1:49 6f

German military geologistsengineering geology 3:481quarrying activities 3:478, 3:479f,

3:484fterrain analysis 3:483, 3:484f

INDEX 711

military geology (continued)water supply 3:479, 3:481f

historical background 3:476present-day activities 3:486-487quarrying activities 3:478, 3:479f,

3:480f, 3:484fremote sensing 3:486-487specialty geological maps 3:483, 3:483f,

3:484f, 3:485f, 3:486fterrain analysis 3:483, 3:484fwater supply 3:479, 3:479f, 3:481f,

3:482fmillerettids 2:479-481Miller, Hugh 1:383Miller indices 3: 178millerite (NiS) 3:575tMiller, Stanley 4: 123Miller, William 3:178millisite 5:126Milner, Henry 3:188Mimas 5:287, 5:287tmimetite 3:508fMimia 2:464fMindel stage 5:493mineral analysis 1:107-118

analytical transmission electronmicroscope 1:109*, 1:113

chemical analyses l:108tcompositional mapping 1:116, 1:117 felectron microprobe analysis

chemical analyses l:108telectron scattering 1:109, 1 :110fgeneral discussion 1:109, l:109tmatrix corrections 1:112X-ray generation 1:109X-ray spectrometry

energy-dispersive technology 1:111,

energy resolution 1:111general discussion 1:110germanium detectors 1:112, l:112tperformance ranges 1:112tsilicon drift detector (SDD) 1:112,

l:112tsilicon-lithium (Si-Li) detectors

1:112,1:112*wavelength-dispersive technology

1:110, l:110f, l:112t,l:117fX-ray bolometry 1:112, l:112t

element plots l:108fFourier transform infrared (FTIR)

spectroscopy 1:117general discussion 1:107ion microprobe 1:115laser ablation 1:108*, 1:109*, 1:114,

l:114f,l:116fmicroanalytical techniques 1:107-108,

1:109*Mossbauer spectroscopy 1:117proton induced X-ray emission 1:109*,

1:113sample preparation 1:108scanning electron microscope 1:109*,

1:113, l:116fX-ray fluorescence 1:109*, 1:114

mineral depositsapplications

building materials 1:437energy resources 1:437industrial minerals 1:437, 1:438*,

l:438fmetallic mineral deposits 1:437,

1:438*, 1:43 8fArabia 1:152Atlantic Margin 4:105Australia 1:218f, 1:221biological habitats 5:388f, 5:388-389carbonatites 3:221, 3:221*deposit characteristics

deposit developmentflowchart 1:43 6f

economic attributes 1:436general discussion 1:436geological attributes 1:436

exploration trends 3:497genetic processes 3:488-497

ancient sedimentary rock associations3:493, 3:495f

background information 3:488bacterial action 3:490-491basic igneous rock associations 3:491carbonate sequences 3:495felsic igneous rock associations 3:492,

3:493fhydrothermal activity 3:494-495industrial minerals 3:489-490, 3:496metamorphic rock associations 3:496meteoric waters 3:491placer deposits 3:489, 3:490ftectonic deformation 3:496ultrabasic igneous rock associations

3:491weathering 3:488-489, 3:489f

geochemical exploration 3:21-29buried deposits 3:23, 3:26fdiamond exploration 3:22elemental analysis 3:21environmental geochemical mapping

3:27, 3:28fregional geochemical surveys 3:27sample analysis 3:26sediment analysis 3:21, 3:25fsulphide minerals 3:21, 3:26f

global distribution 1:438, l:439fgravity measurements 1:104hydrothermal ore deposits 3:628-637

alteration products 3:631background information 3:628epithermal deposits 3:634fluid sources

general discussion 3:632geothermal gradient 3:635, 3:636fmagma-heated waters 3:634, 3:63Sfmagma-hydrothermal fluids 3:632,

3:633fgangue minerals 3:630gemstone deposits 3:11gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,

3:630*, 3:63Sfhydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629*

hydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630*,3:630f,3:631f, 5:388

porphyry ore deposits 3:633/i 5:369stratiform ores 3:634

life cycle activitiesend of life studies 1:440*, 1:443feasibility studies 1:440*, 1:441,

l:442fmine development 1:440*, 1:441,

l:442fmineral extraction 1:440*, 1:442,

2:26, 2:27fnew deposit discovery 1:440, 1:440*,

1:441 frelevant geological knowledge 1:439,

1:440*mineral extraction

engineering services 1:443environmental impacts 2:26, 2:27flife cycle activities 1:440*, 1:442mineral processing 1:443mineral reserves 1:442mining procedures 1:443

North American continentalinterior 4:33

plate tectonics 1:440fpotash deposits 5:94Russia 4:472f, 4:473South-east Asia 1:190, l:19Sfsulphide minerals 3:574-586

anoxic environments 4:495-496,4:497f

arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:582-583,3:583f

crystal structure 3:574, 3:575*, 3:576f,3:577f

geobarometry 3:583geothermometry 3:582-583hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:393/",

5:394*limestones 5:112new deposit discovery 1:441 fore deposit types 3:584, 3:585*phase relationships 3:581fphase transformation

diagram 3:580fphysical properties 3:576, 3:577*plate tectonics 1:440fpyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497fsphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:S84fstability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580fsulphidation curves 3:582f

world production rates 1:438*See also economic geology; mining

geology; ore bodies; specificminerals

Mineral Resources Department 1:370,1:371

mineralsSee specific minerals

mineral species 3:498-503amorphous structure 3:499classification

Dana classification system 3:502,3:502*

1:111,f, 1:111,t

712 INDEX

mineral species (continued]Hey's chemical classification system

3:501*, 3:501-502historical background 3:500Lima-de-Faria classification system

3:502, 3:502?modern classification systems 3:501Strunz classification system 3:502t,

3:502-503Commission on New Minerals and

Mineral Names (CNMMN) 3:499crystal structures 3:499definition 3:498mineraloids 3:500naming procedures 3:500polytypes 3:499validation process 3:499varietal names 3:500

mining geologyborehole analysis 3:609-612

core recoveryborehole inclination 3:612fcounterflush drilling 3:612fdouble-tube core barrel 3:611 fflushing media 3:611 fgeneral discussion 3:610tubular drill rod 3:61 If

drilling technologydrill bits 3:61 Of, 3:612hydrogeological borehole casing

3:610frotary core drilling 3:609f,

3:609-610underground exploration drilling

3:610fwire-line drilling 3:609-610

mineral exploration 3:617, 3:620,3:621f

fluid inclusionsanalytical techniques

bulk methods 2:259microthermometry 2:259optical methods 2:259point methods 2:259

applicationschemical composition 2:259as tools in exploration 2:260gemology 2:260, 2:260fas geobarometer 2:255,2:257,2:25 8 fas geothermometer 2:255, 2:257,

2:2S8fnuclear waste repositories 2:260pitfalls 2:256

aqueous and gaseous inclusions 2:258,2:2S8f

characteristicsdaughter minerals 2:255, 2:255fdouble bubble inclusion 2:255fhost material 2:254immiscible assemblages 2:256fmorphology 2:254, 2:255fphases 2:254, 2:258f

crystallization conditions 2:257,2:257f

definition 2:253

formation processes 2:254genetic classification 2:254, 2:254fmelt inclusions 2:258recrystallization effects 2:256, 2:257f

gemstones 3:6-13alluvial deposits

eluvial deposits 3:7, 3:10f, 3:603tmining methods 3:7, 3:9f, 3:10fpanning 3:8, 3:8'frubies 3:8ruby deposits 3:9sapphires 3:8tracer gems 3:8

background information 3:6geographic distribution 3:7tigneous rocks

extrusive rocks 3:10general discussion 3:10hydrothermal fluids 3:11intrusive rocks 3:10pegmatites 3:11, 3:1 If

metamorphic rocksemeralds 3:12general discussion 3:12rubies 3:12sapphires 3:12

production analysis 3:6sedimentary rocks 3:13zircon 3:601-608

aeolian placers 3:603t, 3:604analyses 3:604, 3:605, 3:606beach placers 3:602, 3:603t, 3:604f,

3:605fchemical composition 3:601, 3:602tgem-quality stones 3:602, 3:603fhafnium (Hf) 3:601mining processes 3:604, 3:607fNarryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607f, 3:607-608occurrence 3:602optical properties 3:602, 3:602tovergrowths 3:608, 3:608fplacer classification 3:603tproperties 3:601, 3:601tstructure 3:601f, 3:601uses 3:604world production 3:604, 3:606t,

3:606fxenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f

geochemical exploration 3:21-29buried deposits 3:23, 3:26fdiamond exploration 3:22elemental analysis 3:21environmental geochemical mapping

3:28fregional geochemical surveys 3:27sample analysis 3:26sediment analysis 3:21, 3:25fsulphide minerals 3:21, 3:26f

geophysical techniques l:491tground subsidence l:S20f9 2:9hydrothermal ore deposits 3:628-637

alteration products 3:631background information 3:628epithermal deposits 3:634

fluid sourcesgeneral discussion 3:632geothermal gradient 3:635, 3:636fmagma-heated waters 3:634,

3:635fmagma-hydrothermal fluids 3:632,

3:633fgangue minerals 3:630gemstone deposits 3:11gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,

3:630t, 3:635fhydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629thydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630t,

3:630f, 3:631f, 5:388porphyry ore deposits 3:633/", 5:369stratiform ores 3:634

kimberlites 3:257, 3:258fmade ground 1:538magmatic ore deposits 3:637-645

carbonatites 3:640chromite deposits 3:640elemental composition 3:638felemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639tfundamental processes 3:637, 3:638fimmiscible oxide liquids 3:641incompatible lithophile elements

3:63 8f, 3:639, 3:639t, 3:640flithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639magnetite 3:641niobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640fsulphide minerals

base metal deposits 3:643, 3:644templacement mechanisms 3:643,

3:643fgeneral discussion 3:641magmatic concentrations 3:642fpartitioning behaviour 3:639tprecious metal sulphide deposits

3:642, 3:642f, 3:644, 3:644fmineral exploration 3:613-623

environmental issues 3:622exploration groups and companies

3:613exploration tools

aerial photographs 3:616telectromagnetics 3:619tgeneral discussion 3:616geochemical techniques 3:616,

3:618t,3:618fGeographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:424, 4:425fgeological techniques 3:616, 3:616t,

3:617fgeophysical techniques 3:617,

3:619t,3:620fgravity measurements 3:619tinduced polarization 3:619tmagnetic field 3:619tradiometric dating 3:619tresistivity measurements 3:619tsatellite images 3:616tseismology 3:619tspectral data 3:616t

INDEX 713

mining geology (continued)government regulation 3:622importance 3:613ore bodies

drilling technology 3:62 I f , 3:622ffeasibility studies 3:620recognition process 3:617testing procedures 3:620

strategies 3:614, 3:614fsuccess rate 3:620

mineral reserves 3:623-628calculation procedures 3:624, 3:626classification

Classification of the StateCommission of Reserves of theRussian Federation 3:625-626,3:626t

feasibility studies 3:624, 3:625tgeneral discussion 3:624reserve base 3:624-625, 3:626tUnited Nations International

Framework Classification3:624, 3:625f, 3:625t

United States Resource/ReserveClassification for Minerals3:624-625, 3:626t

definition 3:623-624geostatistics 3:627world mineral reserves 3:627

opencast mining 1:538, 1:539, 3:258fplacer deposits 3:489-490See also economic geology; mineral

depositsMinnesota, United States 3:598, 4:33-34Miocene 5:478-485

Agenian mammalian age 5:479fAlps 2:134famphibians

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525assemblages 2:523-524frogs 2:525fRana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525f

Andes Mountains 1:126, 1:128, 1:130angiosperms

Acer trilobatum 2:419fParana oeningensis 2:420fQuercus 2:420f

Antarctica 1:140Aquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fArabia l:142f, l:144fArikareean stage 5:478, 5:479fAstaracian mammalian age 5:479fAtlantic Margin 4:99f, 4:104fAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:23O/", 1:236background information 5:478Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fBarstovian stage 5:478, 5:479fBurdigalian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fcalcareous algae 2:429f, 2:432fChasicoan stage 5:479, 5:479fchronostratigraphy 4:25fClarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479^

climateatmospheric carbon dioxide 5:482sea-level 5:482seasonality 5:482temperature 5:482

Colhehuapian stage 5:479, 5:479fColloncuran stage 5:479, 5:479fEurope 2:120Friasian stage 5:479, 5:479fgeochronology 5:478, 5:479fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) S:506fglossary information 5:484Gondwana

geological evolution 1:1 Sitpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:192f, 1:193 fterranes 3:13If

Hemingfordian stage 5:478, 5:479fHemphillian stage 5:478, 5:479fHuayquerian stage 5:479, 5:479fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fLanghian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

S:479f,5:S06f,5:S17flateritic palaeosols 5:203fLau Islands 4:120Laventan stage 5:479, 5:479fmarine life 5:482Mayoan stage 5:479, 5:479fMessinian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fmid-Miocene Climatic Optimum 5:482,

5:483Montehermosan stage 5:479, 5:479fNew Caledonia 4:117New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f, 4:7North Africa 1:17, 1:24North American chronostratigraphy

4:25foceanic circulation 5:478, 5:479, 5:481Orleanian mammalian age 5:479fPangaea3:131/"Papua New Guinea 4:112predation 4:145fPrunum coniforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:269freef environments 4:568/, 4:569fSantacrucian stage 5:479, 5:479fSerravallian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f, 5:506f,5:517fshorelines and shelves 4:507Solomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia 1:181t, l:192f, 1:193fsouthern Cordillera 4:58Stratigraphic boundaries 5:478tectonic processes

Africa 5:481Central America 5:481continental positions 5:479, 5:480fEurasia

Himalayan Mountains 1:354,3:295-296, 5:481

Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25, 5:481

Tibetan Plateau 5:481North America

Basin and Range 4:60, 5:480Cascade Range 5:481Columbia River Flood

Basalts 5:480East Pacific Rise 5:479general discussion 5:479Rocky Mountains 5:480Sierra Nevada Range 5:481

South AmericaAndes Mountains 5:481general discussion 5:481Isthmus of Panama 5:481

tektites 5:444, 5:445tterrestrial life

animalsAfrica 5:484Australia 5:484Eurasia 5:484general discussion 5:483North America 5:483South America 5:484

general discussion 5:483plants 5:483

time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTonga 4:120Tortonian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517fTurolian mammalian age 5:479fVallesian mammalian age 5:479fVanuatu 4:116

Miocidaris 2:352-353, 2:355miogeocline 4:50, 4:52Miranda 5:290-291, 5:2911Mississippian

Angaran flora 4:206fAppalachians 4:79, 4:80fchronostratigraphy 4:25f, 4:201climatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fglaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fjawless fish 2:460fMississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary

4:201Namurian stage 4.-202/", 4:208f, 4:209fnomenclature 4:201 fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fOuachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fpalynological zonations 3:468fPangaea 4:226fsea-level changes 4:26fTournaisan stage 4.-202/, 4:208ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Visean stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209fSee also Carboniferous

Mississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532f,4:651t,5:19t,5:20f

See also deltas

714 INDEX

Missourian stage 4:209fMissouri, United States 4:21, 4:32Mitchell, E. 5:266;Mitschelich, Eilhard 3:178, 3:500-501Mitushev Bay 2:53mixite 3:508fMoa bird 1:376fmodderite (CoAs) 3:575;Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 4:616modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity scale

5:322, 5:323;Modoc fault 4:79Moeritherium 2:540Moesia 5:458 f, 5:458-459mofettes 3:107, 5:572Mogok rubies 3:9Mohorovicic, Andriya 3:195Mohorovicic discontinuity

characteristics 3:646, 3:647fEurope 3:645-659

background information 2:95, 3:645Cenozoic European Rift System 3:653depth map 2:104f, 3:649fMediterranean region 3:654

Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 3:654, 3:655^cross-sections 3:648fLigurian Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656erogenic events 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654f

Permo-Carboniferous basins 3:653structural features

Baltic Shield 3:650, 3:651fcrustal thickness 3:649feastern Europe 3:650, 3:65IfEast European Craton 3:650, 3:651 fgeneral discussion 3:649morphology 3:65Ofnorthern Europe 3:650, 3:651f

subcrustal lithosphere 3:656, 3:657fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

2:36Ural Mountains 3:652, 3:653fwestern/central Europe 2:104f, 3:650f

geophysical techniques 3:646, 3:646/",3:647f

mantle structure 1:397, l:398f, 1:399,1:423, l:424t

mid-ocean ridgescharacteristics 5:412, 5:414fgeneral discussion 5:412schematic diagram 5:413f

olivine 3:646-647seismic structure 3:195ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

3:646-647Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 1:573,

5:185, 5:309 f, 5:433Mohr stress circle l:574f, 5:353f, 5:35'5f,

5:356, 5:357fMohs, F. 3:500Moine Schists 2:214

Mojave Desert, United States 4:50, 4:52,4:624f

molasse 4:485Molasse basin 2:125, 2:126f, 2:128f,

2:134fMoldanubian region 2:79, 2:81fmoldavites 5:444-445, 5:445f, 5:446fMolengraaff, Gustaaf 2:190mollisols 5:^96;, 5:199,

5:199f, 5:200molluscs 2:367-369

classification 2:367Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/", 3:368,

3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381fEocene 5:469Jurassic 3:356life habits 4:141-142morphology 2:367Neopilina 4:141-142Oligocene 5:476Ordovician 4:179palaeoautecology 4:141-142Palaeocene 5:463reproduction 2:368shell morphology 2:367shorelines and shelves 4:511-512Triassic 3:349, 3:349fSee also ammonites; bivalves (Bivalvia);

cephalopods; gastropods(Gastropoda)

Molteno Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150fmoluranite

(H4U(UO2)3(Mo04)7-18H20(?))3:552;

molybdenite (MoS2) 3:575;, 3:555;,3:630;, 3:631f

molybdenum (Mo)anoxic environments 4:496-497carbonatites 3:223;hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394;lava/lava flows 3:224fmineral classification systems 3:501t,

3:502;molybdate minerals 3:551-552oceanic manganese nodular deposits

S:114tsoil concentrations 2:22;toxicity 2:22;

molybdofornacite(CuPb2[(Mo,Cr)O4][(As,P)O4]OH)3:552;

Monashee Complex, northern Cordillera4:39-42

monazite 3:221, 3:22?;, 5:120-128Monet, Antoine Grimoald 3:172Mongolia 1:345-358

background information 1:345fish 2:463geological history 1:347f, 1:356Oligocene 5:476tectonic megastages 1:347f

Neoarchaean-Neoproterozoic 1:354

Neoproterozoic-TriassicCaledonian stage 1:355Gobi-Tianshan Belt 1:355Hercynian Orogeny 1:356Indosinian Orogeny 1:356Salairian stage 1:355

post-Indosinian 1:356tectonic units 1:354, 1:355f

Monian terrane 2:60Mono Craters, California, United States

3:270, 3:272f, 3:273fMonograptus

rhabdosomes 2:361, 2:361fspeciation 2:366, 2:366fstratigraphic controversy 5:505structure 2:361-362, 2:363ftransverse section 2:361 f

Monograptus parultimus 4:189Monograptus uniformis 5:505monophyletic species 1:267Monotis 3:348, 3:350monotremes 2:528f, 2:533Montana, United States 3:10-11, 4:39-42,

4:56-57Mont Blanc 2:125Montehermosan stage 5:479, 5:479fmontesommaite 3:593;montgomeryite 5:126monticellite 3:557-558montmorillonite

cation exchange capacity 1:3 60tclaystones 5:30hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632physicochemical properties 1:369

monzodiorites 3:237;mooihoekite (Cu9Fe9S16) 3:575;, 3:577fMoon 5:264-272

Aristarchus 5:271asteroid bombardment 4:363-365atmosphere 1:200, 5:265crater origins 5:270Danjon Scale 5:272;eclipses 5:271, 5:272;general discussion 1:421, 5:264Great Bombardment 5:270-271ice occurrences 5:271impact structures 3:283, 5:179Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27'Iflife 5:271lunar missions 5:266, 5:266;Lunar Prospector 5:265lunar rocks 5:268, 5:270fmaria 5:2671meteorites 5:235, 5:235f, 5:268-270moonquakes 5:265, 5:329occultations 5:271orbit 5:265origin 5:264origins 1:199, 4:363-365plate tectonics 3:206Plato crater 5:267, 5:268fproperties l:422t, 5:264;rotation 5:265structure 5:265, 5:266f

INDEX 715

Moon (continued]surface features 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,

5:270ttidal forces 1:422, l:422ftransient lunar phenomena (TLP) 5:271view from space 1:421 f

moonquakes 5:265, 5:329Moore, Paul 5:121Moornambool Complex, Australia

1:242-243, l:246fMoradisaurus 2:481moraesite 5:121-122moraines 3:94f, 4:676, 4:677fmordenite 3:593?Morgan, Jason 3:204Morganucodon 2:528f, 2:531-532Moridunian stage 4:183 fmorinite 5:122, 5:124-125Morley, Lawrence W. 3:200Morlot, Adolf 3:181Morocco 1:12-25, 3:147, 4:169 f, 5:236,

5:506f,5:511fMorris, Henry M. 1:384Morris Jesup Rise 3:315f, 3:316?mortar 1:42Moruya Batholith, Australia 3:238fMorveau, Guy ton de 3:171mosasaurs 2:483, 2:504f, 2:504-505Mosasaurus 2:504-505Moscovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511/",

5:517fMoscow Basin 4:456Moses Strikes the Stone to Produce Water

(Exodus) 1:256Mother Lode District, California 3:122moths (Lepidoptera) 2:297f,

2:300?, 5:469mottramite (Pb(Cu,Zn)VO4(OH)) 3:589?Moulton, Forest 3:184mounanaite (PbFe2(VO4)2(OH)2) 3:589?mountain-building processes 5:417-425

Alpine-type mountain building 5:420,5:42 If

Alpscrystalline basement rocks 2:133fgeneral discussion 2:132Oligocene 5:477orogenic process 2:134fsubduction zones 2:133 f

Andean-type mountain building 1:137,1:250, 5:419, 5:419f

Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183feighteenth century viewpoints 3:171general discussion 5:417geological research (1780-1835) 3:177geological research (1835-1900) 3:182,

3:183 fHall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182Himalayan-type mountain building

3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422fMediterranean region

Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655fcross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 3:654, 3:658

Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654fWestern Alps 2:117

motive forces 2:251northern Cordillera 4:43oceanic island arc belts 5:418ophiolites 5:418Ordovician 4:182Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:250Tibetan Plateau 5:423, 5:424fWegener, Alfred 2:249See also granites; igneous rocks

Mount Darwin glass 5:451Mount Etna, Sicily 1:200?, 3:329, 4:389 f,

5:575Mount Kenya 1:3 OfMount Kilimanjaro 1:3OfMount Lofty Ranges, Australia 1:242-243,

l:246fMount Macedon, Victoria, Australia 5:451Mount Pelee, Martinique 5:567, 5:569/1,

5:575?Mount Pinatubo, Philippines 4:387?, 5:575?Mount Rainier, United States 5:575Mount Rogers formation, Appalachians

4:73Mount Saint Helens 1:200?, 4:690, 4:691 f,

5:568f, 5:574mourite (UMo5O12(OH)10(?)) 3:552?Mowry Sea 3:364Moythomasia 2:466-467Mozambique Basin 1:138-139, 3:315f,

3:316?Mozambique Belt 1:2/", 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f, 1:7fMozambique Ocean 1:132-135, 3:128mpororoite (WA1O3(OH)3-2H2O(?)) 3:587?Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, United

States 4:72Much Wenlock Limestone Formation

4:186f, 4:188-189Mucronaspis 4:180-181mud 4:507, 4:642f, 4:645/", 4:646?, 5:8,

5:14,5:15mud diapirs 4:237?, 4:237-238, 4:238f,

4:534f, 4:535, 4:537f9 5:312-313mud drapes 4:594, 4:597mudflows 4:5 34f, 4:535, 4:535f, 4:537f,

4:689, 5:2mud lumps 4:237-238, 4:238/", 4:535-537,

4:537-539mud pots 3:628, 3:634mudrocks

bentonite illitization 5:65chlorite 5:65, 5:65fgeotechnical properties 1:548geothermometry 5:64-65illite crystallmity 5:65kaolinite 5:65, 5:66fpetroleum geology 4:229-230sharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f

mudstoneclassification 3-.527f, 5:28depositional environment 5:11 Ifgeotechnical properties 1:548, 3:102?grain analysis 5:109f, 5:110

kerogenous sediments 5:33See also clays

mud volcanoes 4:480, 4:647, 5:312-313,5:313 f

mukkara structure 5:199, 5:200^mullite 1:368Mulucca 1:249Mundil, R. 4:219Mundrabilla iron meteorites 5:232fmunirite 3:589?Muong Nong-type tektites 5:447, 5:451Murchison meteorite 4:127-128Murchison, Roderick 2:210-216

Agassiz, Louis 2:177-178geological studies 2:211geological surveys 2:214, 3:476Hall, James, Jr. 2:195influence 2:213Lyell, Charles 2:211Murchison Medals 3:62portrait 2:21 IfRussian geology 2:212Sedgwick, Adam 2:211, 2:217, 4:176,

4:185Silurian stratigraphy 2:211, 2.-212/",

4:185Smith, William 2:211stratigraphic controversy 2:211, 3:179,

4:176stratigraphic subdivisions 4:194

Murmansk terrane 2:44f, 4:456, 4:459fMurravechinus 2:352fMurray-Darling River 5:19?Murray, John 5:70-71, 5:77Muschelkalk formation, Germany 3:344muscovite

chemical composition 3:549-550granites 3:235?, 3:241, 3:550metamorphic facies 3:399foccurrence 3:548-549pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fvine nourishment 3:87f, 3:88

Museum of Comparative Zoology,Harvard University 2:175

Musicians Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?,3:336-337

Mustersan land mammal age 5:473fmutinaite 3:593?Myanmar (Burma) 3:7?, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12mycobionts 2:441Mycterosaurus 2:486-487Myllokungmingia 2:462Myllokunmingia 2:455mylonite 3:388?Mylonite Zone 2:43f, 2:44Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457, 3:458f,

3:460fmyriapods (Myriapoda) 4:210-211Mystic terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46

N

nabesite 3:593?nacrite 1:363Naefia 2:394

716 INDEX

nagyagite 3:119tNakhla, Egypt 5:234f9 5:280Nakhlite meteorites 5:234f, 5:234-235,

5:280Namacalathus 4:373Namapoikia 1:261Namaqua orogenic belt 3:164fNamibia 3:7*, 3:363*, 4:164namibite (Cu(BiO)2(VO4)(OH)) 3:589tNamurian stage

chronostratigraphy 4:202fglaciation 4:208fGondwana 3:139, 3:141fmagmatism 2:96fnon-amniote tetrapods 2:472sedimentary basin formation 2:95Variscides Orogeny 2:84vegetation 4:209f

Nan/inophycus 2:434Nankai Trench 5:430*, S:430fnannofossils 2:430, 3:471, 3:472f, 4:646tNanpanjiang Basin, China 3:345Napier Complex 1:132-135Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia 3:607f,

3:607-608Natal Basin 3:147National Academy of Sciences 2:175National Association of State Boards of

Geology 3:78National Geographic Magazine 2:170-171native elements 3:553-555

allotropes 3:553*, 3:554gaseous elements 3:553liquid elements 3:553mineral classification systems 3:50It,

3:502toccurrences 3:553, 3:553*solid metal occurrences 3:553solid non-metal occurrences 3:554

natrocarbonatites 3:220-221, 3:224*,3:225-226, 3:229f

natrolite 3:591-593, 3:593*, 3:594fnatural gas

biogenic gases 4:257-258carbon isotopic ratios 4:258, 4:2S9fchemical composition 4:258deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537, 4:538feconomic deposits 1:437environmental geochemistry 2:23European sedimentary basins 2:124fossils 4:159generation parameters 4:28 51, 4:28Sfground subsidence 2:11hydrocarbon gases 4:257maturation parameters 4:28Otnon-hydrocarbon gases

average compositions 4:259*carbon dioxide (CO2) 4:259*, 4:260general discussion 4:258hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 4:259*, 4:260nitrogen (N) 4:258, 4:259*

North American continental interior4:33

Papua New Guinea 4:113Russia 4:472f, 4:473

sources 4:258, 4:2S9fSouth-east Asia 1:187, l:194fthermogenic gases 4:258See also petroleum geology

Naturaliste Plateau 3:315f, 3:316tnatural selection 2:160, 2:161Nauru Basin 3:315f, 3:316tNautiloidea/Nautiloids 2:391, 2:391f9

2:392, 2:396Nautilus 2:391, 2:396-407Navajo Sandstone, Arizona 4:547fNavier-Coulomb criterion 5:353Nazca Plate 1:119, 1:119f, l:120f, l:125f,

1:130, 1:153, l:155fNazca Ridge I:119f9 I:120f9 3:315f,

3:316t, 5:397-398nebkhas 4:618-620, 4:619fNebraska, United States 4:28fNecomian stage 4:468nectrideans 2:473f, 2:475, 2:477f9 2:478nekton 4:158, 4:499fNemagraptus 4:178Nemagraptus gracilis 4:176-177Nemaha anticline 4:3 4fNemaha Uplift 4:32fNemakit-Daldynian stage 4:167fNematophytes 2:441Nematothallus 2:441Neoacadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f9 4:78,

4:90f9 4:91Neoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517fNeocomian-Aptian stages 1:229f, 1:235Neocomian stage 4:56Neodiversograptus nilssoni 4:189neodymium (Nd)

carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:226f,3:227f,3:228f

granitic rocks 3:242flava/lava flows 3:224fradiometric dating l:88t

NeogeneAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130borate deposits 3:516f9 3:518bryozoans(Bryozoa)1:271fChina 1:347ffish 2:463fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fJapan 3:302, 3:303fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f

Neolithic period 2:152neon (Ne)

atmospheric concentrations 1:19719

1:198, l:199fmantle sources 3:228natural occurrences 3:553*

Neopilina 4:141-142Neoproterozoic

Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fAntarctica 1:132, l:134fAustralia 1:220, 1:225, 1:225f, 5:51 Ifbiodiversity 1:261boundary stratotypes 5:505

Brazilcratons

Amazon craton 1:311, 1:31 If,l:312f

general discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, l:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:31 Of,

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312

glossary information 1:328orogenic domains

Aracuai orogenic event 1:313f9

1:315Araguaia orogenic belt l:314f,

1:319Borborema strike-slip system

I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318general discussion 1:314Mantiqueira orogenic system

l:307f, l:313f, 1:315Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9

1:320Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318suture zones 1:312fTocantins orogenic system l:307f,

l:314f, 1:319palaeogeographic reconstruction

1:323 fPhanerozoic sedimentary basins

Amazonas basin I:316f9 l:317fBarreirinhas basin l:326fCampos basin 1:321 f9 l:322fCeara basin 1:325fcontinental margin basins I:316f9

1:325eastern Brazilian margin basins

1:321 f9 I:322f9 1:325equatorial margin basins 1:324f,

I:325f9 1:326, l:326fEspirito Santo basin l:321f, l:322fgeneral discussion 1:306, 1:324geographic distribution l:306finterior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327,

1:327fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:319fPalaeozoic sag basins I:316f9

I:317f9 I:318f9 1:324Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin 1:314, I:316f9 l:317f,

I:318f9 l:319f, 1:320f, 1:324Parnaiba basin 1:316f9 I:317f9

l:318fPotiguar basin 1:325f9 l:326f,

1:327fReconcavo basin 1:327fSantos basin 1:321 f9 1:322fSergipe-Alagoas basin 1:322fSolimoes basin l:316f, 1:317f9

l:318fstratigraphy 1:317f

INDEX 717

Neoproterozoic (continued)tectonic processes 1:307, 1:307f,

1:308 ftopography 1:309, l:309f

Cambrianfaunal provinces 4:172, 4:173flife forms 4:171, 4:172fNeoproterozoic-Cambrian Biotic

Transition 4:172radiation patterns 4:171trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f

China 1:347fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 2:40f,

2:41/", 2:48fEdiacaran

Cambrian radiation patterns 4:171eukaryotes 1:261, 4:362-363general discussion 4:350

eukaryotesearly animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 1:261, 4:362-363general discussion 4:358late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 f,

4:362fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360

general discussion 4:350glaciation 4:358, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:5llfGondwana 3:13 OfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 flate Neoproterozoic 1:225, 1:225f,

4:360, 4:361f,4:362fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360Northern Appalachians

Gander tectonostratigraphical zone4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f

general discussion 4:81Meguma tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fnorthern Cordillera 4:39erogenic events 4:463palaeogeography 4:352-354, 4:353fPan-African orogeny

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3f,l:4f, 1:5 f

background information 1:1belt distribution 1:2fcentral Africa 1:10, 1:11 fDamaraBelt l:2f, 1:7Gariep Belt l:2f, 1:8Gondwana correlations 1:11Kaoko Belt l:2f, 1:9LufilianArcl:2/; 1:7, l:8fMadagascar 1:6, l:6f, 1:7fMozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4,

1:5 f, 1:7 fnorth-eastern Africa 1:10pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3 fRokelide Belt 1:2 , 1:10Saldania Belt l:2f, 1:8Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, 1:10f

West Congo Belt l:2f, 1:9Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, l:8f

Pechora Basin 2:53f, 2:54fRiphean 4:350Rodinia 1:220, 1:245Russia 4:463snowball Earth events 1:204southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:50Ural Mountains 2:49-56Vendian 4:350, 4:353fSee also Proterozoic

Neornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501fNeornithischia 2:493neotectonics 5:425-428

active tectonics 5:425definition 5:425glacial isostatic adjustment 2:15If,

5:427global perspective 5:428global tectonics 5:426Indian Sub-Continent 3:296

Neotethys Ocean 3:144f, 3:145f, 4:215f,4:215-216, 4:219f, 5:455

Nepal Geological Society 3:64nepheline 3:539, 3:540/", 3:541nephelinite 3:220*, 5:569-571Neptune

hydrogen concentrations 1:200forbital frequencies 1:41 Itphysical characteristics 5:290*, 5:291ring system 5:292, 5:292tsatellite system 5:292, 5:292*

Neptunism 2:184, 3:167, 3:171, 3:174Nereid 5:292, 5:292tNetherlands 2:148, 3:79, 3:80-81, 5:506fNet-Oil-Sand (NOS) maps 4:323, 4:326fNeuropteris heterophylla 2:447fNeusticosaurus 2:506Nevadan orogeny 4:54Nevada, United States 2:506, 3:122,

3:352*, 4:199, 4:201, 5:476-477,5:506f,5:511f

Nevadites secedensis 3:345-346Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 5:572, 5:574f,

5:575, 5:575*Newark Supergroup, United States 3:344,

3:345-346, 3:347, 4:98Newberry Caldera, Oregon, United States

3:270, 3:271f, 4:60New Britain 3:23 7tNew Britain Trench 4:109,

5:430*, 5:43OfNew Brunswick, Canada 2:463, 4:91newburyite 5:126New Caledonia

background information 4:109economic geology 4:117geology

basement terranes 4:116general discussion 4:116geological map 4:117fMiocene 4:117ophiolites 4:116, 4:117successor basin sediments 4:116,

4:117 f

New England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240*,1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250, 4:202f

New England Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*Newfoundland

Appalachians 4:72, 4:81Atlantic Margin 4:92biodiversity 1:261Cambrian chronostratigraphy 4:164Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511fOrdovician 4:176, 4:182Precambrian basement 4:12Silurian 4:192-193

Newfoundland Ridge 3:315f, 3:316*New Guinea 1:249, 3:237*New Guinea Orogeny 1:238fNew Hampshire, United States 4:72, 4:95New Jersey Highlands 3:157fNew Jersey, United States 3:344, 3:598,

4:105New Madrid earthquake, Missouri, United

States 4:32New Mexico, United States 3:351/",

4:48-50, 4:56-57, 5:236, 5:461f,5:476-477

New River Belt 4:82fNew South Wales, Australia 3:598,

4:191-192, 5:203 f, 5:204fNewton, Isaac 1:92, 1:257New Town Coal Measures 3:147, 3:15OfNew York-Alabama Lineament 4:32f,

4:76fNew York Survey 2:195New York, United States 4:72, 4:73 f,

4:187 fNew Zealand 4:1-7

background information 4:1basement rocks

age ranges 4:5fbatholiths 4:4f, 4:6Eastern Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fgeneral discussion 4:1geological map 4:2f, 4:4fmetamorphic overprints 4:4*", 4:6overlap sequences 4:5plutons 4:6Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4 f^

4:5fcontinental crust 4:1, 4:1 fcover strata

active margin development 4:7intracontinental rifting 4:6passive margin 4:6Quaternary 4:7

Devonian 3:129gemstones 3:7*geological map 4:2fmarine reptiles 2:504-505Oligocene 5:474Palaeocene 5:464-465palaeogeographic reconstruction 4:1,

4:3f, 4:5fPhanerozoic 4:1-7Silurian 3:129, 4:191-192

71S INDEX

New Zealand (continued]Taupo Volcanic Zone 3:246, 4:387ttectonic processes 4:4 f9 4:6Triassic 3:344zeolites 3:597

Niagara Falls, New York, United States4:189, 4:190f

niccolite (NiAs) 3:575?, 3:576f, 3:S77fnickelalumite((Ni,Cu)Al4[(SO4),(NO3)2]

(OH)12-3H2O) 3:556?nickel (Ni)

anoxic environments 4:496-497Australia l:218f, 1:221carbonatites 3:223?hydrothermal ore deposits 5:3 94tmineral analysis l:108tnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

S:114toil content 4:257, 4:257fpartitioning behaviour 3:639?soil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

Nicol, James 2:214Nier, Alfred 3:186, 3:604-605Nigeria 3:7?Niger River 5:19?

See also deltasNiggli, Paul 3:188Nile Craton 1:10Nile River 4:65ItNinety East Ridge 3:315f9 3:316?,

4:476-477Nininger, Harvey 3:195niobium (Nb)

carbonatites 3:221, 3:221?, 3:223?,3:224?

crustal composition 5:174?mineral classification systems 3:501?niobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640fpartitioning behaviour 3:639?

Nipponide collage 4:470, 4:470fNisbet, Euan 3:4Nisbet's Essay 3:4Nitella 4:375niter (KNO3) 3:556?nitratine (NaNO3) 3:556?nitrobarite (Ba(NO3)2) 3:556?nitrocalcite (Ca(NO3)2-4H2O) 3:556?nitrogen (N)

atmospheric concentrations 1:197?,3:553, 5:246?

hydrothermal fluids 3:629?mineral classification systems 3:501?,

3:502?natural gas content 4:258, 4:259?natural occurrences 3:553?nitrate minerals

general discussion 3:555geographical distribution 3:555mineral types 3:556?solubility 3:555

oil composition 4:253/", 4:256, 4:2S6fPhanerozoic atmosphere 1:207

Venus 5:246?vine nourishment 3:88weathering processes 5:589

nitromagnesite (Mg(NO3)2-6H2O) 3:556?Nitzschia joussaea 5:487Nixon Fork terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46Noachian epoch 5:273Noah 1:254nobleite (CaB6O10-4H2O) 3:513?nodosariana 3:45Ifnodosariata 3:451fnodular cherts 5:55, 5:57ft S:5Sfnodular ore deposits

See ore bodiesnon-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478

Carboniferousadelogyrinids 2:475aistopods 2:473f, 2:475amniotes 2:473fanthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474/", 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcolosteids 2:473/", 2:474/i 2:475dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476flepospondyls 2:475localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476fnectrideans 2:473/, 2:475physical appearance 2:472Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473ftemnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fphysical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211Thabanchuia oomie 2:520f

Permiananthracosaurs 2:476-477baphetids 2:476-477capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fdiadectomorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:477fgeneral discussion 2:476lepospondyls 2:478nectrideans 2:477/", 2:478seymouriamorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478synapsids 2:477-478temnospondyls

general description 2:476-477Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520/skeletal material 2:477fThabanchuia oomie 2:520f

non-barred coastline 4:574/", 4:575, 4:576fNonesian faunachron 3:345fnontronite 1:369, 5:394?Nordaustlandet Terrane 2:70-71Norian stage 2:508, 4:221 f, 4:95, 5:506/,

5:517fNorilsk complex, Russia 3:491-492

norites 3:550North Africa 1:12-25

Atlas Mountains 1:13, I:15f9 I:16f9 1:17background information 1:12black shales 1:21, 1:22fCambrian I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, I:18f9 1:19fCarboniferous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21Cretaceous I:14f9 I:15f9 I:19f9 I:22f9

1:23, 1:23f, l:24fdepositional history

Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, 1:18 f,1:19f, l:20f

Campanian-Maastrichtian 1.-22/", 1:23,1:24, 1:24 f

Carboniferous l:19f, 1:21Cenomanian-Turonian boundary

I:22f9 1:23Cretaceous 1:19f, I:22f9 1:23, l:23f,

1:24 fDevonian I:19f9 l:20f, 1:21, l:22fEocene 1:24, l:24fevaporites 1:21, 1:24Holocene 1:25Infracambrian 1:17, 1:19 fJurassic 1:19 f, 1:23, 1:23 fMiocene 1:24nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24fPermo-Triassic l:19f, 1:21Silurian 1:18, I:19f9 l:20f, l:22f

Devonian l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f, 1:20f,1:21, 1:22 f

Eocene 1:24, 1:24 fglaciation 1:18Holocene 1:25Jurassic I:14f9 1:15'f, 1:19f, 1:23, 1:23fMiocene 1:17, 1:24Oligocene 1:17Ordovician 1.-14/", l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19f, l:20fPermian I:14f9 I:15f9 I:19f9 1:21petroleum reserves 1:12, I:14f9 1:24Phanerozoic chronostratigraphy 1:14frift valleys 1:16, 1:16f9 1:17Saharan Platform 1:13, I:15f9 1:17, 1:23sedimentary basins 1:13, 1:13'fSilurian I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, I:19f9 I:20f9

l:22fstratigraphic correlation 4:169fstructural evolution

Alpine Orogeny 1:17general discussion 1:13Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16fInfracambrian tectonic processes 1:13Mesozoic extensional phase 1:16,

l:16fOligo-Miocene rifting 1:17post-Infracambrian/pre-Hercynian

tectonic processes 1:13tectonic map 1:15f

Tertiary I:14f9 l:15fTriassic I:14f9 1:15f9 1:19f, 1:21volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17

North American geologyAppalachians

Northern Appalachians 4:81-92

INDEX 719

North American geology (continued)Annieopsquotch accretionary tract

4:82f, 4:85, 4:89Avalon tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88, 4:90fDunnage tectonostratigraphical

zone 4:82f, 4:84, 4:87fExploits tectonostratigraphical

subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87fGander tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87fglossary information 4:91granitic rocks 3:236Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:83-84Humber tectonostratigraphical zone

4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fMeguma tectonostratigraphical

zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,4:90f

Notre Dame tectonostratigraphicalsubzone 4:82f, 4:84f, 4:85,4:87f

orogenesis 4:83Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82/, 4:87,

4:87fPrecambrian basement 4:12tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57f, 4:89,

4:90ftectonostratigraphical zones 4:81,

4:82ftectonostratigraphic relationships

4:84fTetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin

4:82f, 4:87, 4:87fPermian 4:216Southern/Central Appalachians

4:72-81Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Carolina terrane 4:74f, 4:7Sf, 4:78Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:7'5f,

4:77Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80figneous processes 4:73, 4:75fmagnetostratigraphy 4:76fNeoacadian orogeny 4:78occurrence 4:72origins 4:72passive margin development 4:76,

4:76fphysiographic provinces 4:73fPine Mountain terrane 4:77sedimentary depositional processes

4:73superterranes 4:74f, 4:75fSuwannee terrane 4:72, 4:80Taconic orogeny 4:77tectonic evolution 4:74f, 4:75fTugaloo terrane 4:78volcanism 4:73, 4:75f

Atlantic Margin 4:92-108background information 4:92carbonate shorelines and shelves

4:102, 4:103fcrustal stretching 4:100, 4:101f

crustal transition zone 4:100deposition centres 4:104f, 4:104-105East Coast Magnetic Anomaly

(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96/", 4:99fenergy resources 4:105, 4:106fgroundwater 4:105-106, 4:107fimpact structures 4:95, 4:98fmineral deposits 4:105morphology

bathymetric map 4:93fgeneral discussion 4:93landslides 4:94f, 4:94-95submarine canyons 4:93-94, 4:94f

palaeoenvironments 4:102, 4:103f,4:104f

passive margin structure 4:95, 4:96f,4:99f

placer deposits 4:105postrift unconformity 4:98, 4:99f,

4:101fresearch issues 4:106salt tectonism 4:102, 4:102fseamounts 4:93f9 4:94, 4:95sedimentary history 4:102tectonic evolution 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f

continental interior 4:21-36anticlines 4:34^background information 4:21burial-history diagram 4:3Ifcraton foundation 4:22cross-sections 4:33f, 4:34f, 4:35fcrustal thickness 4:24fearthquakes 4:32geological provinces 4:24fgeological record 4:25mineral deposits 4:33overburden removal 4:3Itpetroleum reserves 4:33physiographic provinces 4:22fplains-type folding 4:32, 4:34?, 4:35fPrecambrian continental nucleus

4:8-21Acasta Gneisses, Canada

1:427-429, 4:10f, 4:13f, 4:15f,4:350

Archaean cratons 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f,4:16, 4:23f

basement gneisses 4:10fCanadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:10f, 4:11 fChurchill-Superior Boundary Zone

4:19 fcraton foundation 4:22crustal aggregation 4:14fcrustal provinces 4:23fGrenville orogeny 4:19Hearne craton 4:16, 4:17fLaurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:19mantle keel 4:8-9orogenic events 4:16, 4:17Rae craton 4:16Rodinia breakup 4:8Sask craton 4:16Slave craton 4:10f, 4:11 f, 4:12,

4:13f,4:16,4:18fstructure 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:14f

Superior craton 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13f,4:16, 4:17f, 4:19f

tectonic map 4:9ftectonic processes 4:9Wyoming craton 4:12, 4:16

Proterozoic crustal provinces 4:23fsea-level changes 4:26fsediments

bentonite 4:29, 4:29fblack shales 4:28, 4:29fchalk 4:28, 4:29fcharacteristics 4:28chert 4:29, 4:30fcoal 4:28, 4:3 Ofcyclothems 4:30, 4:31 ferosion 4:29-30glacial deposits 4:27, 4:28floess 4:28fPhanerozoic sedimentary sequences

4:2 7frhythmites 4:30-31salt deposits 4:28, 4:29fsedimentary veneer 4:23seismites 4:32, 4:36fsequence stratigraphy 4:25f, 4:26fvolcanic ash 4:29, 4:30f

structural development 4:30structural features 4:31, 4:32f, 4:33'f,

4:34ftectonic map 4:23funconformities 4:30

Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57fMiocene

mammals 5:483tectonic processes

Basin and Range 4:60, 5:480Cascade Range 5:481Columbia River Flood Basalts

5:480East Pacific Rise 5:479general discussion 5:479Rocky Mountains 5:480Sierra Nevada Range 5:481

Newark Supergroup, United States3:344, 3:345-346, 3:347

Newfoundland 1:261, 4:164northern Cordillera 4:36-47

bedrock featuresaccretion terranes 4:40f, 4:41 f, 4:42,

4:46arc terranes 4:46autochthonous rocks 4:39back-arc basin terranes 4:46continental margin terranes 4:40f,

4:45general discussion 4:39mountain-building processes 4:43parautochthonous rocks 4:39

boundaries 4:36Cretaceous 3:364crustal thickness 4:38, 4:39feconomic deposits 4:44evolution 4:44neotectonics 4:37f, 4:38physiography 4:37, 4:37f, 4:44

720 INDEX

North American geology (continued]Nova Scotia 4:164Ouachita Mountains 4:61-71

Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68/Cambrian 4:62gravity measurements 4:69fmetasediments 4:67fPalaeozoic 4:61regional geophysics 4:67regional subdivisions 4:62f, 4:65seismic reflection data 4:69-70stratigraphy

general discussion 4:63pre-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:64fsedimentary facies 4:64f, 4:66fsyn-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:66f

tectonic processesaccretionary wedges 4:70-71diachronous collision events 4:61,

4:70fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62fimbrication zones 4:65tectonic evolution 4:61, 4:62ftectonic map 4:23ftectonic synthesis 4:70

physiographic provinces 4:49fsouthern Cordillera 4:48-61

accreted terranes 4:53Archaean 4:48Cambrian 4:50Cenozoic 4:58, 4:60Cretaceous 3:364, 4:52, 4:55, 4:55fcrustal thickness 4:48definition 4:48Devonian 4:50Eocene 4:58faunal assemblages 4:54Guerrero superterrane 4:54Jurassic 4:52, 4:54Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57fLaurentia 4:48magmatic arcs 4:53magmatism 4:55, 4:58, 4:59fMedicine Bow orogeny 4:48-50Mesoproterozoic 4:48Miocene 4:58miogeocline 4:50, 4:52Neoproterozoic 4:48, 4:50Nevadan orogeny 4:54Oligocene 4:58ophiolites 4:53-54orogenic events 4:48, 4:50Palaeoproterozoic 4:48Pennsylvanian 4:50Permian 4:50physiographic provinces 4:48, 4:49fPrecambrian basement 4:12Precambrian craton 4:48Proterozoic 4:48Rodinia 4:48, 4:50seismicity 4:60Sevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55f, 4:56strike-slip fault systems 4:52tectonic evolution 4:58, 4:59f9 4:60tectonic map 4:5If

Triassic 4:52volcanism 4:58, 4:59fWasatch line 4:50

tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445fNorth American Land Mammal Age

5:479fNorth American Plate 4:37f, 4:39f,

4:58-60, 4:59fNorth Atlantic Deep Water 5:474-475North Atlantic Volcanic Province 3:315f,

3:316tNorth Australia Craton 1:208, 1:209f,

1:211, I:211f9 3:128, 3:132fNorth Cape 3:645-646North Carolina, United States 4:72, 4:73f,

4:75fNorth China Craton 5:39North China terrane 1:234, 3:130f, 5:455,

5:457f, 5:458fNorth-east Georgia Rise 3:315f, 3:316tNorthern Appalachians 4:81-92

glossary information 4:91granitic rocks 3:236Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:83-84ophiolites 4:82f, 4:84f9 4:89orogenesis 4:83Precambrian basement 4:12tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57/", 4:89,

4:90ftectonostratigraphical zones

Avalon zonegeneral discussion 4:81-83, 4:87f,

4:88orogenic events 4:90f

Dunnage zonedescription 4:84Exploits subzone 4:82f,

4:85, 4:87fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f9

4:85, 4:87ftectonostratigraphic map 4:82ftectonostratigraphic relationships

4:87fExploits subzone

Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87,4:87f

Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin4:82f9 4:87, 4:87f

Gander zonegeneral discussion 4:81-83, 4:87tectonostratigraphic map 4:82ftectonostratigraphic relationships

4:87fgeneral discussion 4:81Humber zone 4:82f9 4:83, 4:84fmap 4:82fMeguma zone

general discussion 4:81-83, 4:87f,4:88

orogenic events 4:9OfNotre Dame subzone

Annieopsquotch accretionary tract4:82f9 4:85, 4:89

general discussion 4:85tectonostratigraphic map 4:82f

tectonostratigraphic relationships4:84f

tectonostratigraphic relationships4:84f

Northern Highland terrane 2:59northern lights

See aurorasNorth German Basin 2:96f9 2:97,

2:99-100, 2:101f9 3:648-649North New Hebrides Trench 5:430t,

5:430fNorth Sea 2:96f9 2:97, 2:125, 2:150,

3:648-649North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,

2:119f92:121f92:122fNorth Sea Central Graben 5:44-46, 5:47,

5:48North Victoria Land I:133f9 3:139North-west Georgia Rise 3:315f, 3:316tNorth-west Hawaiian Ridge 3:315'/",

3:316tNorthwind Ridge 3:315f9 3:316tNorway 2:41-44, 3:155, 3:156f9 4:187f9

4:191-192Nostoc 2:441-442Notelops 3:312fnothosaurs 2:484Nothosaurus 2:506Notofagus 1:139Notozero domain 2:44/Notre Dame arc 4:85, 4:87fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f, 4:85,

4:87fNova Scotia 2:472, 3:147, 3:598, 4:164,

4:211,4:88-89,4:95Novaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f9 2:53, 2:86,

2:87f9 4:214-215, 4:464, 4:464fNovosalenia 2:352fnuees ardentes 5:568t, 5:572, 5:574fNullarbor Plain, Australia 5:231-233,

5:232f, 5:236nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24fNuna4:14/",4:16nunataks 4:664Nurek dam, Tajikistan 1:537, 1:5371,

l:537fNyak terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46nyerereite 3:221t9 3:225-226Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329, 5:575

obduction 5:315Oberon 5:290-291, 5:291*Obik Sea 5:476-477oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316fobradovicite (H4(K,Na)CuFe2AsO4

(MoO4)5-12H20) 3:552tOb River 5:19tobsidian 3:267-277

artefactsoccurrences 3:272tracing methods 3:272trade routes 3:276ftransport paths 3:276f

o

INDEX 721

obsidian (continued)background information 3:267composition 3:268, 3:269thistorical background 3:267occurrences

California 3:270, 3:272/", 3:273/",3:274f

Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269/",3:27 Of

Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270,3:271f

Newberry Caldera, Oregon, UnitedStates 3:270, 3:27If

Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone NationalPark, Wyoming, United States3:268, 3:269t

as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:275ftridymite 3:571

Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park,Wyoming, United States 3:268, 3:269*

Occidens 2:472Ocean Drilling Program 5:72-73Oceania 4:109-122

background information 4:109Fiji

background information 4:109Beqa 4:118economic geology 4:120geology 4:118, 4:119/"Kadavu Islands 4:120Koro Islands 4:118Lau Islands 4:120plate tectonics 4:120Quaternary volcanism 4:120VanuaLevu 4:118, 4:119fVatulele4:118VitiLevu4:118, 4.-119/"Yanuca (Serua) 4:118Yasawa Group 4:118

New Caledoniabackground information 4:109economic geology 4:117geology

basement terranes 4:116general discussion 4:116geological map 4:117fMiocene 4:117ophiolites 4:116, 4:117successor basin sediments 4:116,

4:117fNew Zealand 4:1-7

background information 4:1basement rocks

age ranges 4:5fbatholiths 4:4f, 4:6Eastern Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fgeneral discussion 4:1geological map 4:2f, 4:4fmetamorphic overprints 4:4*", 4:6overlap sequences 4:5plutons 4:6Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fcontinental crust 4:1, 4:1 f

cover strataactive margin development 4:7intracontinental rifting 4:6passive margin 4:6Quaternary 4:7

geological map 4:2 fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 4:1,

4:3f, 4:5fPhanerozoic 4:1-7tectonic processes 4:4/", 4:6

Papua New Guineabackground information 4:109economic mineral resources 4:112energy resources 4:113geology

collision zones 4:110foldbelt 4:109general discussion 4:109geological map 4:11 Ifnortheastern province 4:112stable platform 4:109

natural gas 4:113natural hazards 4:113oil production 4:113ophiolites 4:112porphyry ore deposits 4:112ultramafic rocks 4:110-112volcanism 4:110, 4:113

physiographic map 4:11 OfSamoa

background information 4:109geology 4:121

seismicity map 4:110fsmall ocean basins 4:109, 4:112,

4:115-116Solomon Islands

background information 4:109economic geology 4:114geology 4:113, 4:114, 4:114fobsidian 3:274-275

Tongabackground information 4:109geology 4:120

Vanuatubackground information 4:109economic geology 4:116geology 4:115, 4:115fobsidian 3:274-275volcanoes 5:567f

ocean islandsSee seamounts

oceansanoxic environments 3:363, 3:370-371,

4:497Atlantic ocean currents 5:488fatmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations 5:475circulation system 4:643, 5:481Circum-Antarctic current 5:474, 5:476clay occurrences 1:364deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:70-78

biogenic sedimentation rates 5:77calcite compensation depth (CCD)

3:528, 5:73, 5:73fcomposition 5:70

deep water processes 4:648distribution controls 5:73, 5:73fgeographic distribution 4:642f,

4:643f, 5:71fhistorical research 5:70lysocline 5:73, 5:73fsediment types

calcareous oozes 4:642/1, 4:648,5:70, 5:71f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t

carbonates 3:528continental margin sediments

4:642fdiatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54,

5:54fferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:76, 5:77/i 5:119general discussion 5:73glacial deposits 4:642fmud 4:642fnomenclature 4:645, 4:645/", 4:646*pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f,

5:47fred clays 4:642f, 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,

5:74f, 5:75*, 5:76siliceous oozes 4:642f, 5:53, 5:55f,

5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*silicoflagellates 5:75sources 4:642f, 5:72f

deep water processes 4:641-649channel systems 4:648continental slopes 4:642/", 4:646deep continental margins 4:648deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:648oozes 4:648Quaternary sediment accumulations

4:641-642, 4:642fseafloor morphology 4:641, 4:642fsediment drifts 4:648sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,

4:646*sediment sources 4:642, 4:642fsubmarine canyons 4:646transport processes

atmospheric circulation 4:644biota 4:645gravity-driven processes 4:644ocean currents 4:643submarine landslides 4:644-645turbidity currents 4:644volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645wind blown sediment 4:644

elemental abundances 5:114tgas hydrates 4:261-268global circulation pattern 4:517fJurassic 3:354long-term carbon cycle 1:339fmagnetic anomalies 3:200, 3:201fmagnetic field reversals 3:202mid-ocean ridges 5:372-387

axial neovolcanic zone 5:380background information 5:372divergent plate boundaries 4:342,

4:343f, 4:344feruption frequency 5:383faulting processes

722 INDEX

oceans (continued)abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386ffault scarps 5:384f9 5:385fgeneral discussion 5:383transform faults 5:375, S:386fvolcanic growth faults 5:386f,

5:386-387fractional crystallization 3:215-216global distribution 3:206fgranitic rocks 3:237thydrothermal vents 5:373-375mantle convection 4:348mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211 fpropagating rifts 5:396-405

bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398,S:404f

causal mechanisms 5:398, S:399fcontinental propagators 5:402f,

5:403, 5:403f, 5:404fevolution 5:396implications 5:403microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401foceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396f,

5:397fpseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f

ridge segmentationaxial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:378f,

5:379faxial variations 5:381fcharacteristics 5:3 76*discontinuities 5:3 74/", 5:375,

5:376*, 5:377/i 5:378f9 5:3 79fgeneral discussion 5:375geochemical correlations 5:380fhierarchies 5:3 77fmagma supply 5:375, 5:378f9 5:382fmantle upwelling 5:376-377, 5:378ftransform faults 5:375, 5:386f,

S:396frift valleys 5:438seamounts 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479sea water chemistry 5:96seismic structure 5:405-417

axial magma chamber5:407, 5:413f

background information 5:405crustal thickness 5:415f9 5:416fmagma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity 5:412,

5:413fseismic layer 2A 5:406seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:410,

5:411fstructural variations 5:414, 5:415f,

5:416fshaded relief map 5:373fspreading centres

Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:97f

axial depth profiles 5:3 75faxial variations 5:381fcontinental drift theory 3:204-205Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203Eocene 5:466faulting processes S:385fgravity measurements 1:101, l:101fmorphology 5:373overlapping spreading centres

5:374f, 5:375, 5:396-405Pangaea 3:143fpropagating rifts 5:396-405sea floor spreading 1:83f, 3:198,

3:203, 3:204-205, 3:362-363topography 5:374f, 5:384-386

thermal metamorphism 5:501North Atlantic Deep Water 5:474-475ocean basin exploration 3:197ocean-floor metamorphism 3:392-393oceanic crust 1:404f

axial magma chambercharacteristics 5:408f9 5:409f,

5:410, 5:414fcrustal structure 5:41 Ifearly research 5:407schematic diagram 5:413fseismic profile 5:409fseismic velocities 5:410, 5:411f

chemical composition determination1:406, l:406t

crustal thickness 5:415f, 5:416fheat flux 5:363*magma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity

characteristics 5:412, 5:414fgeneral discussion 5:412schematic diagram 5:413f

mountain-building processes 5:418plate tectonics theory 1:440fseismic layer 2A

characteristics 5:407, 5:408f9 5:409fcrustal structure 5:41 If, 5:415fcrustal thickening 5:41 Ofearly research 5:406geological significance 5:407seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f

seismic structure 5:405-417structural variations 5:414, 5:415f,

5:416fthermal gradients 3:411 ftransform faults 5:384, 5:386ftransition zone 4:101 f

oceanic manganese nodular deposits5:113-120

compositional variabilityAtlantic Ocean 4:105, 5:119general discussion 5:117Indian Ocean 5:119Pacific Ocean 5:117, 5:118f

distributionAtlantic Ocean 5:117buried nodules 5:117general discussion 5:115geographic distribution 5:116f

Indian Ocean 5:117Pacific Ocean 5:116

economic potential 5:119elemental abundances 5:114tferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:119, 5:76, 5:77fhistorical background 5:113internal structure 5:114, 5:115f,

5:116foccurrence 5:113tertiary diagram 5:115f

ocean island basalts 3:339Pacific Ocean 4:1petroleum reservoirs 4:235*rudaceous rocks 5:140thermohaline circulation 4:224,

4:514-515, 4:517f9 4:643-644,5:464, 5:470-471, 5:489

ocean trenches 5:428-437accretionary wedges 5:307-317

controlling factors 5:317tcritical taper 5:309fdecollement 5:309, 5:309f9 5:310f,

5:311f95:315f95:316ffluid flow 5:312, 5:313ffluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f9

5:311f, 5:315, 5:316fformation processes 5:307, 5:308f,

5:309, 5:310f95:311f9

5:431-432major trenches 5:430*methane hydrates 5:312, 5:314fobduction 5:315oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316foccurrences 5:307seamounts 5:435fsediment thickness 5:311, 5:312fseeps and vents 5:312stability 5:3 09fsubcretion5:309/",5:314tectonic erosion

background information 5:313basement topography 5:314,

5:315 ffluid pressure effects 5:315, 5:316f

tuxbi6ites5:310f95:311fchemosynthetic communities 5:433-434convergent plate boundaries 4:343f,

4:344, 4:345fy 5:429f, 5:429-430critical taper 5:433depth control factors 5:435early research 5:428empty trenches 5:434faulting 5:435f, 5:436ffilled trenches 5:432geographic distribution 5:430, 5:430fisland arcs 5:431maximum depth 5:430*morphology 5:431, 5:43IfOceania 4:109outer rise 5:434sediment transport 5:432subduction erosion 5:431-432, 5:434,

5:435fwater volume 5:433

INDEX 723

Oceanus Procellalrum 5:267?Ocoee Supergroup, Appalachians 4:73Octobrachia 2:394, 2:395fodinite 1:360, 1:361?, 1:364, 3:542Oedaleops 2:485Offacoluskingi3:314foffretite 3:593?offshore transition zone 4:572f, 4:574,

4:575-577, 4:576fOhio Range 3:129, 3:137fOhio, United States 4:211Oi 1 event (Oligocene) 5:473oil 4:112

analytical techniquesasphaltene separation 4:250gas chromatography 4:250, 4:253fgas chromatography-mass

spectrometry 4:252, 4:254fliquid chromatography 4:250

Angel with the Flaming Sword (Genesis)1:253

biomarkers 4:250, 4:2Slfbulk properties

API gravity 4:252, 4:255fdistillation fractions 4:256, 4:257fgas/oil ratio 4:255metal content 4:257f, 4:257nitrogen content 4:256, 4:256fsulphur content 4:256, 4:256fviscosity 4:256wax content 4:255, 4:256f

chemical compositionaromatic compounds 4:250, 4:252f,

4:253fasphaltenes 4:250average composition 4:248, 4:249fnitrogen compounds 4:253foxygen compounds 4:253fpolar fractions 4:250saturated compounds 4:248, 4:249fsulphur compounds 4:253f

condensate 4:248, 4:252-255crude oil classification 4:252, 4:254f,

4:255?economic deposits 1:437environmental geochemistry 2:23exploration geophysics 3:190-192,

3:191ffossils 4:159generation parameters 4:2 S4?, 4:285fground subsidence 2:11maturation parameters 4:280tmolecular maturity indicators 4:250,

4:252foil cracking 4:292?petroleum reserves 4:331-339

creaming curves 4:331-332, 4:333fdefinitions 4:331deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537,

4:53 8fdepletion models 4:337discovery rates 4:337, 4:338feconomic forecasts 4:337energy consumption levels 4:337fEuropean sedimentary basins 2:124

fossils 4:159general discussion 4:331Hubbert peak 4:336flimestones 5:112Papua New Guinea 4:113peak oil forecasts 4:338f, 4:339fproduction data 4:33 6frecoverable reserve predictions

general discussion 4:332global reserves 4:334foil field recovery distributions

4:334foil production forecasts 4:335foil recovery estimates 4:333fUnited Kingdom oil field reserves

4:335fresource distributions 4:332fRussia 4:472/i 4:473South-east Asia 1:187, l:194fsupply and demand debates 4:334,

4:33 6fvalue approximations 4:332f

See also petroleum geologyojuelaite 3:508fOklahoma, United States 2:477-478, 4:21,

4:61-71Olarian Orogeny 1:213 f, 1:218-219Old Faithful geyser, Yellowstone,

Wyoming, United States 3:107fOldham, Richard 3:194f, 3:194-195Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220?, 3:220-221,

3:224f, 3:225, 3:230fOld Red Sandstone

Agassiz, Louis 2:175alluvial fans S:138fbackground information 4:194braided river systems 5:138, 5:139fCaledonian Orogeny 2:59, 2:66, 2:68-70conglomerates 5:139fDevonian 4:194geological controversies 3:180Hutton, James 2:203Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:212,

2:214photograph 3:175fRhynie chert 5:59-60Silurian 4:185, 4:193Smith, William 2:225unconformities 5:542whisky production 3:84

Olenekian stagechronostratigraphy 3:345fextinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f, 4:224Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 3:345, S:S06fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fsea-level variations 3:347fvegetation 3:349f

Oligocene 5:472-478Alps 2:134famphibians

Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,2:525f

assemblages 2:523-524

Latonia gigantea 2:524Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fangiosperms 2:420fAntarctica 1:139-140Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104 fbiostratigraphical correlations 5:472biota

algae 5:476Coccolithophoridae 5:476diatoms 5:476foraminifera 5:473, 5:476general discussion 5:475plankton 5:476

boundaries 5:472-473carbon dioxide (CO2) 5:475Chattian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclay occurrences 1:364East European Craton 4:461Europe 2:120, 2:121fextinction events 5:473, 5:476geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglaciation 5:473-474, 5:475, 5:476-477Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fglobal warming/cooling 5:473Gondwana 1:1S1?, 1:191 f, 1:193fhistorical background 5:472, 5:473fimpact structures 5:473insects 2:299 f, 2:300?International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fLagerstatten 3:310?mountain-building processes 5:477New Zealand 4:1, 4:3fNorth Africa 1:17North American chronostratigraphy

4:25^oxygen isotope ratios 5:473, 5:474fpalaeoclimate 5:473palaeogeography 5:476palaeosols 5:475Papua New Guinea 4:110plate tectonics 5:474precipitation 5:475Rupelian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517fsea-level 5:473, 5:474fshorelines and shelves 4:507Solomon Islands 4:113South-east Asia 1:1S1?, l:191f, 1:193fsouthern Cordillera 4:58Stratigraphic subdivisions 5:473temperature variations 5:475time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fvegetation 5:475volcanism 5:474, 5:477

oligoclase 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535olivenite 3:508f, 3:508?Oliver, Jack 3:205olivine 3:557-561

carbonatites 3:221?chemical composition 3:557

724 INDEX

olivine (continued]crystallography 3:557, 3:558f, 3:S60fhydrothermal alteration 3:559kimberlites 3:256?metamorphic facies 3:400fmetamorphic grade 3:396fmeteorites 3:560Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:646-647nomenclature 3:558occurrence 3:557, 3:559physical properties 3:559shock metamorphic effects 5:1831spectral data 1:111 fstability 3:559ultramafic rocks 3:394, 3:396, 3:396f,

3:397fOlmo, Jose Vicente del 3:170Olympic terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47Olympus Mons 5:278-279, 5:279f, 5:565Omalius d'Halloy, Jean-Baptiste d' 2:183,

3:360-361Oman

See ArabiaOmori, Fiusakichi 3:195omphacite 3:397, 3:404, 3:405, 3:567Onnian substage 4:183fOntario, Canada 3:119f, 3:155-156,

3:160, 4:33-34, 4:189, 4:190fOntong-Java Plateau 3:315f, 3:326?, 3:317,

3:363?, 3:370-371, 4:111 f, 4:113,4:480

Onychodontiformes 2:467Onychodus 2:467ooidal ironstones

background information 5:97-98diagenesis5:102-103ferruginization process 5:103-105,

5:105 fgeneral description 5:100occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:35f, 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:101f

ooids 4:508, 4:508f, 5:108-110, 5:109fOort cloud 1:426, l:428f, 5:224Opabinia 3:311 fopal

classification 5:26?geographic distribution 3:7?hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394toccurrence 3:13, 5:35-36, 5:51silica solubility 5:51

Opdyke, Neil 3:203Operation Sealion

See military geologyOphiacodon 2:487Ophiacodontidae 2:487ophiolites

Andes Mountains l:125f, 1:128Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2-3Argentina 1:161-163Bay of Islands ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84fChina 1:350copper deposits 5:388crustal structure 1:405-406East European Craton 2:44f

granitic rocks 3:237?Koli Nappe Complex 2:67mountain-building processes 5:418New Caledonia 4:116, 4:117Northern Appalachians 4:82f9 4:84f,

4:89Papua New Guinea 4:112pyrite (FeS2) 3:585Siberian craton 4:464South-east Asia 1:190southern Cordillera 4:53-54Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:242, 1:245-247terranes 4:84Thetford Mines ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84fVariscides Orogeny 2:75

Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209, l:210fOphthalmosaurus 2:503-504Oppel, Albert 1:295, 2:235, 3:180, 3:352Oquirrh Basin 4:50orangeites 3:252fOrbigny, Alcide d' 1:295, 2:182, 3:180,

3:352Orbiter 1 5:266?, 5:266-267Orbiter 5 5:266?, 5:266-267Ordos Basin, China 3:344Ordovician 4:175-184

Abereiddian stage 4:183 facritarchs 3:418-428Actonian substage 4:183fAntarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:76apparent polar wander paths 4:153fArabia l:142f, l:144fArenigian subdivision 4:175-176, 4:177,

4:2 77£ 4:178-179Armorica 2:78Ashgillian stage 4:175-176, 4:179,

4:2 79/", 4:180-181Aurelucian stage 4:183 fAustralia 1:225 f, 1:227Avalonia 2:78background information 4:175Baltica2:273/;2:78biodiversity l:264f, 4:179, 4:180fbiostratigraphy 4:182brachiopods 2:306f, 4:179Kr2izill:317f,l:318f,l:32bryozoans(Bryozoa) 4:179Burrellian stage 4:183fcalcareous algae 2:428fCaledonian Orogeny 2:61Canadian subdivision 4:176, 4:177Caradocian subdivision 4:175-176,

4:178, 4:179-180, 4:180f, 4:182f,4:182-184

carbon cycle 1:204-206carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fCautleyan stage 4:183fcephalopods 2:389fCheney an stage 4:183 fChina l:347f, 4:178-179, 4:180-181,

4:181-182, 5:511fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430, 3:434,

3:435/",3:436/r,3:437/'chronostratigraphy 4:182, 4:183f, 4:25f

clay occurrences 1:364conodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:175-184Constonian substage 4:183fcorals 2:325fcorals (Cnidarians) 4:179Cressagian stage 4:183fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fDarriwillian stage 4:176-177, 5:511 f,

5:517fEast European Craton 2:36,

2:38f, 4:459echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336/", 4:179echinoids 2:355Fennian stage 4:183ffish 2:462, 2:463ffossil lichens 2:441gastropods 2:386, 2:386fgastropods (Gastropoda) 4:179glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglaciation 3:129, 4:131, 4:180, 4:663glauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

geological evolution 1:178glacial/interglacial periods 3:129glaciation 4:180Ordovician, early 3:128Ordovician, late 3:129palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:134f,3:135f, 4:181terranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f

Grampian Orogeny 2:56, 2:58fgraptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,

2:365f, 2:366, 4:142, 4:143f,4:175-184

Harnagian substage 4:183fHirnantian stage 4:183fhistorical background 4:176lapetus Ocean 2:78Ibexian subdivision 4:177-178International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106, 5:98fJapan 3:302, 3:303fjawless fish 2:454, 2:460fKazakhstan 1:173 fLagerstatten 3:320?, 3:313Laurentia

accretion terranes l:173fpassive margin development 4:76,

4:76ftectonic evolution 2:56Variscides Orogeny 2:78

limestones 4:182fLlandellian stage 4:183 fLlanvirnian subdivision 4:175-176,

4:178-179,4:179-180Longvillian substage 4:183 fMarshbrookian substage 4:183fmass extinctions 4:180Migneintian stage 4:183 fmolluscs 4:179Moridunian stage 4:183fmountain-building processes 4:182

INDEX 725

Ordovician (continued]nineteenth century stratigraphic

correlations 2:219fNorth Africa l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19f, l:20fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fNorthern Appalachians 4:81

tectonic evolution 4:89tectonostratigraphical zones

Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,4:90f

Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fMeguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,

4:90fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f, 4:84f,

4:85, 4:87fOnnian substage 4:183 fostracoderms 2:457ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460fOuachita Mountains 4:64foxygen concentrations l:206fOzarkian subdivision 4:176Pagoda Limestone 4:178-179palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,

4.-155/", 4:155-156, 4:181, 4:181fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPechora Basin 2:53fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Pusgillian stage 4:183 fRawtheyan stage 4:183 fRheic Ocean 2:78sea-level changes 4:26fSiberia 1:173 fSoom Shale, South Africa 2:274-275,

3:441, 3:441fSoudleyan substage 4:183fSouth-east Asia 1:178, l:183f, l:185fStreffordian stage 4:183fsubdivisions

Arenigian 4:177, 4:177fAshgillian4:179, 4:179fCaradocian 4:178index fossils 4:176Llanvirnian 4:178Tremadocian 4:177

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251tectonic processes 4:182time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTornquist Ocean 2:78Tremadocian stage 4:175, 4:176, 4:177,

4:179-180, 4:184, 5:511/", 5:517ftrilobites 2:164trilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:293,

4:176-177,4:179Velfreyan substage 4:183fvolcanism 4:182Wales 4:177f, 4:177-178, 4:178-179,

4:179^,4:182Whitlandian stage 4:183 fWoolstonian substage 4:183 f

ore bodiesancient sedimentary rock associations

3:493

arsenates 3:506-510alteration 3:508crystal structure 3:506nomenclature 3:506occurrence 3:509physical properties 3:506, 3:508fsolubility 3:508stability 3:506

boratesArgentine borate deposits 3:513*chemistry 3:514commercial borate minerals 3:512tcommercial refined borate products

3:519*definition 3:511depositional environment

formation processes 3:516, 3:516fmagmatic sources 3:517marine evaporites 3:517non-marine basins 3:517occurrences 3:515playa lakes 3:516/", 3:516-517

exploration techniquew 3:518geological environment 3:511, 3:512fglobal distribution 3:511 fhistorical background 3:510life estimates 3:521tmineralogy 3:511, 3:512tmining operations 3:519origins 3:512fprocessing techniques 3:519reserve deposits 3:521tTurkish borate deposits 3:5131uses 3:511, 3:520, 3:520fworld production rates 3:521f

chromates 3:532-533crocoite (PbCrO4) 3:533, 3:533*general discussion 3:532, 3:533*geographical distribution 3:532

dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 5:30economic deposits 1:437, 1:435*, 1:438ffelsic igneous rock associations 3:492gold (Au)

Archaean gold-quartz conglomerates(palaeoplacers) 3:121, 3:121f

by-product gold 3:123, 3:492-493Carlin-type gold 3:122epithermal gold 3:122, 3:122fFiji 4:120hydrothermal ore deposits 3:119,

3:119/", 3:120f, 3:630*, 3:635fLihir Island, Papua New Guinea

1:441-442, l:442/i 4:112orogenic lode gold 3:122Russia 4:472f, 4:473

gravity measurements 1:104hydrothermal ore deposits 3:628-637

alteration products 3:631background information 3:628epithermal deposits 3:634fluid sources

general discussion 3:632geothermal gradient 3:635, 3:636fmagma-heated waters

3:634, 3:635f

magma-hydrothermal fluids 3:632,3:633f

gangue minerals 3:630gemstone deposits 3:11gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f9 3:120f,

3:630*, 3:635fhydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629*hydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630*,

3:630/",3:631/~, 5:388porphyry ore deposits 3:633f, 5:369stratiform ores 3:634

magmatic ore deposits 3:637-645carbonatites 3:640chromite deposits 3:640elemental composition 3:638felemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639*fundamental processes 3:637, 3:638fimmiscible oxide liquids 3:641incompatible lithophile elements

3:638f, 3:639, 3:639*, 3:640flithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639magnetite 3:641niobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640fsulphide minerals

base metal deposits 3:643, 3:644*emplacement mechanisms 3:643,

3:643fgeneral discussion 3:641magmatic concentrations 3:642fpartitioning behaviour 3:639*precious metal sulphide deposits

3:642, 3:642/i 3:644, 3:644fmolybdate minerals 3:551-552nitrate minerals

general discussion 3:555geographical distribution 3:555mineral types 3:556*solubility 3:555

North American continental interior4:33

oceanic manganese nodular deposits5:113-120

compositional variabilityAtlantic Ocean 5:119general discussion 5:117Indian Ocean 5:119Pacific Ocean 5:117, S:118f

distributionAtlantic Ocean 4:105, 5:117buried nodules 5:117general discussion 5:115geographic distribution 5:116fIndian Ocean 5:117Pacific Ocean 5:116

economic potential 5:119elemental abundances 5:114tferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:76, 5:77f, 5:119historical background 5:113internal structure 5:114, 5:115f,

5:116foccurrence 5:113tertiary diagram 5:115f

726 INDEX

ore bodies (continued)Papua New Guinea 4:112phosphate deposits 5:126, 5:127fplate tectonics 1:440fporphyry ore deposits 3:633/", 4:112,

4:120, 5:369quartz (SiO2) 3:569-571

chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51,5:52f

chemical composition 3:569cristobalite 1:368, 3:569, 3:570f9

3:571general discussion 3:569industrial uses 3:570Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,

United States 3:571silica 3:570, 3:S70fstructure 3:570tridymite 3:540f9 3:569,

3:570f9 3:571types 3:570weathering 5:17

Russia 4:472f, 4:473South-east Asia 1:195sulphide minerals 3:574-586

arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:582-583,3:583f

crystal structure 3:574, 3:575t, 3:576f,3:577f

geobarometry 3:583geothermometry 3:582-583new deposit discovery 1:441 fore deposit types 3:584, 3:585tphase relationships 3:581fphase transformation diagram 3:580fphysical properties 3:576, 3:577tplate tectonics 1:440fsphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:S84fstability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580fsulphidation curves 3:582f

sulphur occurrences 3:554tungstate minerals 3:586-588vanadate minerals 3:588-590See also economic geology; mineral

deposits; specific mineralsOregon, United States 4:53, 5:476-477,

5:480-481Orellan land mammal age 5:472, 5:473fOresound 2:150Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC) 4:333-334Oriental mountain system 4:48Orinoco River 5:2 9£Orkhon arc 4:466Orleanian mammalian age 5:479fOrnithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493Thyreophora 2:493

Ornithuromorpha 2:498 f9 2:499, 2:501ferogenic events 3:648

Acadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f9 4:88,4:90f9 4:91

Albany Eraser Orogeny 4:352

Alleghanian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:79,4:88-89, 4:90f, 4:91

Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,4:471

Ancestral Rocky Mountains orogeny4:52

Andean Orogen 1:238fAntler orogeny 4:50Arctic Shelf 4:464, 4:464fArgentina l:156fAustralia

Albany Eraser Orogeny 1:209'/,1:210-211, l:213f, l:214f, 1:219,1:239f, 4:352

Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:211 f,4:352

Capricorn Orogeny 1:209f,1:209-210, I:211f9 I:212f9

1:239 fChewings Orogeny 1:212 f, 1:215Delamerian Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240,

l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 fEdmundian Orogeny 1:214fEwamin Orogeny 1:213 f9 1:218-219Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:21 OfHall's Creek Orogeny 1:21 If,

1:212-213, l:239fHooper Orogeny l:211f, 1:212Isan Orogeny 1:213f, 1:218-219Kararan Orogeny I:212f9 1:213f,

1:217-218Kimban Orogeny 1:209f, 1:21 If,

l:212f, 1:215-216King Leopold Orogeny 1:211, l:215f,

1:239 f93:132fLachlan Orogeny. See Lachlan

OrogenyNew England Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,

1:241 f, 1:242, 1:249 f, 1:250,4:202f

Olarian Orogeny 1:213 f, 1:218-219Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209,

l:210fPaterson Orogeny l:215f, 1:220,

1:239 fPetermann Orogeny l:215f, 3:132fPine Creek Orogeny 1:209f, l:210f,

1:211Pinjarra Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211Proterozoic 1:208reactivation 1:214 f9 1:219-220Ross Orogeny 1:135, 1:238f, 1:245,

1:248 fSleafordian Orogeny l:210f, 4:352Strangways Orogeny 1:211 f,

1:214-215Tanami Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:213Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,

1:241 f9 1:242Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16,

4:19f, 4:352Wickham Orogeny l:215fYapungku Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:214-215

Baikalide Orogeny 4:463, 4:464, 4:464fBarramundi Orogeny 4:352

BrazilBrasiliano-Pan-African orogeny

1:307-308, 1:308 fNeoproterozoic orogenic domains

Aracuai orogenic event l:313f,1:315

Araguaia orogenic belt I:314f9

1:319Borborema strike-slip system

I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318general discussion 1:314Mantiqueira orogenic system

I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9

1:320Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318Tocantins orogenic system 1:307f,

l:314f, 1:319Cadomian Orogeny 2:75-78, 3:133f9

3:648, 4:352Caledonian Orogeny

Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fBritish Isles 2:56-63

Connemara terrane 2:60Grampian terrane 2:59granitic rocks 3:237tHebridean terrane 2:59Lake District terrane 2:60Midlands terrane 2:61Midland Valley terrane 2:60Monian terrane 2:60Northern Highland terrane 2:59palaeogeographic reconstruction

2:57fSilurian 4:191Southern Uplands terrane 2:60tectonic evolution 2:57f, 2:61terranes 2:59Welsh Basin terrane 2:60

China 1:349 f, 1:351Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 3:239palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:56Scandinavia 2:64-74

Arctic Caledonides 2:71f, 2:72fbackground information 2:64Baltica continental margin 2:65f,

2:67, 3:648Barents Shelf 2:50f9 2:64, 2:64f9

2:70eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 2:71 fgeographic location 2:3 5 fKoli Nappe Complex 2:6Sf, 2:67Laurentian continental margin

2:65/", 2:67Lower Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66Middle Allochthon 2:65f9 2:66Nordaustlandet Terrane 2:70-71Scandian collision 2:68Seve Nappe Complex 2:65f, 2:67Silurian 4:191Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f9 2:71 ftectonic evolution 2:73, 2:73ftectonic features 2:72f

INDEX 727

erogenic events (continued]Tertiary 2:64 fthrust sheets 2:64, 2:65fUpper Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67Uppermost Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67western Scandinavia 2:64, 2:65fWest Ny Friesland Terrane 2:71-72

Suess, Eduard2:238Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fCircum-Pacific orogenic collages 4:468cratonization 5:175, 5:175fcrustal provinces 4.-23/J 5:175, 5:176fDanopolonian orogeny 2:44East European Craton 2:40, 2:48fGothian orogeny 2:41-44Grampian Orogeny 2:56, 2:58fGrenville orogeny 3:155-165

anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG) suite 3:155-156,3:159f, 3:160, 3:161f

Argentina l:156f, 1:161-163Australia 4:352characteristics 3:155geographic distribution 3:155, 3:156f,

3:157fLaurentia 3:155, 4:16, 4:19nomenclature 3:158fNorthern Appalachians 3:155southern Cordillera 4:50tectonic evolution

Appalachian inliers 3:163Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f,

3:159 fFlinton Group 3:159f, 3:160general discussion 3:157Grenville Province 3:158fOttawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162,

3:163 fplate tectonics 3:164, 3:164fpost-Elzevirian activity 3:160post-Ottawan activity 3:159f, 3:162

Hercynian OrogenyArabia 1:151China l:346f, 1:352Gondwana 2:102Mongolia 1:356North Africa 1:14, l:16fPangaea 4:225

Hudsonian Orogeny 4:16Hunter-Bowen Orogeny 1:242, 1:250Indosinian Orogeny 1.-346/", 1:348,

l:349f, 1:352, 1:356Jinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348,

1:349 f, 1:350Lachlan Orogeny 1:237-251

back-arc basin closure 1:247, l:248f,1:249 f

background information 1:237, 1:240characteristics l:240tdeformation processes 1:242evolution

Andean-type margin development1:250

back-arc basin closure 1:249back-arc basin formation 1:247

geological map l:239f, 1:241 flithofacies 1:242magmatism 1:244, 1:247 fmetamorphic complexes 1:244, l:246fsubduction events 1:250Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:239turbidites 1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:243f

Lapland-Kola orogeny 2:38, 2:41 f,2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f

Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f,5:460-461

Laurentia 4:19Luliangian Orogeny 1:348Medicine Bow orogeny 4:48-50Mediterranean region

Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 3:654, 3:655/cross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 2:135, 3:654, 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654f

Mesozoic l:238fmountain-building processes 5:417-425

Alpine-type mountain building 5:420,5:42 If

Alpscrystalline basement rocks 2:133 fgeneral discussion 2:132orogenic process 2:134fsubduction zones 2:133f

Andean-type mountain building1:137, 1:250, 5:419, S:419f

Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183feighteenth century viewpoints 3:171general discussion 5:417geological research (1780-1835)

3:177geological research (1835-1900)

3:182, 3:183fHall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182Himalayan-type mountain building

3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422fMediterranean region

Appenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655fcross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 3:654, 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654fWestern Alps 2:117

motive forces 2:251northern Cordillera 4:43oceanic island arc belts 5:418ophiolites 5:418Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:250Tibetan Plateau 5:423, 5:424fWegener, Alfred 2:249

Neoacadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:78,4:90f, 4:91

Neoproterozoic 4:463Nevadan orogeny 4:54New Guinea Orogeny 1:238'fNipponide collage 4:470, 4:470fNorth American continental nucleus

4:9f, 4:16, 4:17Northern Appalachians

Acadian orogeny 4:88, 4:90f, 4:91Alleghanian orogeny 4:88-89, 4:90f,

4:91Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:83-84Neoacadian orogeny 4:90f9 4:91Penobscot orogeny 4:85-87Salinic orogeny 4:90f, 4:91Taconic orogeny 4:82f, 4:83-84, 4:85,

4:89, 4:90ftectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57/, 4:89,

4:90ftectonostratigraphic map 4:82f

Ouachita Mountains 4:61-71Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68fCambrian 4:62gravity measurements 4:69fmetasediments 4;67fPalaeozoic 4:61regional geophysics 4:67regional subdivisions 4:62/", 4:65seismic reflection data 4:69-70stratigraphy

general discussion 4:63pre-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:64fsedimentary facies 4:64/, 4:66fsyn-orogenic sequences

4:63, 4:66ftectonic processes

accretionary wedges 4:70-71diachronous collision events 4:61,

4:70fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62fimbrication zones 4:65tectonic evolution 4:61, 4:62ftectonic map 4:23ftectonic synthesis 4:70

Palaeocene 5:460Palaeozoic l:238fPan-African orogeny 1:1-12

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3f,l:4f, 1:5 f

background information 1:1belt distribution 1:2fCambrian 4:165central Africa 1:10, l:llfDamara Belt l:2f, 1:7GariepBeltl:2/; 1:8Gondwana correlations 1:11Kaoko Belt l:2f, 1:9Lufilian Arc L-2/; 1:7, l:8fMadagascar 1:6, l:6f, 1:7fMozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,

l:7fnorth-eastern Africa 1:10Phanerozoic 1:307-308, l:308fPrecambrian 4:378pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3fRokelide Belt l:2f, 1:10SaldaniaBeltl:2/, 1:8Trans-Saharan Belt I:2f9 1:9, l:10fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:53 6fWest Congo Belt l:2f, 1:9Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, l:8f

Precambrian 4:352

728 INDEX

orogenic events (continued]Precambrian continental nucleus 4:9f9

4:16Proterozoic orogenic events 4:17, 4:352Rocky Mountains 4:52Ross Orogeny 1:135, I:238f9 1:245,

1:248 fRussia 4:463Scythian Orogeny 4:471Sleafordian Orogeny 4:352Sonoma orogeny 4:52southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:50Sveconorwegian orogeny 2:44Tabberabberan Orogeny 3:139Taconic orogeny

Northern Appalachians 4:82f9

4:83-84, 4:85, 4:89, 4:90fSouthern/Central Appalachians 4:72,

4:74f, 4:77Taimyr Orogeny 4:464, 4:464fTaltson-Thelon Orogeny 4:17Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251

background information 1:237cross-sections 1:224 fdeformation processes 1:242, 1:245fDelamerian Orogeny 1:239 f9 1:240,

I:240t9 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248ffault traces 1:243 f9 1:245f, 1:246fgeochronology l:244fgeological map 1:23 8 f9 1:239f, 1:241 f,

1:244 f, 1:245 fgranite intrusives 1:247f, 1:249fLachlan Orogeny. See Lachlan

Orogenylithofacies l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243 fmafic rocks 1:243fmagmatism 1:244, l:247f, 1:249fmetamorphism 1:242, 1:246 fNew England Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,

1:241 f9 1:242, 1:249 f9 1:250ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247orogenic events l:240tpalaeogeographic reconstruction

1:248 f9 1:249 fProterozoic 1:223 f, 1:224 f, 1:225-226Ross Orogeny 1:245subprovinces l:240ttectonic evolution

Andean-type mountain building1:250

arc-continent collisions 1:250back-arc basin formation 1:247,

1:248 f, 1:249basin inversion 1:245general discussion 1:244orogenic events 1:245, 1:247,

1:248 f, 1:249, 1:249 fRodinia breakup 1:245volcanism 1:250

Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,1:241 f, 1:242

timetable of events 1:223fturbidites l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243-244

ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243fTertiary 1:23 8 fTimanide Orogeny 2:49-56

background information 2:49Barents Shelf 2:50f9 2:53Caledonian Orogeny 2:72-73East European Craton 2:49-50, 2:53,

2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:5Of,

2:51geographic location 2:35fNovaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f, 2:53Pechora Basin 2:50/", 2:51, 2:52f9

2:53f, 2:54fPolar Ural Mountains 2:50f9 2:52Precambrian 4:352Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53, 2:54ftectonic relationships 2:50fterranes 2:5Of

Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16,4:19f9 4:352

ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks5:53 6f

unconformities 5:544Uralide orogeny 2:86-95

aeromagnetic map 2:87f9 2:93fBouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94,

2:93fCentral Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fcross-sections 3:653fcrustal structure 2:90, 2:91fEast European Craton 2:34-35, 3:648East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f9

2:91f9 2:92fgeological map 2:88fheat flow density 2:91-92, 2:93fMagnitogorsk-Tagil zone 2:86, 2:87f,

2:90-91, 4:467Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:652,

3:653fPre-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fseismic profile 2:91f9 2:92ftectonic evolution

foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:90general discussion 2:86island arcs 2:88strike-slip fault systems 2:90subduction zones 2:89tectonic processes 2:89f

topography 2:94, 2:94fTrans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f9

2:91 f9 2:92f, 4:468velocity profiles 2:91, 2:92fWest Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fzone classifications 2:86, 2:87f

Variscides Orogeny 2:75-85Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fangular unconformity 2:75, 2:77fcentral Europe 2:79,2:SO/;2:^/; 3:651characteristics 2:84crustal thickness 3:658Devonian 2:78, 2:79East European Craton 3:648Europe 2:95

geographic location 2:35fgravitational collapse 2:100Iberia 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83fOrdovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:75,

2:76f, 2:77fpalaeomagnetism 2:75Permo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:101 f, 2:95,

3:653foreland 2:97Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97North German Basin 2:101 f, 2:97,

2:99-100Oslo Rift 2:101 f, 2:97petrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:101 f, 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99Variscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

Silurian 2:78Suess, Eduard 2:238tectonic processes 2:7 6 f, 2:79, 2:80f9

2:81fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:652f, 5:455ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:538western Europe 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f9

3:651Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic collage

4:468, 4:469fSee also tectonic processes

orogenic metamorphism 3:392-393Orosinian System 5:51 If, 5:517fOrrorin 2:541Orthoceras 2:392Orthoceratids 2:392orthoclase 3:88, 3:534forthoenstatite 5:533forthopyroxenes 3:567-569

granites 3:240-241kimberlites 3:256tmetamorphic facies 3:398f9 3:399f,

3:400f, 3:404ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535fOruanui volcano, New Zealand 4:3871Osborn Knoll 3:315f9 3:316tOskol-Azov Block 2:45, 2:45fOslo, Norway 4:187fOslo Rift 2:45, 2:96/i 2:97, 2:101 fosmium (Os)

natural occurrences 3:553t, 3:554partitioning behaviour 3:639tradiometric dating l:88tworld production rates 1:43 8t

osmotrophy 4:379Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt 2:45f,

2:46Ossa Morena Zone 2:83

INDEX 729

Ossinodus 2:472osteichthyans 2:466osteolepiforms 2:467osteostracans 2:462ostracoderms

Astraspis 2:457, 2:457fCephalaspis utahensis 2:458fdecline 2:459Devonian 2:457, 2:458fEriptychius 2:457Ordovician 2:457reconstruction drawings 2:456fSilurian 2:457

ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463applications 3:462Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211characteristics 3:453classification 3:453, 3:454*Cretaceous 3:460f, 3:461Devonian 3:459, 3:460fecological structures l:262tecology 3:457, 3:460fevolutionary history 3:459extraction methods 3:471geological history 3:459growth stages 3:456-457habitat 3:457, 3:459Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461lacustrine deposits 4:556life cycle 3:457morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,

3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459fMyodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,

3:458f, 3:460fOrdovician 3:459, 3:460fPermian 3:460f, 3:461Podocopa

classification 3:453, 3:454tecology 3:457living examples 3:454fmorphology 3:455f, 3:456fshell morphology 3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459fstratigraphic ranges 3:460f

Quaternary 3:460f, 3:462relevance 2:279reproduction 3:457Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,

4:191stratigraphic correlation 3:460fTertiary 3:461Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f

Otischalkian faunachron 3:345fOttawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162, 3:163fOuachita Mountains 4:61-71

Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68fCambrian 4:62gravity measurements 4:69fmetasediments 4:67 fPalaeozoic 4:61regional geophysics 4:67regional subdivisions 4:62f, 4:65seismic reflection data 4:69-70stratigraphy

general discussion 4:63pre-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:64f

sedimentary facies 4:64f, 4:66fsyn-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:66f

tectonic processesaccretionary wedges 4:70-71diachronous collision events 4:61, 4:70fold and thrust belts 4:32f, 4:62, 4:62fimbrication zones 4:65tectonic evolution 4:61, 4:62ftectonic map 4:23ftectonic synthesis 4:70

Ovetian stage 4:167 fOvid 3:168Owen, David Dale 2:197Owen, Sir Richard 2:160-161, 2:502Oxford Clay, United Kingdom 3:310-311Oxfordian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354, 3:355,

4:54-55Atlantic Margin 4:104fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) S:S06fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:5 17 fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99f

oxisols5:196*oxygen (O)

atmospheric concentrations 1:197*,3:553, 4:205-207, 5:246*

dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17,2:19 f

isotopescarbonatites 3:222, 3:229fCarbon Isotope Excursion (CIE)

5:467f, 5:470chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f, 1:87Cretaceous 3:366dendrochronology 1:391diagenetic quantification 5:146,

5:148fdolomite formation 5:85, 5:89fgeoarchaeology 3:18, 3:1 9fhydrothermal activity 5:366, 5:366flandfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18fmarine carbonates 4:133-134marine oxygen isotope record 5:496fOligocene 5:473, 5:474fPalaeocene 5:464Pliocene 5:487*, 5:489-490

natural occurrences 3:553*oil composition 4:253fPhanerozoic atmosphere 1:206, 1:206 fVenus 5:246*

oysters 2:164-165, 3:356-357Ozark Dome 4:33 fOzarkian subdivision 4:176Ozarkodina eosteinhornensis 4:189Ozarks, Missouri, United States 4:21ozone (Os)

atmospheric concentrations l:197tEarth's structure 1:424, 1:425 f, 5:217fsolar radiation 5:216

Pachelma Basin 4:456Pacific Mountains System

accretion terraneseconomic deposits 4:44evolution 4:44general discussion 4:42mountain building 4:43

bedrock features 4:39crustal thickness 4:39fexternal system 4:45internal system 4:45physiography 4:37, 4:37f

Pacific Ocean 3:362f, 4:1, 5:116, 5:117,5:118f

Pacific Plate 4:37f, 4:38, 4:39f, 4:58-60,4:59f, 4:109, 4:472f

Pacific Rim terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47packstone 3:526/", 3:527% 5:109f, 5:110,

5:11 IfPage Sandstone, Colorado Plateau

4:545-546, 4:547fPagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45IfPagoda Limestone 4:178-179pahasapaite 3:593*, 5:121-122pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326, 3:326f,

5:567-569, 5:571fPaibian stage 5:511 f, 5:517fPai-Khoi 4:465Pakistan 3:7*, 3:12, 3:129, 3:137f, 3:344,

5:476, 5:484Palabora complex, South Africa 3:492,

3:492fpalaeoautecology

bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141 fgeneral discussion 4:140graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142, 4:143fmolluscs 4:141-142trilobites (Trilobita) 4:142

Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524, 2:524fpalaeobiology 2:514, 4:156palaeobotany 3:189Palaeocene 5:459-465

amphibians 2:524-525Andes Mountains 1:130Antarctica 1:139-140Arabia l:142f, l:144fbackground information 5:459Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fbiota

biozones 5:460fgeneral discussion 5:462marine environments

bryozoans 5:462calcareous nannoplankton 5:462coelenterata 5:462corals 5:462dinoflagellates 5:462echinoderms 5:463foraminifera 5:462molluscs 5:463vertebrates 5:463

terrestrial biotaflora 5:463invertebrates 5:463radiation patterns 5:463vertebrates 5:463, 5:465

calcareous algae 2:433f> 5:462

p

730 INDEX

Palaeocene (continued)chalk fades 5:460, S:461fchronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:460fclimate 5:464environmental settings

carbon isotopic ratios 5:460, 5:464marine environments 5:464oxygen isotope ratios 5:464terrestrial environments 5:463, 5:464

Europe 2:113, 2:117, 2:119ffaunal assemblages 5:460, 5:461fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fGinkgo gardneri 2:4S2fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) S:S06fgymnosperms 2:4S2finsects 2:299fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLatest Palaeocene Thermal Maximum

(LPTM) dissociation hypothesis1:342 f

Laurussia 5:463North American chronostratigraphy

4:2SfPalaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum

5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470Papua New Guinea 4:110Paris Basin 5:459-460plate tectonics 5:460Polystrata 2:430fRocky Mountains 5:460-461tetrapod radiations 1:273ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470

palaeoclimate 4:131-140Antarctica 1:139carbon dioxide concentrations

1:335-345Carboniferous 4:207, 4:208f, 4:209f,

4:21 Of, 4:227China 1:347fcontourites 4:513-514Cretaceous 3:360, 3:365, 3:365fdendroclimatology

micro-anatomical variations 1:390precipitation data 1:39Ofreconstruction models 1:388-389ring width studies 1:388, l:390f

Devonian 4:195, 4:196, 4:196f,4:199 f

Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO)5:467f, 5:470

Eocene 5:470gas hydrates 4:266general discussion 4:131geological proxies

aeolianites 4:134coal 4:134cold water sediments 4:134evaporites 4:132f, 4:134, 4:138-139general discussion 4:131glacigenic sediments 4:134lignite 4:134

marine carbonates 4:132 f, 4:133oxygen isotope ratios 4:133-134palaeosols 4:134wildfires 4:134

Gondwana 3:142, 3:143fJurassic 3:354Milankovich cycles 1:206, 4:131, 4:208Miocene

atmospheric carbon dioxide 5:482mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum

5:482, 5:483sea-level 5:482seasonally 5:482temperature 5:482

modelsgeneral circulation models 4:131,

4:135Mesozoic 4:135Triassic

biome zones 4:138f, 4:138-139facies 4:137flora 4:137-138general discussion 4:135modelled temperatures 4:135,

4:136fmodel-proxy correlation 4:135precipitation 4:136, 4:137ftemperature-limited facies 4:136

Oligocene 5:473palaeosols 5:205, 5:206fpalynological research 3:465Pangaea 3:142, 3:143f, 3:347Permian 4:216, 4:227Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:206Pleistocene 5:495Pliocene

general discussion 5:487t, 5:489glaciation 5:487t, 5:489mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t, 5:489

Precambrian 4:351Silurian 4:193South-east Asia 1:183 f, 1:185fterrestrial conditions 4:132fTriassic 3:347, 3:347fWegener, Alfred 2:247-248, 2:251See also climate; weathering

Palaeoctopus 2:395palaeoecology 4:140-147

corals (Cnidarians) 2:329, 2:331fdefinitions 4:140fossil plants 2:436-443

fungiAscomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,

2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438 f,

2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442glossary information 2:442lichens

fossil lichens 2:441hyphae 2:441-442Nematophytes 2:441Rhynie chert 2:441-442symbiotic relationships 2:441

palaeopathology 4:160geological research (1900-1962)

3:188-189historical background 3:175Lagerstatten 3:307-315

concentration depositsgeneral discussion 3:307stratiform deposits 3:307traps 3:308

conservation depositsanoxia 3:311bacteria 3:311decay experiments 3:309, 3:309fgeographic locations 3:310tobrution 3:310, 3:311fpreservation importance 3:308scavengers 3:309soft tissue preservation 3:308soupy substrates 3:310stagnation 3:311stratiform deposits 3:309taphonomy 3:308traps 3:309

soft tissue mineralisationapatite 3:312, 3:312fcalcium carbonate 3:313clay minerals 3:313general discussion 3:312Leancholia 3:313fnodules 3:313, 3:314fNotelops 3:312fOffacolus kingi 3:314fpycnodont fish 3:314fpyrite 3:312, 3:313fsilica 3:313temporal trends 3:313

palaeoautecologybivalves (Bivalvia) 4:140, 4:141fEopecten 4:141, 4:141fgeneral discussion 4:140graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142,

4:143 fmolluscs 4:141-142trilobites (Trilobita) 4:142

palaeosols 5:205palaeosynecology

bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:146f, 4:146-147Burgess Shale 4:142-143, 4:146competition 4:144example studies 4:146fossil populations 4:143, 4:144fgeneral discussion 4:142organism interactions 4:144predation4:145, 4:145fsymbioses 4:146

palynological research 3:465See also dendrochronology

PalaeogeneAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130China 1:347f

INDEX 731

Palaeogene (continued)Danian boundary 3:372, 3:373ffish 2:463fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:S06fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fKazakhstan 1:166 fNew Zealand 4:6North Africa 1:24northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:43-44ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460fUzbekistan 1:167

palaeogeographyMps2:127fAustralia, Phanerozoic

Cambrian, early 1:225, l:225fCambrian, early-middle 1.-225/", 1:226Cambrian, late l:225f, 1:227Carboniferous l:226f, 1:234Cenomanian l:229f, 1:236Devonian, early l:226f, 1:230Devonian, middle-late l:226f, 1:230Eocene l:230f, 1:236Jurassic, early-middle 1:229 f, 1:235Jurassic, late 1:229 f, 1:235Miocene 1:23 Of, 1:236Neocomian-Aptian l:229f, 1:235Neoproterozoic 1:225, 1:225 fOrdovician 1.-225/", 1:227Permian, early 1:227f, 1:234Permian, late 1:227f, 1:234Permo-Carboniferous l:227f, 1:234Pleistocene l:230f, 1:236Silurian l:226f, 1:229Triassic, early 1:228 f, 1:235Triassic, early-middle 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, late 1:228 f, 1:235Triassic, middle l:228f, 1:235

Brazil 1:323 fCambrian 4:83f, 4:164, 4:17Ofchalk sea 5:43f, 5:46China l:352fCretaceous 3:362, 3:362fDevonian 2:77fEast European Craton 2:47geological research (1900-1962) 3:190Gondwana

Cambrian, early 3:133fCarboniferous, early l:182f, l:184f,

3:140fCarboniferous, middle 3:141fCretaceous, middle 3:153fDevonian, early 3:137fDevonian, late l:182f, 3:138fJurassic, early 3:15IfJurassic, late 3:152fOrdovician 4:181Ordovician, early 3:134fOrdovician, late 3:135fPermian coal 3:145fPermian, early l:184f, 3:144fPermian, late l:184f, 3:146fRodinial:174fSilurian 3:136f, 4:191 f, 4:192, 4:192f

Triassic, early 3:148fTriassic, late l:184f, 3:150fTriassic, middle 3:149f

Japan3:304/"Miocene 5:480fNew Zealand 4:1, 4:3f,4:5fOligocene 5:476Ordovician 2:77f, 4:181, 4:181fpalaeomagnetism 4:152, 4:152f, 4:155,

4:155 fpalaeosols 5:206, 5:206fParana basin 1:319fPermian 2:77/, 4:215'fPleistocene 5:496fPrecambrian 4:352, 4:353fRodimal:174fSilurian 2:77 fSouth Atlantic 1:323 fTriassic 3:346, 3:346fVariscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:7 6f, 2:77f

palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686fpalaeomagnetism 4:147-156

analytical techniques 4:149, 4:1 5 Ofapparent polar wander paths 1:85 f,

4:153, 4:153fbackground information 4:147basic principles

magnetic field 4:147, 4:148fmagnetic minerals 3:332, 4:148,

4:149t, 4:149fmagnetization process 4:148, 4:149 f

drift velocities 4:154, 4:1 54 ffield tests 4:151, 4:151fmagnetostratigraphy 3:331-335

analytical techniques 3:333apparent polar wander paths 1:85 f,

4:153, 4:153fapplications 1:84, l:86ffield sampling 3:333gauss 3:333-334geomagnetic polarity time-scale l:81f,

l:83f, 3:331, 3:332fhistorical background 1:82-83Jurassic 3:353magnetic anomalies 1:83 fmagnetic field reversals 3:202magnetostratigraphical correlation

3:333f, 3:334methodology 1:84normal polarity 3:331polarity-bias superchrons 3:33 Ifremnant magnetization 3:332reversed polarity 3:331secular variation 3:334

palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:75,4:152, 4:152f, 4:155, 4:155f

palaeolatitudes 4:154, 4:154f, 5:457palaeoterranes 5:457Pliocene 5:487tseamounts 4:479stability tests 4:151, 4:151fVariscides Orogeny 2:75Zijderveld diagrams

4:149-151, 4:150fPalaeoniscus 2:466-467

Palaeontological Society 3:64palaeontology

biozones 1:294-305biochronozones 1:304, 1:304fbiostratigraphic principles 5:301,

5:301f, 5:302fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434chronostratigraphical relationships

l:296fdating techniques 1:295-296Eocene 5:467fhistorical background 1:294multivariate biostratigraphic analyses

1:3 04 fOppel, Albert 1:295Ordovician 4:176, 4:182Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Smith, William 1:294zone types

acme zone 1:302, l:303fassemblage zone 1:301, 1:301 fconcurrent range zone

1:297, 1:298 ffirst appearance/last appearance

1:296, 1:297 fgeneral discussion 1:296interval zone 1:302, l:303flineage zone 1:300, l:300fmiscellaneous zones 1:304Oppel zone 1:299, l:299frange zones 1:296taxon range zone 1:297, 1:298f

Cuvier, Georges 2:180evolution

biodiversity 1:259-265general discussion 2:163Hox genes 2:166macroevolution

evolutionary radiations 2:165-166extinction 2:165-166general discussion 2:165tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f

microevolutionallopatric-speciation 2:163, 2:164ffossil record 2:164fossil records 2:163general discussion 2:163phyletic gradualism 2:164/,

2:164-165punctuated equilibrium 2:164,

2:164fsympatric speciation 2:163-164,

2:164fradiations

abiotic causes 1:273, 1:273fCretaceous 1:273 fdistorting factors 1:270-271environmental shift 1:271, 1:272fevolutionary novelties 1:274,1:274fgeneral discussion 1:269Jurassic 1:2 73 fmorphological evolution l:274f,

1:276, l:276fPalaeocenel:273/r

phylogenetic relationships 1:274f

732 INDEX

palaeontology (continued]taxic evolution 1:2 74f9

1:276, 1:2 76 ftetrapod radiations 1:273ftriggers 1:269-270

Red Queen hypothesis 2:166speciation

definition 1:266fossil record 1:267general discussion 1:266fphyletic gradualism 1:267, 1:268'f,

l:269f, 1:27 OfPrunum comforme 1:269fpunctuated equilibrium 1:268,

l:268f, l:271fspecies recognition 1:267

fossils 4:156geological research (1900-1962) 3:188microevolution 1:27 Ifmicropalaeontological techniques

3:470-475extraction methods

acid-insoluble microfossils 3:472acritarchs 3:473calcareous microfossils 3:471calcareous nannofossils 3:471,

3:472fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:473conodonts 3:472diatoms 3:473dinoflagellates 3:473foraminifera 3:471general discussion 3:470organic microfossils 3:473ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:471pollen 3:473radiolarians 3:473siliceous microfossils 3:473spores 3:473

sampling procedures 3:470separation/concentration methods

flotation 3:474magnetic separation 3:474sieving 3:474specimen selection 3:475

punctuated equilibrium 1:27IfSteno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226

palaeopathology 4:160-163applications 4:162background information 4:160basic assumptions 4:160diagnostic methods 4:160fossils

bone fractures 4:161 f, 4:162fdental anomalies 4:161 fdinosaurs (Dinosauria)

4:162, 4:162ffossil plants 4:160invertebrates 4:160predation 4:160, 4:161fvertebrates 4:161

palaeoplacers 3:121, 3:121fPalaeoproterozoic

Antarctica 1:132, l:134fAustralia 1:208

boundary stratotypes 5:505East European Craton 2:42f, 2:43f, 2:45,

2:45f, 2:46, 2:47f, 2:48feukaryotes 4:356f, 4:357general discussion 4:350glaciation 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

S:S17fnorthern Cordillera 4:39Orosinian System 5:511 f, 5:517fPechora Basin 2:53fPrecambrian basement 4:13fRhyacian System 5:51 If, 5:517fSiderian System 5:511f9 5:517fsouthern Cordillera 4:48Statherian System 5:51 If, 5:517fUral Mountains 2:49-56

palaeosols 5:203-208aeolian systems 4:616-618, 4:617f9

4:626burial alteration processes 5:204, 5:204fclay formation 1:362, l:363fcolor banding 5:203ferosion surfaces 5:207ffacies analysis 4:490-491formation duration 5:207fossils 5:206, 5:206fgeosol 5:203gleization 5:204identification process

general discussion 5:203peds 5:204, 5:204froot traces 5:203soil horizons 5:204, 5:204fsoil structure 5:204

lateritic palaeosols 5:26£, 5:31-32,5:203f

nomenclature 5:203, 5:207Oligocene 5:475palaeoclimate 4:134, 5:205, 5:206fpalaeoecology 5:205palaeogeography 5:206, S:206fpalaeogully 5:207fparent materials 5:206, S:207fpedoderm 5:203pedolith 5:203pedotype 5:203Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204,

1:205 fsedimentation rate 5:207volcanic materials 5:206-207

palaeosynecologyBurgess Shale 4:142-143, 4:146competition 4:144example studies 4:146fossil populations 4:143, 4:144fgeneral discussion 4:142organism interactions 4:144predation 4:145, 4:145fsymbioses 4:146

Palaeo-Tethys OceanGondwana 3:144fPermian 4:215f

Permian-Triassic boundary 4:219fSouth-east Asia l:170f, 1:170-171,

1:175f, 1:182, l:182f, 1:184fPalaeovaucberia clavata 4:356f, 4:358Palaeozoic

acritarchs 3:418-428angiosperms 2:422f, 2:423Argentina l:156f, 1:161Australia 1:208, 1:209 fbedded cherts 5:54biodiversity l:260f, 1:262tbivalves (Bivalvia) 2:377fbrachiopods 2:306fcalcareous algae 2:428f, 2:433, 2:434fCambrian

Antarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:76Arabia 1:142f, l:144fArgentina l:156fBurgess Shale

arthropods (Arthropoda)2:274-275

bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general description 3:310tinsects 2:296obrution 3:310, 3:311 fOpabinia3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

calcareous algae 2:428fcarbon cycle 1:204-206Chengjiang lagerstatten 2:455China 1:347fclay occurrences 1:364East European Craton 2:36, 2:38ffish 2:462, 2:463fglauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fgraptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,

2:365fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten 3:310tmolluscs 2:367North Africa l:14f, 1:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19 fNorthern Appalachians

arc magmatism 4:85Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,

4:90fExploits subzone 4:82f9 4:85, 4:87fGander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,

4:87fgeneral discussion 4:81Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f9

4:85, 4:87fpalaeogeography 4:83ftectonic evolution 4:89tectonostratigraphic relationships

4:84f

INDEX 733

Palaeozoic (continued)ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460fOuachita Mountains 4:62Pechora Basin 2:53fradiation patterns

brachiopods 4:171echinoderms 4:171faunal provinces 4:172, 4:173ffish 2:463flife forms 4:171, 4:172fNeoproterozoic 4:171Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Biotic

Transition 4:172porifera (Porifera) 4:171trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f,

4:174freef environments 4:565sea-level changes 4:2 6fsequence stratigraphy 4:25fSiberian craton 4:461southern Cordillera 4:50species radiations 1:278Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251time-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

Carboniferous 4:200-213acritarchs 3:418-428Angaran flora 4:206fAntarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:78Arabia l:144fArchaeolithophyllum 2:435farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277atmospheric composition 4:205,

4:207fAtokian stage 4:209fbrachiopods 2:306fcalcareous algae 2:428fcarbon cycle 1:204-206Chesterian stage 4:209fChina 1:347fclimate 4:207, 4:208 f, 4:209f, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fcorals 2:325fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fDesmoinian stage 4:209fdolostones 5:91East European Craton 2:36, 2:38fechinoderms 2:336/", 2:337environmental settings 4:203fire effects 4:209fish 2:463ffossil fungi 2:440gastropods 2:386f, 2:387glaciation 4:131, 4:207, 4:208f, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

continent formation 4:204general discussion 3:139palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:140f,3:141fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPermo-Carboniferous basin

formation 2:101 fterranes3:130f

Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland 3:441,3:442/

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358fhistorical setting 4:201insects 1:204-206, 2:300*, 4:210-211International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fironstones 5:106, 5:97-98Lagerstatten3:310£lithology 4:203, 4:204fmarine biota 4:212mass extinctions 4:212Mazon Creek 2:274-275Missourian stage 4:209fmolluscs 2:367Namurian stage 4:208f, 4:209fNew Caledonia 4:116North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:87f,

4:88, 4:90fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461Ouachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:204, 4:206fPangaea 4:204, 4:212, 4:226fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:653North German Basin 2:97,

2:99-100, 2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:1 Olfpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99, 2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

phylloid algae 2:434polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417reef environments 4:565-566sharks 2:463-465Siberian craton 4:461-462Stephanian stage 4:208f, 4:209fstratigraphy

absolute ages 4.-202/", 4:203biostratigraphy 4:203Carboniferous-Permian boundary

4:201chronostratigraphy 4:202fDevonian-Carboniferous boundary

4:201general discussion 4:201Mississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201nomenclature 4:201 fsubdivisions 4:202

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251temnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fphysical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211Thabanchuia oomie 2:520f

terrestrial biotainvertebrates 4:210vegetation 4:209, 4:209fvertebrates 4:211

tetrapodsadelogyrinids 2:475aistopods 2:473f, 2:475amniotes 2:468, 2:473famphibians 2:468anthracosaurs 2:473f, 2:474f,

2:474-475, 2:476fbaphetids 2:473 f, 2:474f, 2:474-475branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcolosteids 2:473/i 2:474f, 2:475dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476flepospondyls 2:475lissamphibians 2:468localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473fnectrideans 2:473/~, 2:475physical appearance 2:472radiation patterns 4:211Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473f

time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTournaisan stage 4:208 f, 4:209ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f9 2:294vegetational change 4:209fVirgilian stage 4:209fVisean stage 4:208 f, 4:209fweathering effects 5:589-590Westphalian stage 4:208f, 4:209f

China 1:347 fconodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:219corals 2:325fcrinoids 2:347fDevonian 4:194-200

Antarctica l:134f, 1:135Appalachians 4:78Arabia 1:142f, l:144fArmorica 2:79Avalonia 2:78, 2:79background information 4:194Baltica 2:78, 2:79biodiversity

end-Devonian biodiversity crisis4:197

extinction events 4:197flate Devonian biodiversity crisis

4:198, 4:199fmarine environments 4:196, 4:197fmass extinction events 1:264fvolcanism 4:198

calcareous algae 2:428fcalcified cyanobacteria 2:435China 1:347 fchronostratigraphy 4:25fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38ffish 2:463ffossil fungi 2:437, 2:438ffossil lichens 2:441

734 INDEX

Palaeozoic (continued]Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana 2:78graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,

2:365f, 4:142, 4:143flapetus Ocean 2:78, 2:79insects 2:300t, 4:195-196International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

S:S17fLagerstatten 3:31 OtLaurentia 2:78, 2:79marine environments 4:194molluscs 2:367, 4:141-142North Africa l:14f, l:1a5f, I:19f9 I:20f9

1:21, l:22fNorthern Appalachians 4:81-83,

4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460^palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77fParana basin l:319f, l:320fPechora Basin 2:53fplacoderms 2:465reef environments 4:565Rheic Ocean 2:79Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:441-442

arthropods (Arthropoda)2:274-275, 2:277

fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310thydrothermal activity 5:59-60,

5:61flichens 2:441-442Old Red Sandstone 5:59-60

sarcopterygians 2:467sea-level changes 4:26fsharks 2:463-465Siberian craton 4:461southern Cordillera 4:50Stratigraphic controversy 5:504Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251tektites 5:454terrestrial environments

animals 4:195plants 4:194, 4:195f

time-scale scaling concepts 5:52 6fVariscides Orogeny 2:78

dolostones 5:91echinoderms 2:336f, 2:337end-Permian extinctions 4:219-225

causesextraterrestrial impact 4:221global warming 4:222, 4:223fvolcanism 4:222

definition 4:219Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,4:221 f

bivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317crinoids 4:220extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221f

gastropods 2:387general discussion 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221fmarine extinctions 4:220palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567

fish 2:462, 2:463fflying reptiles 2:508fossil fungi 2:437fossil lichens 2:441gastropods (Gastropoda) 2:381f, 2:386,

2:386f9 4:146Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fgymnosperms 2:446Himalayan Mountains 3:295International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fKazakhstan 1:164kimberlites 3:2S3fKyrgyzstan 1:167Mississippian

Angaran flora 4:206fAppalachians 4:79, 4:80fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclimatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fMississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201Ouachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fpalynological zonations 3:468fPangaea 4:226fsea-level changes 4:26ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294

New Zealand 4:2f9 4:5fNorthern Appalachians 4:81-92

orogenesis 4:83Precambrian basement 4:12tectonic evolution 4:89tectonostratigraphical zones

Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,4:90f

Dunnage zone 4:82f9 4:84, 4:87fExploits subzone 4:82f9 4:85, 4:87fGander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,

4:87fgeneral discussion 4:81Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fmap 4:82fMeguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,

4:90fNotre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f,

4:85, 4:87f

tectonostratigraphic relationships4:84f

Ordovician 4:175-184acritarchs 3:418-428Antarctica I:134f9 1:135Appalachians 4:76apparent polar wander paths 4:153 fArabia l:142f, l:144fArmorica 2:78Australia 1:225 f9 1:227Avalonia 2:78background information 4:175Baltica 2:78biodiversity 4:179, 4:180fbrachiopods 2:306fcalcareous algae 2:428fCaledonian Orogeny 2:61carbon cycle 1:204-206China 1:347fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430,

3:434, 3:435f, 3:436f, 3:437fchronostratigraphy 4:25'fclay occurrences 1:364conodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:175-184corals 2:325fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38fechinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336ffish 2:462, 2:463^fossil lichens 2:441gastropods 2:386, 2:386fglaciation 3:129, 4:131, 4:180, 4:663glauconite 3:546Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfGondwana

glacial/interglacial periods 3:129Ordovician, early 3:128Ordovician, late 3:129palaeogeographic reconstruction

3:134f, 3:135fterranes 3:130f

Grampian Orogeny 2:56, 2:58fgraptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:35'8f9

2:365f, 2:366, 4:142, 4:143f9

4:175-184historical background 4:176lapetus Ocean 2:78International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:98f, 5:106Japan 3:302, 3:303fLagerstatten 3:3 lOtLaurentia 2:56, 2:78mass extinctions 4:180nineteenth century Stratigraphic

correlations 2:219fNorth Africa I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, l:18f,

I:19f9l:20fNorthern Appalachians

Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,4:90f

Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84fMeguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,

4:90f

INDEX 735

Palaeozoic (continued)Notre Dame subzone 4:#2f, 4:84f,

4:85, 4:87ftectonic evolution 4:89

ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

2;77f, 4:155f, 4:155-156Parana basin l:319f, l:320fPechora Basin 2:53fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:331fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Rheic Ocean 2:78sea-level changes 4:26fSoom Shale, South Africa 2:274-275,

3:441, 3:441 fsubdivisions

Arenigian 4:177, 4:177fAshgillian 4:179, 4:179fCaradocian 4:178index fossils 4:176Llanvirnian 4:178Tremadocian 4:177

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTornquist Ocean 2:78trilobites (Trilobita) 2:164, 2:292/",

2:293,4:176-177orogenic events l:238f, 4:50Ouachita Mountains 4:61Pangaea 4:225Parana basin l:319f, l:320fPennsylvanian

Angaran flora 4:206fAtokian stage 4:209fChesterian stage 4:209fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclimatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fDesmoinian stage 4:209fMississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201Missourian stage 4:209fOuachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fPangaea 4:226fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417sea-level changes 4:26fsouthern Cordillera 4:50trilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Virgilian stage 4:209f

Permian 4:214-218acritarchs 3:418-428amniotes 2:478Angaran flora 4:217Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136Appalachians 4:79, 4:80fArabia 1:142f, l:144farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277Artinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209f,

4:215f, 5:51 If, 5:517fAsselian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215f,

5:511 f, 5:517fbackground information 4:214brachiopods 2:306fcalcareous algae 2:428f

Capitanian stage 4:215t, 4:219f,4:221f, 5:51 If, 5:517f

carbon cycle 1:206Cathaysian flora 4:217Cedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah 4:547fChangxingian stage 4:214, 4:21 St.,

4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221f,5:51 If, 5:517f

China 1:347 f, 1:3 52fchronostratigraphy 4:25fCisuralian series 4:214, 4:215t,

4:219f, 5:51 If, 5:517fclimate 4:216coal 3:142, 3:14Sfconodonts 4:219corals 2:325fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fDorashamian stage 4:214, 4:215tDzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215*East European Craton 2:36, 2:38fechinoderms 2:336/", 2:337end-Guadalupian extinction event

4:217, 4:221, 4:223, 4:223fend-Permian extinctions 2:309, 2:317,

2:377,2:387,2:516,4:217,4:219-225

Europe. See Europe; Permianfish 2:463fgastropods 2:386f, 2:387glaciation 4:131, 4:216, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfGondwana

coal 3:142, 3:14SfIndian Sub-Continent 3:292tpalaeogeographic reconstruction

3:144f,3:146fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPermian, early 3:142Permian, late 3:142Permo-Carboniferous basin

formation 2:101 fterranes 3:13Of

Guadalupian series 4:214, 4:2151,4:219f, 4:221, 4:221 f, 5:51 If,5:517f

Guadalupian stage 4:209finsects 2:3 OOtInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fironstones 5:106Japan 3:302, 3:303fKazanian stage 4:208f, 4:209fKungurian stage 4:208f, 4:209f,

4:215*, 5:51 If, 5:517fLeonardian stage 4:209fLopingian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f,

4:221f, 5:51 If, 5:517fmarine fossils 4:216North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461palaeogeographic reconstruction

2:77f,4:215fPangaea 3:130f, 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226f,

4:227

Permian-Triassic boundarygeneral discussion 4:219palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219f

Permo-Carboniferous basinsCentral Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:9'5', 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96/", 2:97Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:653North German Basin 2:97,

2:99-100, 2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:1 Olfpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99, 2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

phylloid algae 2:434polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417predation 4:145-146reef environments 4:565-566, 4:566fRoadian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 5:51 If,

5:517fSakmarian stage 4:20£f, 4:209f,

4:215*, 5:51 If, 5:517fsea-level changes 4:2 6fSiberian craton 4:462southern Cordillera 4:50Stratigraphic subdivisions 4:214,

4:215*superanoxic event 4:499Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251Tatarian stage 4:20Sf, 4:209ftectonic processes 4:214temnospondyls

general description 2:476-477Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fskeletal material 2:477fThabanchuia oomie 2:520f

terrestrial biota 4:217terrestrial vegetation 4:217, 4:218ftetrapods

amniotes 2:468amphibians 2:468anthracosaurs 2:476-477baphetids 2:476-477capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fdiadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:477fend-Permian extinctions 4:220general discussion 2:476, 4:217lepospondyls 2:478lissamphibians 2:468nectrideans 2:477f, 2:478seymouriamorphs 2:477f,

2:477-478

736 INDEX

Palaeozoic (continued]synapsids 2:477-478

time-scale scaling concepts 5:51 6ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Wolfcampian stage 4:209fWordian stage 4:215t, 4:219f, 4:221f9

5:Sllf, 5:517fWuchiapingian stage 4:21 St, 4:219 f,

4:221f95:511f,5:517fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Silurian 4:184-193

Antarctica 1:134 fAppalachians 4:78Arabia 1:142 f, 1:144 fArmorica 2:79Avalonia 2:78background information 4:184Baltica 2:78biota 4:191calcareous algae 2:428fChina 1:347fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclimate 4:193dating methods 4:190East European Craton 2:36, 2:38ffish 2:462, 2:463ffossil fungi 2:437Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana 2:78graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:35'8f9

2:365f, 2:366historical background 4:185lapetus Ocean 2:78International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten 3:310tLaurentia 2:78molluscs 2:367North Africa I:14f9 1:15f, 1:18, 1:19f,

l:20f, l:22fNorthern Appalachians

arc magmatism 4:85Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,

4:90fGander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,

4:87fMeguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,

4:90fosteichthyans 2:466ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460f9

3:461fpalaeogeography 2:77f, 4:191f9 4:192,

4:192 fParana basin 1:319f, 1:320fPechora Basin 2:53freef environments 4:565sea-level changes 4:26fSiberian craton 4:461Stratigraphic controversy 5:504Stratigraphic subdivisions 4:185Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251tectonic processes 4:191time-scale scaling concepts 5:516f

type areasAnticosti Island, Canada 4:187'f,

4:190Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f9

4:187f94:188fLudlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189New York 4:187f, 4:189, 4:190fPodolia, Ukraine 4:187f, 4:190Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Scandinavia 4:187f, 4:189Stratigraphic correlation 4:186f,

4:187fWenlock Series 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:188Variscides Orogeny 2:78

South-east Asia 1:18Itsouthern Cordillera 4:50tetrapods

adelogyrinids 2:475ai'stopods 2:473f, 2:475amniotes 2:473f, 4:211-212anthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f, 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcapitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fcladogram 2:473fcolosteids 2:473 f, 2:474f, 2:475diadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476f, 2:477fevolutionary process 2:165, 2:165ffish 2:469general discussion 2:476lepospondyls 2:475, 2:478localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473f, 2:47 6f, 4:211nectrideans 2:473 f, 2:475, 2:477f9

2:478non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478Permian 4:217Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473fseymouriamorphs 2:477f9 2:477-478synapsids 2:477-478temnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211skeletal material 2:477fThabanchuia oomie 2:520f

tetrapodomorphs 2:469Turkmenistan 1:166Uzbekistan 1:167Variscides Orogeny 2:75-85

angular unconformity 2:75, 2:77fcentral Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f

characteristics 2:84Devonian 2:78, 2:79Europe 2:95gravitational collapse 2:100Iberia 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83fOrdovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:75,

2:76fy 2:77fpalaeomagnetism 2:75Silurian 2:78tectonic processes 2:76 f9 2:79, 2:80f,

2:81fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

5:455western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f

weathering effects 5:589palagonite 5:572£Palau Trench 5:430t, 5:43 OfPalechinus 2:352-353palenzonaite (NaCa2Mn2[(V,As,Si)O4]3)

3:589tPaleoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517fPaleothyris 2:481-482Paley, William 1:257Palissy, Bernard 3:169palladium (Pd)

natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

S:114tpartitioning behaviour 3:639?world production rates 1:43 8t

pallasites 5:23ItPalmoxylon 2:420fpaludization 5:194f9 5:195Palus Putredinis 5:267?Palus Somnii 5:267?palygorskite 1:3611, 1:362,

1:364, 1:369palynology 3:464-469

acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469fbackground information 3:464biostratigraphy 3:465carbonization studies 3:469, 3:469fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:468climate variability 3:465coal seams 3:468-469geoarchaeology 3:16geological research (1900-1962)

3:189interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fKnoxisporites stephanephorus 3:464fpalynological zonations 3:468fpeat deposits 3:468-469pollen

angiosperms 2:418, 2:424, 2:424f,2:426f

forensic geology 2:270microfossils 3:473

pre-Quaternary palynology 3:468Quaternary 3:464spores 3:473vegetation reconstructions 3:466f

Pamir Mountains 1:168Pampia, Argentina I:160f9 1:163

INDEX 737

Pan-African orogeny 1:1-12Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3 f,

l:4f, 1:5 fbackground information 1:1belt distribution 1:2fCambrian 4:165central Africa 1:10, l:llfDamaraBelt l:2f, 1:7GariepBelt l:2f, 1:8Gondwana correlations 1:11Kaoko Belt 1:2 , 1:9LufilianArcl:2/;i:7, l:8fMadagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7fMozambique Belt I:2f9 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,

1:7 f

north-eastern Africa 1:10Phanerozoic 1:307-308, l:308fPrecambrian 4:378pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3fRokelide Belt L-2/; 1:10SaldaniaBeltl:2/; 1:8Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, l:10fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:536fWest Congo Belt l:2f, 1:9Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, 1:8f

Panama closureAmerican terrestrial biotic interchange

5:487t, 5:490chronology 5:487tclimatic effects 5:489-490tectonic processes 5:487

Panderichthys 2:469, 2:470fpandermite(Ca4BioO19'7H2O) 3:512*,

3:512f, 3:513*, 3:514Pangaea 4:225-228

Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Appalachians 4:74f, 4:79breakup events 2:105Caledonian Orogeny 2:56Carboniferous 4:204, 4:212, 4:225,

4:226fCathaysiana 1:348climate 3:347climatic effects 3:142, 3:143fcomponents 4:225Cretaceous 3:360, 3:362, 3:362fdefinition 4:225geographic location 4:226fGondwana 3:128Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80fHercynian Orogeny 4:225Laurasia 2:79, 4:225Laurussia 4:225, 4:226f, 4:227-228Lystrosaurus 4:227, 4:227fmantle convection 3:142, 3:143fmicroplate terranes 4:228northern Cordillera 4:44palaeoclimate 4:136Permian 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226/, 4:227Phanerozoic 1:222species radiations 1:273'f,

1:273-274spreading centres 3:143f

subduction zones 3:143fsupercontinents 3:346, 3:346f, 4:14f,

5:177-178, 5:178ftectonic processes 3:346, 3:346f, 4:12,

4:102terranes 3:130f, 5:455Triassic 3:344, 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f,

4:227Wegener, Alfred 2:249, 2:250f

Panjal Traps 3:142-147, 3:146fPannotia 4:165Panthalassic Ocean

Cambrian 4:170fend-Permian extinctions 4:219fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 4:354Pangaea 3:142, 3.-143/", 4:225Permian 4:215, 4:215fPermian-Triassic boundary 4:219fSilurian 4:193Triassic 3:346

Papua New Guineabackground information 4:109economic mineral resources 4:112energy resources 4:113geology

collision zones 4:110foldbelt 4:109general discussion 4:109geological map 4:11 Ifnortheastern province 4:112stable platform 4:109

natural gas 4:113natural hazards 4:113oil production 4:113ophiolites 4:112porphyry ore deposits 4:112ultramafic rocks 4:110-112volcanism 4:110, 4:113

parabolic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619fParaceratherium 2:535Paracyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fparadamite 3:508f, 3:508tparagenetic canyons 4:684f, 4:684-685,

4:685fparagonite 3:397, 3:549-550Paraguay 4:208fParaguay orogenic belt 1.-314/", 1:320Parakidograptus acuminatus 4:185Parakidograptus ascensus 4:185Parallel Roads of Glen Roy 2:177, 2:186Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin

flood basalts 3.-315/", 3:316*, 3:317,3:335-336

Ordovician 3:128-129, 3:134fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 1:319fParana Traps 3:363tPhanerozoic sedimentary basins 1:314,

l:316f, 1:317 f , l : 3 1 8 f , 1:324stratigraphy 1:320 f

Paranaiba Basin 3:129Parana River 5:19tparaniite-(Y) (Ca2Y(AsO4)(WO4)2) 3:587tParanthropus 2:541Paranthropus aethiopicus 5:491t

Paranthropus boisei 5:491tParanthropus robustus 5:49ItParaplacodus 2:506Pararenicola huaiyuanensis 4:360parasymplesite 3:508fpareiasaurs 2:479-481pargasite 3:505fParis Basin

chalk deposits 5:50evolutionary history 2:104-105, 2:117geothermal systems 3:106, 3:114/",

3:115, 3:115fPalaeocene 5:459-460palaeoecology 3:175Pleistocene 5:493Variscides Orogeny 2:83-84

parisite 3:221,3:22IfParker, David 3:204parkinsonite (Pb6O4(MoO4)Cl2) 3:552tParnaiba basin 1.-316/", 1:317f, 1:318fpartheite 3:593*Partial Annealing Zone 1:45particle-driven subaqueous gravity

processes 5:1-7deep water processes 4:644definition 5:1depositional sequences

bypass flows 5:6depositional sequences 5:7fdeposition process 5:6erosion 5:6

flow initiation mechanismsriver-derived flows 5:1sediment resuspension 5:1slope failure 5:1terrestrial input 5:1

flow typescreeps 5:2debris flows 5:2, 5:3fdense, deformed flows 5:2dense, undeformed flows 5:2flow transformations 5:3grain flows 5:2mudflows 5:2rockfalls 5:2slumps and slides 5:2turbidity currents 5:3, 5:3f, 5:5f

grain transport mechanismsbuoyancy 5:2hindered settling 5:2, 5:2fmatrix strength 5:2, 5:2fparticle-particle interactions 5:2, 5:2fturbulence 5:2, 5:2f

influencing factorschannelised flow 5:5, 5:5fconfined flows 5:6flow duration 5:4flow velocity 5:4momentum loss 5:4run-out length 5:4spatial changes 5:4, 5:5ftemporal changes 5:4unconfined flows 5:6

Parvancorina minchami 4:376, 4:377'/",4:3 78 f

73S INDEX

Paschatherium 2:540pascoite (Ca3(V10O28)-17H2O) 3:589tpassive sensors 4:431-439

background information 4:431broadband reflective multispectral

sensors 4:436hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t,

4:438fpassive microwave sensors 4:438, 4:439fsensor instrumentation

across-track multispectral scanners4:433, 4:433f

along-track push-broom scanner4:435, 4:43Sf

broadband sensor systems 4:434tdigital cameras 4:435general discussion 4:432spectral band comparisons 4:434tstructure 4:432f

spatial resolution 4:432, 4:434?, 4:436thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:437,

4:43 8 fthermal sensors 4:432

Pasteur, Louis 4:123Patagonia, Argentina l:160f, 1:163Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt l:125f,

1:128, 1:158Patagonian Batholith, Chile 3:237?patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564Paterson Orogeny 1:215f, 1:220, 1:239fPatom Highlands, Russia 4:463Pattern-Unit-Component-Evaluation

(PUCE) mapping system, Australia1:469

Patterson, Clair 3:186paulingite 3:S93tPays de Bray fault 2:97Peach, Andrew 2:214Peach, Benjamin Neeve 3:62Pearse Valley 3:15Ifpeat

bog iron ores 5:101, 5:102classification 4:454, 5:26tengineering aspects 1:564, 1:564fformation duration 5:207kerogenous sediments 5:33North American continental interior

4:28paludization 5:194f9 5:195palynological research 3:468-469whisky distilling process 3:82

Pechenga Belt 2:44fPechora Basin

Permian 4:214-215, 4:215fpetroleum reserves 4:472fTimanide Orogeny 2:49, 2:50f9 2:51,

2:52f, 2:53f, 2:54fUralide orogeny 2:87f

Pechora Zone 2:52, 2:52/j 2:53f, 2:54f,2:55

pectenids 3:356-357, 4:497Pederpes finneyae 2:472, 2:473f, 2:474fpedocretes 1:562pedoderm 5:203pedolith 5:203

pedosphere 1:431pedotype 5:203peds 5:204f9 5:204Peera Peera formation 3:147, 3:lSOfpegmatites

gemstones 3:11, 3:11 fmicas 3:550phosphate minerals 5:124, 5:124f

pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45/i 5:47fPelean volcanoes 5:565?, 5:569fPelee, Mount 5:567, 5:569/", 5:575tPelee's hair/tears 4:387t, 4:390tPelicothallos 2:442pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f, 3:398,

3:400fPelmatozoa 2:335, 2:345-346, 2:348Pelodosotis 2:473fPelsonian stage 3:34SfPeltaspermales 2:452Peltier's zonal classification of weathering

S:S84fPeltostega erici 2:517fPelvoux Massif 2:125pelycosaurs

See synapsidsPenck, Albrecht 3:181, 3:189Pendleian subdivision 4:202fpenguins 2:507Penicillus 2:432penikisite 5:125-126Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United States

3:237tPenning, Henry 1:445-446Penninic nappes 2:126f9 2:126-127,

2:128fy 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:134fPennsylvanian

Angaran flora 4:206fAtokian stage 4:209fChesterian stage 4:209fchronostratigraphy 4:201, 4:25fclimatic effects 4:207, 4:210fcontinent formation 4:204, 4:205fDesmoinian stage 4:209fglaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 Ifjawless fish 2:460fMississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary

4:201Missourian stage 4:209fnomenclature 4:20IfNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fOuachita Mountains 4:61palaeobiogeography 4:206fPangaea 4:226fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417sea-level changes 4:26fsouthern Cordillera 4:50Stephanian stage 4:202f9 4:208f, 4:209ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Virgilian stage 4:2 09fWestphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,

4:209fSee also Carboniferous

Pennsylvania, United States 2:472,4:34-35, 4:72, 4:73f

Penobscot orogeny 4:85-87Penrose, Richard Alexander Fullerton 3:64Pensacola Mountains I:133f9 3:129,

3:137fPentacrinites fossilis 2:345fpentane (C5H12) 4:258pentlandite ((Ni,Fe)9S8) 3:575?, 3:576f,

3:577?, 3:585tPentoxylales 2:452Peperomia 2:419fPeri-Caspian Basin 2:35f, 2:36, 2:41f,

2:42f, 2:47f, 2:50f, 4:456peridotites

carbonatites 3:23Ifhydration effects 5:365kimberlites 3:253melting processes

flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If

Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:647-648olivine 3:557, 3:559-560phlogopite 3:550sampling techniques 1:397, 1:399shock metamorphic effects 5:180t

peridots 3:7?, 3:10Perissodactyla 2:540Peri-Tethys Basin 4:461Peri-Urals foredeep 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:47f,

4:456perlialite 3:593?permafrost 1:563, 4:237?, 4:243permeability

chalk 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49fdiagenesis 1:394, l:394fdolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 5:83, 5:88fHazen permeability formula 5:186hydrothermal circulation

fracture/faulting effects 5:367, 5:368fgeneral discussion 5:367porosity 5:367, 5:368ftemporal variations 5:3 64f9 5:368

permafrost 1:563-564petroleum reservoirs 4:233, 4:311,

4:315f, 4:316f9 4:317f9 4:318,4:323f

rock properties 1:579, I:579t9 1:579fsand 5:149, 5:149f9 5:150fsedimentary rocks 4:452, 5:25

Permian 4:214-218acritarchs 3:418-428Alps 2:131famniotes 2:478amphibians

Chroniosuchians 2:520Rhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517ftemnospondyls

Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fThabanchuia oomie 2:520f

Angaran flora 4:217angiosperms 2:422fAntarctica I:134f9 1:135, 1:136Appalachians 4:79, 4:80f9 4:216

INDEX 739

Permian (continued)Arabia l:142f, l:144farthropods (Arthropoda) 2:277Artinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209 f, 4:215Y,

5:511f, 5:517fAsselian stage 4:208 f, 4:209 f, 4:2151,

5:511 f, 5:517rfAustralia 1:227f9 1:234background information 4:214biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263f, l:264fbrachiopods 2:306f, 4:216Kr3Lzi\l:317f,l:318f,l:32bryozoans(Bryozoa) 4:216calcareous algae 2:428fCapitanian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 4:221 f,

5:511f,5:517fcarbon cycle 1:206carbon dioxide concentrations l:206fCathaysian flora 4:217Cedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah 4:547fcephalopods2:3S9/"Changxingian stage 4:214, 4:215*,

4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221 f,5:511f, 5:517f

China 1:347f, 1:3 52fchronostratigraphy 4:25fCisuralian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f,

5:511f, 5:517fclimate 4:216coal 3:142, 3:14Sfconodonts 4:219corals 2:325f, 4:216crinoids 2:346, 2:347fDorashamian stage 4:214, 4:2151Dzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215tEast European Craton 2:36, 2.-3S/,

4:459-460echinoderms 2:336/", 2:337end-Guadalupian extinction event 4:217,

4:221, 4:223, 4:223fend-Permian extinctions 4:217,

4:219-225amphibians 2:516causes

extraterrestrial impact 4:221global warming 4:222, 4:223fvolcanism 4:222

definition 4:219Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,4:221 f

bivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317causes 3:348crinoids 4:220extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221fgastropods 2:387general discussion 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221fmarine extinctions 4:220marine invertebrates 3:348fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 f

radiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567Siberian Traps 4:222

Europe 2:95-102geodynamic setting 2:100geological characteristics 2:95magmatism 2:102

age distribution 2:96fforeland 2:97general discussion 2:97IvreaZone, Italy 2:100Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Variscan internides 2:98

palaeogeography 2:107fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:101 f., 2:95,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvreaZone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97North German Basin 2:97,

2:99-100, 2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,

2:98-99, 2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101fwestern/central Europe 2:102

sedimentary basin formation 2:96,2:101f, 3:653

tectonic processesrift systems 2:105, 2:106fsedimentary basin

formation 2:102wrench tectonics 2:102

Variscides Orogeny 2:95fish 2:463fforaminifera 4:216gastropods 2:386f, 2:387glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglaciation 4:131, 4:208f, 4:216, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:SllfGlossopteris 2:45IfGondwana

coal 3:142, 3:14Sfearly Permian 1:182, 1:184fgeological evolution 1:1#1*, 1:182Indian Sub-Continent 3:292*late Permian 1:182, l:184fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:184f,3:144f,3:146fParana basin 1:319f, l:320fPermian, early 3:142Permian, late 3:142

Permo-Carboniferous basin formation2:101f

terranes 1:17Of, l:172f, 1:17Sf, 3:130fGuadalupian series 4:214, 4:215*,

4:219f, 4:221, 4:221 f, 5:511f,5:517f

Guadalupian stage 4:209fgymnosperms

biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCordaitales 2:449Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452^Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fMedullosales 2:448, 2:449fPeltaspermales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

insects 2:296-298, 2:299f, 2:300tInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106Japan 3:302, 3:303fjawless fish 2:460fKazakhstan l:184f, 5:511fKazanian stage 4:208f, 4:209fKungurian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215?,

5:511f,5:517fLaurasia 1:182, 4:214-215Laurentia 1:184 fLeonardian stage 4:209fLopingian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f9

4:221f,5:511f,5:517fmagmatism

age distribution 2:96fforeland 2:97general discussion 2:97IvreaZone, Italy 2:100petrogenesis 2:99Variscan internides 2:98

marine fossils 4:216marine reptiles 2:502North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21North American chronostratigraphy

4:25/", 4:26f, 4:32fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f9 3:461oxygen concentrations 1:206fpalaeoclimate 4:227palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77/,

4:215 fPangaea 3:130f, 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226/",

4:227Permian-Triassic boundary

general discussion 4:219palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 3:345, 4:219stratigraphy 4:219f

Permo-Carboniferous basinsCentral Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 /,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs 2:103fIvreaZone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:653

740 INDEX

Permian (continued]North German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,

2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,

2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

phylloid algae 2:434polarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417predation 4:145-146reef environments 4:565-566, 4:S66fRoadian stage 4:215t, 4:219f, 5:511f9

5:517fSakmarian stage 4:208f9 4:209f, 4:215t,

S:Sllf9 5:517fsea-level changes 4:26fSiberia l:184fSiberian craton 4:462South-east Asia

geological evolution 1:181t, 1:182,1:184f

stratigraphic correlation I:183f9

1:185 fsouthern Cordillera 4:50stratigraphic subdivisions 4:214, 4:215tsuperanoxic event 4:499Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251Tatarian stage 4:208f, 4:209ftectonic processes 4:214terrestrial biota 4:217terrestrial vegetation 4:217, 4:218ftetrapods

amniotes 2:468amphibians 2:468anthracosaurs 2:476-477baphetids 2:476-477capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fdiadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:477fend-Permian extinctions 4:220general discussion 2:476, 4:217lepospondyls 2:478lissamphibians 2:468nectrideans 2:477f, 2:478seymouriamorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478synapsids 2:477-478temnospondyls 2:476-477, 2:477f,

2:519-520, 2:S20ftime-scale scaling concepts 5:516ftree ferns 4:218ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:294Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f9 2:89fWalchia piniformis 2:447fWolfcampian stage 4:209fWordian stage 4:215t, 4:219f9 4:221f9

5:511f9 5:517fWuchiapingian stage 4:215't, 4:219f,

4:221f,5:511f,5:517fPermo calculus 2:434Permo-Tethys 3:144f, 3:145fPerovkan faunachron 3:34Sf

perovskite 3:22ItPerrault, Pierre 3:171-172Persian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5lOf

See also ArabiaPerth Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fperthite 3:534f, 3:535Peru 3:237^, 3:352^,3:598Peru-Chile Trench l:119f, I:120f9 5:430t,

5:430fPerunica

palaeogeographic reconstruction 4:155f^4:155-156, 4:353f

terranes 5:455, 5:458fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

5:455Petermann Orogeny 1:215f, 3:132fPetrolacosaums 2:482, 2:482fPetroleum Exploration Society of Great

Britain 3:75petroleum geology 4:229-247

Angel with the Flaming Sword (Genesis)1:253

definition 4:229gas hydrates 4:261-268

accretionary wedges 5:312, 5:314fAtlantic Margin 4:105, 4:106fbottom-simulating reflection 4:263,

4:264f, 4:266characteristics 4:261continental margins 4:647Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383distribution 4:263as energy source 4:264gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ)

4:262, 4:262f, 5:313, 5:314fgeneral discussion 4:261as a geohazard 4:266occurrence 4:262fpetroleum reservoirs 4:237t, 4:243stability diagram 4:262fstructure 4:261 f

geological research (1900-1962) 3:190migration processes

buoyancy 4:289fgeneral discussion 4:243, 4:288phase separations 4:290fprimary migration 4:244schematic diagram 4:23Of, 4:244f,

4:28 8 fsecondary migration 4:245, 4:246f,

4:247f, 4:288fsubsalt migration 4:246ftertiary migration 4:247

petroleum-bearing basin 4:23Ofpetroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:145f9

5:148, 5:149fpetroleum exploration 4:295-307

accumulation conditions 4:296fanticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238f9 4:240f,

4:241f, 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301fappraisal methods

deterministic models4:302, 4:305f

general discussion 4:301

Hubbert's peak 4:305fMonte Carlo technique 4:305fstatistical methods 4:302, 4:3 04 f,

4:305fsubjective methods 4:302

background information 4:295contourites 4:513-514expected monetary value 4:295exploration costs 4:306, 4:307texploration drilling 4:304, 4:306fexploration methods

computer-based seismicinterpretation systems 4:303f

geological analysis 4:295, 4:297f,4:298f

geophysical techniques 4:296gravity measurements 4:296, 4:299fhydrocarbon identification

techniques 4:301 fmagnetic profiles 4:296, 4:299fremote sensing 4:298f

Geographical Information Systems(CIS) 4:424, 4:425f

petroleum agreements 4:306seismic reflection

acoustic impedance 4:315, 5:157fbasic principles 4:299fcomputer-based interpretation

systems 4:3 03ffour-dimensional (4D) seismic

imaging 4:300-301, 4:302f9

4:315,5:158general discussion 4:296, 5:157hydrocarbon indicators 5:158foffshore seismic surveys 4:3 00ftechniques 4:315, 4:318fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:297-300, 4:301f,4:304f, 4:315, 4:319f

two-dimensional (2D) seismicimaging 4:296-297, 4:300f

seismic surveysacoustic impedance 5:152, 5:157famplitude measurements 5:152fbasic principles 4:296, 4:299f,

5:151fdata acquisition 5:152data interpretation 5:156faulting 5:157ffour-dimensional (4D) seismic

surveys 4:302f9 5:158general discussion 5:157gravity measurements 1:101-103,

l:102fhydrocarbon indicators 5:158fmultiple signals 5:153foffset reflection points 5:154foffshore seismic surveys 4:300freceiver arrays 5:153fsignal traces 5:153fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic cube

4:304fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

seismic surveys 4:3 01 f, 4:3 04f,5:154, 5:155fJ5:156f

INDEX 741

petroleum geology (continued]travel paths 5:154ftwo-dimensional (2D) seismic

surveys 4:3 00funconformities 5:156f

wire-line drilling 4:3 06fpetroleum production 4:308-330

basic principlesfield study cycles 4:3 09fgeneral discussion 4:308reservoir characterization 4:308,

4:3 09 freservoir modelling techniques

4:31 Ofground subsidence 2:11historical background 4:308oilfield water 2:17penetration log correlations 4:311,

4:311fproduction geology 4:308reservoir characterization

basic principles 4:309fcarbonate reservoirs 4:234f, 4:235,

4:236f, 4:313, 4:316f, 4:317fclastic reservoirs 4:235*, 4:313,

4:314f, 4:315ffaults and fractures 4:313intrareservoir processes 4:289,

4:291f, 4:292tpermeability 4:311, 4:313, 4:315f,

4:316f, 4:317fporosity 4:311, 4:317freservoir heterogeneity 4:311,

4:312 freservoir modelling techniques

4:310f,4:328f,4:329fsmall-scale heterogeneity 4:313,

4:321fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:3 lOftechniques

borehole analysis 4:322fclay smearing 4:319, 4:324fcore analysis methods 4:315,

4:320f, 4:321f, 4:322fcorrelation analysis 4:321dynamic modelling 4:326,

4:329ffacies analysis 4:320ffault and fracture analysis 4:319,

4:324f, 4:325fgeostatistics 4:323, 4:327fNet-Oil-Sand (NOS) maps 4:323,

4:326fpermeability measurements 4:318,

4:323fseismic methods 4:315, 4:318fstatic modelling 4:324, 4:328fstratigraphic correlation 4:325fthree-dimensional (3D) modelling

4:328f, 4:329fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:315, 4:319fvolumetric estimates 4:322,

4:326f

petroleum reserves 4:331-339Arabia 1:145, 1:147, 1:152chalk beds 5:48creaming curves 4:331-332, 4:333fdefinitions 4:331deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537,

4:5 38 fdepletion models 4:337discovery rates 4:337, 4:338fdolomite (CaMg(C03)2) 5:30economic deposits 1:437economic forecasts 4:337energy consumption levels 4:337fEuropean sedimentary basins 2:124fossils 4:159general discussion 4:331Hubbert peak 4:336flimestones 5:112North Africa 1:12, l:14f, 1:24North American continental interior

4:33Papua New Guinea 4:113peak oil forecasts 4:338f, 4:339fproduction data 4:33 6frecoverable reserve predictions

general discussion 4:332global reserves 4:334foil field recovery distributions

4:334foil production forecasts 4:335foil recovery estimates 4:333fUnited Kingdom oil field reserves

4:335fresource distributions 4:332frift valleys 5:439f, 5:442Russia 4:472/~, 4:473South-east Asia 1:187, l:194fsupply and demand debates 4:334,

4:3 3 6fvalue approximations 4:332f

petroleum system 4:268-294bacterial degradation processes

4:290-291, 4:292*contributing processes 4:268, 4:269fdefinition 4:268efficiencies 4:292, 4:293fexpulsion process 4:283, 4:286f,

4:287fgeneration process

basic principles 4:283burial history model 4:282fcomputer models 4:285f, 4:286fdepth trends 4:285fmaturity levels 4:283fmaturity parameters 4:284*, 4:285tRock-Eval production index 4:284f

intrareservoir processes 4:289, 4:291 f,4:292t

kerogen classificationnomenclature 4:274foptical analytical methods 4:272,

4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,

4:277f, 4:278f, 4:279fmapping concepts 4:268, 4:270f

maturation 4:280, 4:280*, 4:281f,4:282f

migration processes 4:243, 4:288,4:288f, 4:289f, 4:290f

oil cracking 4:292tpalaeotemperatures 4:2 82fschematic diagram 4:269fsource rock. See also carbon (C), total

organic carbon (TOC)characteristics 4:271depositional environments 4:269,

4:270f, 4:271 f, 4:272fgeneral discussion 4:229, 4:269hydrogen index 4:279fkerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277 f,

4:27 8 fkerogen classification 4:272organic matter determination 4:272,

4:2 72 fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:277fschematic diagram 4:23 Ofsource rock quality 4:272f

vitrinite reflectance 4:274f, 4:275f,4:280, 4:281f, 4:282f, 4:284*,4:285t

reservoirsbasic principles 4:3 09fcarbonate reservoirs 4:234f, 4:235,

4:236f, 4:313, 4:316f,4:317fclastic reservoirs 4:235*, 4:313,

4:314f,4:315ffaults and fractures 4:313intrareservoir processes 4:289, 4:291 f,

4:292*karst landscapes 4:235, 4:237fproperties

lithologies 4:234net to gross 4:232, 4:232fpermeability 4:233, 4:311, 4:313,

4:315f, 4:316f, 4:317fpetroleum saturations 4:234porosity 4:232, 4:233f, 4:234f,

4:311,4:317fsandstone depositional systems

4:234, 4:235*, 4:236fwater saturations 4:234

reservoir heterogeneity 4:311, 4:312freservoir modelling techniques 4:3lOf,

4:328f, 4:329fschematic diagram 4:23 Ofsmall-scale heterogeneity 4:313,

4:321fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:31 Ofseals

buoyancy pressure 4:23Iffaults 4:231general description 4:229hydraulic seals 4:231lithologies 4:229-230membrane seals 4:230pore throat 4:23Ifpressure gradients 4:23Ofschematic diagram 4:23 Ofstress analysis 4:23If

742 INDEX

petroleum geology (continued)source rock

characteristics. See also carbon (C),total organic carbon (TOC)

general discussion 4:271hydrogen index 4:279fkerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277f,

4:27 8 fkerogen classification 4:272organic matter determination 4:272,

4:272 fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:277fsource rock quality 4:272f

depositional environments 4:269,4:270f, 4:271 f, 4:272f

general discussion 4:229, 4:269kerogen classification

nomenclature 4:2 74foptical analytical methods 4:272,

4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276fpyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,

4:2777f9 4:278f, 4:279fschematic diagram 4:23 Of

trapsanticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238f9 4:240f,

4:241f9 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301fdiagenetic traps 4:237?, 4:242diapiric-formed traps 4:237?,

4:237-238, 4:238f9 4:242f,4:297f

general discussion 4:236gravity-driven processes 4:23 7?,

4:239-240hydrodynamic traps 4:243mud lumps 4:237-238, 4:238fpinchout traps 4:237'?, 4:240-241,

4:297^rollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f9

4:240f, 4:537-539salt diapirs 4:237-238, 4:238 f9

4:242fsalt domes 4:237-238, 4:238f9

4:242fsandstones 4:243fschematic diagram 4:23Ofstratigraphical traps 4:237?, 4:239f,

4:240, 4:243/, 4:244/", 4:297fstructural traps 4:237, 4:237?, 4:238ftectonic-formed traps 4:237, 4:237?,

4:238 f9 4:241f9 4:297funconformity traps 4:237?, 4:23 9f9

4:241-242, 4:244fSee also natural gas; oil

petzite3:119tPezosiren 2:540Pfaff, Christian Heinrich 2:179Phanerozoic

Anthozoa 2:323atmosphere

atmospheric changes 1:204carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206,

l:206foxygen concentrations 1:206,

l:206ftemperature history 1:205'f

atmospheric carbon dioxideconcentrations

anthropogenic sources 1:343f9 4:240f,9 4:240f,1:345 f

geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,1:342 f

glacial/interglacial periods I:342f9

1:343 fAustralia 1:222-237

Bowen Basin 1:239f, 1:241 fchronostratigraphy 1:223fglaciation 1:226f9 1:234morphology 1:232 f9 1:236orogenic events

Delamerian Orogeny 1:239 f, 1:240,1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f

Lachlan Orogeny. See LachlanOrogeny

New England Orogeny I:239f9

l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, 1:249 f9

1:250, 4:202fRoss Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245,

1:248 fThomson Orogeny I:240t9 1:241 f,

1:242palaeogeography

Cambrian, early 1:225, 1:225fCambrian, early-middle 1:225f,

1:226Cambrian, late 1:225f, 1:227Carboniferous I:226f9 1:234Cenomanian 1:229 f, 1:236Devonian, early I:226f9 1:230Devonian, middle-late 1:226f9

1:230Eocene I:230f9 1:236Jurassic, early-middle 1:229f9 1:235Jurassic, late 1:229f, 1:235Miocene I:230f9 1:236Neocomian-Aptian 1:229 f9 1:235Neoproterozoic 1:225, 1:225 fOrdovician 1:225f, 1:227Permian, early 1:227f, 1:234Permian, late 1:227f, 1:234Permo-Carboniferous 1:227f9 1:234Pleistocene l:230f, 1:236Silurian l:226f, 1:229Triassic, early 1:228 f9 1:235Triassic, early-middle 1:228f9 1:235Triassic, late 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, middle 1:228 f9 1:235

plate velocities l:233f, 1:237stratitectonic regimes 1:224f9 l:233tSydney Basin 1:239f, 1:241 fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:223 f9 I:224f9

1:225-226tectonic processes 1:231 f, 1:236

biodiversityfaunal ecological structure l:262tgeneral discussion 1:260f9 1:260-261marine change I:260f9 1:262,

l:264fterrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f

biospheric evolution 4:3 64fboundary stratotypes 5:505

Brazilcratons

Amazon craton 1:311,1:311 f9

l:312fgeneral discussion 1:309geographic distribution 1:307fmajor shields I:238f9 l:306fRio de la Plata craton 1:312, l:312fSao Francisco craton 1:310, l:310f,

l:312fSao Luis craton 1:312

glossary information 1:328Neoproterozoic orogenic domains

Aracuai orogenic event l:313f,1:315

Araguaia orogenic belt I:314f9

1:319Borborema strike-slip system

1:307f9 1:315f, 1:323Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318general discussion 1:314Mantiqueira orogenic system

I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9

1:320Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318suture zones l:312fTocantins orogenic system 1:307f,

I:314f9 1:319palaeogeographic reconstruction

1:323 fsedimentary basins

Amazonas basin 1:316f, 1:317fBarreirinhas basin l:326fCampos basin l:321f, l:322fCeara basin 1:325fcontinental margin basins l:316f,

1:325eastern Brazilian margin basins

I:321f9 I:322f9 1:325equatorial margin basins 1:324f,

l:325f, 1:326, l:326fEspirito Santo basin 1:321 f9 l:322fgeneral discussion 1:306, 1:324geographic distribution l:306finterior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:319fPalaeozoic sag basins I:316f9

I:317f,l:318f9 1:324Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin 1:314, I:316f9

I:317f9 1:318f9 I:319f9 1:320f9

1:324Parnaiba basin l:316f, I:317f9

l:318fPotiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f,

1:327fReconcavo basin 1:327fSantos basin 1:321 f, 1:322fSergipe-Alagoas basin 1:322fSolimoes basin I:316f9 1-317f,

l:318fstratigraphy 1:317f

INDEX 743

Phanerozoic (continued)shields l:306ftectonic processes 1:306, 1:307f^

1:308 fthermotectonic events 1:3 08ttopography 1:309, 1:309 f

calcareous algae 2:428, 2:428fcalcified cyanobacteria 2:435China 1:347fcorals (Cnidarians) 2:323East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48fend-Permian extinctions 4:219-225fossil dating 4:158-159Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506/", 5:511fGondwana 1:222, 1:306, l:308fHydrozoa 2:322insects 2:298fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fironstones 5:106microorganisms l:280fNew Zealand 4:1-7

background information 4:1basement rocks

age ranges 4:5fbatholiths 4:4f, 4:6Eastern Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fgeneral discussion 4:1geological map 4:2/", 4:4fmetamorphic overprints 4:4f, 4:6overlap sequences 4:5plutons 4:6Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4ft

4:5fcontinental crust 4:1, 4:Ifcover strata

active margin development 4:7intracontinental rifting 4:6passive margin 4:6Quaternary 4:7

geological map 4:2fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 4:1,

4:3f, 4:5ftectonic processes 4:4f, 4:6

North Africa 1:12-25Atlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, I:16f9

1:17background information 1:12black shales 1:21, l:22fCambrian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

1:19 fCarboniferous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f,

1:21Cretaceous l:14f, 1:15f, l:19f, l:22f,

1:23, 1:23 f, l:24fdepositional history

Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, 1:18 f,1:19f, l:20f

Campanian-Maastrichtian 1:22f,1:23, 1:24, l:24f

Carboniferous l:19f, 1:21Cenomanian-Turonian boundary

l:22f, 1:23

Cretaceous 1:19f, l:22f, 1:23,1:23f,l:24f

Devonian l:19f, 1:20f, 1:21, l:22fEocene 1:24, 1:24 fevaporites 1:21, 1:24Holocene 1:25Infracambrian 1:17, 1:19 fJurassic 1:19/; 1:23, 1:23 fMiocene 1:24nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24fPermo-Triassic 1:19 , 1:21Silurian 1:18, l:19f, l:20f, l:22f

Devonian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,1:21, l:22f

Eocene 1:24, 1:24 fglaciation 1:18Holocene 1:25Jurassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,1:23fMiocene 1:17, 1:24Oligocene 1:17Ordovician l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,

l:19f,l:20fPermian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21petroleum reserves l:12,l:14f, 1:24Phanerozoic chronostratigraphy 1:14frift valleys 1:16, l:16f, 1:17Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17,

1:23sedimentary basins 1:13, 1:13fSilurian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,

l:20f, l:22fstructural evolution

Alpine Orogeny 1:17general discussion 1:13Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, 1:16fInfracambrian tectonic processes

1:13Mesozoic extensional phase 1:16,

1:16fOligo-Miocene rifting 1:17post-Infracambrian/pre-Hercynian

tectonic processes 1:13tectonic map l:15f

Tertiary l:14f,l:15fTriassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17

North American continental interior4:25, 4:27f

Pan-African orogeny 1:1Pangaea 1:222planetary comparisons 1:427fpredation 4:145-146Scyphozoa 2:323sea-level changes 4:26fsequence stratigraphy 4:25/, 4:26fSouth-east Asia geological evolution

Cambrian 1:178Carboniferous 1:178, l:181t, l:182f,

1:184fDevonian 1:178, l:181t, l:182fgeneral discussion 1:177Ordovician 1:178Permian l:181t, 1:182, l:184fSilurian 1:178

stromatolites 1:430, 1:43 If

pharmacolite 3:508tpharmacosiderite 3:508tphenetic species 1:267phengite 3:399f, 3:401f, 5:534-535Philippi, E. 5:71-72Philippines 1:249, 5:445t, 5:445f,

5:446-447Philippine Trench 5:430*, 5:430fphilippinites 5:445f, 5:446-447philipsbornite 3:508fPhillips, Coles 3:189phillipsite 3:593?Phillips, John 1:260, 2:195, 2:223Phillips, William 3:360-361Phipps, John 5:70-71phlogopite

carbonatites 3:221t, 3:23Ifchemical composition 3:549-550crystal structure 3:55Ofgeneral discussion 3:548kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257^

Phobos 5:280phoenicochroite (Pb2OCrO4) 3:533tPhoenix Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tPholiderpeton 2:473f, 2:476fPholidogaster 2:475phonolite 3:220?, 4:387t, 5:567-569Phosphoria Formation, United States

4:500phosphorus (P)

anthrosolization 5:200apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 5:120-128

carbonatites 3:221?, 3:221-222kimberlites 3:254soft tissue mineralisation 3:312,

3:312fvine nourishment 3:88

brewing process 3:79carbonatites 3:223?crustal composition 5:174?kimberlites 3:248?lava/lava flows 3:224fnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554obsidian 3:269?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tpartitioning behaviour 3:639?phosphates 5:120-128

bedded phosphates 5:34-35biomineralization 5:127carbonatites 3:221?, 3:221classification 4:454, 5:26?crystal structure

apatite group 5:123, 5:123fclassification 5:121polymerised TO4 tetrahedra 5:121,

5:122fTO4-large cation groupings 5:122,

5:123fTO4-MO6 groupings 5:122,

5:122fDana classification system 3:502?environmental significance 5:128fission track analysis 5:127fluorapatite 5:123, 5:124f

744 INDEX

phosphorus (P) (continued]geological environment

guano deposits 5:126occurrence 5:124oxidised metal sulphide deposits

5:126, 5:127fpegmatites 5:124, 5:124fsedimentary phosphorites 5:125

guano 5:35Hey's chemical classification system

3:501timportance 5:121ironstones 5:99North Africa 1:24occurrence 5:34, 5:120, 5:124placer deposits 5:34-35Strunz classification system 3:502tworld production rates 1:43 8t

vine nourishment 3:88phosphosiderite 5:124-125phosphovanadylite

((Ba,Ca,K,Na)x[(V,Al)4P2

(O,OH)16]-12H2O) 3:589t, 3:590phosphuranylite 5:122-123photobionts 2:441photosymbiosis 4:379photosynthesis 1:202-203, 1:335, l:337f,

5:482, 5:484, 5:491phreatic eruptions 5:571phreatic zone 4:684fphyllite 3:387t, 3:396fphylloid algae 2:434, 2:43Sfphyllonite 3:388tphyllotungstite

((Ca,Pb)Fe3H(WO4)6-10H2O) 3:S87tphylogenetic species 1:267phytoplankton

acritarchs 3:418-419, 3:427lacustrine deposits 4:557, 4:558fVendian 4:376

Piacenzian stage (middle Pliocene) 5:486,5:487t,5:506f,5:517

Piceoerpeton 2:524-525Pickering, William Henry 2:247-248picrites 3:260picropharmacolite 3:508tPiedmont, Appalachians 4:72,

4:73f, 4:76fPiemont ocean 2:125-126, 2:127, 2:127f,

2:132-133, 2:133fpiezometer 1:590, 1:591 fPigafetta Basin 3:315f, 3:316tpigeonite 3:567Pikaia gracilens 2:455Pilbara craton, Australia

banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39geological map 1:239fmicroorganisms 1:280 forigin of life 4:123origins 1:429orogenic events 1:208, 1:21 OfPrecambrian outcrops 1:209f

Pillarian stage 5:473fpillow lavas 3:327, 3:327f, 5:373-375,

5:382-383, 5:567-569, 5:571f

pils 3:80-81PiltdownMan2:170pinalite (Pb3WO5Cl2) 3:587tPinatubo, Mount 4:3 871, 5:575tPine Creek Orogeny l:209f, l:210f, 1:211Pine Mountain terrane 3:157f, 4:77Pinjarra Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211Pinnacles, The 4:559fpinnoite (MgB2O4-3H2O) 3:512tPinon Formation 3:315"/", 3:316tPioneer Venus 5:244pipes

See kimberlitesPirsson, Louis 3:186-187Pisanosaurus 2:492pisoids 5:100-101, 5:106Pistosaurus 2:506Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion 5:575Pittman III, Walter 3:203Pituriaspis 2:464fPizd'Artgas2:^3i/"placental mammals 2:535-540

anatomy 2:535artiodactyls 2:536-537, 2:539bats 2:539Carnivora 2:539classification 2:535, 2:53 7fedentates 2:537f, 2:538Eocene 5:469-470epitheres 2:538evolutionary relationships 2:537f, 2:538Glires 2:539hominids 2:541-545

background information 2:541early hominids 2:541, 2:542fHomo erectus 2:542, 2:543fHomo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543fHomo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo sapiens 2:543

marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538mesonychids 2:539-540Mesozoic 2:528f, 2:533, 2:S33fmolecular evolution 2:536Perissodactyla 2:540physiology 2:535primates 2:538-539reproduction 2:535Rodentia 2:539taxonomy 2:535tethytheres 2:540ungulates 2:539whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,

2:539-540, 5:469Placentian stage 4:169 fplacoderms 2:465, 2:465 fPlacodontia 2:484, 2:506Placodus 2:506plagioclase

abundance 3:538equilibrium diagram 3:537 fextinction angles 3:53 8 fgranites 3:235t, 3:242igneous rocks 3:538metamorphic rocks 3:399f, 3:401f9

3:403, 3:538, 3:539f

nomenclature 3:534f, 3:535properties 3:537refractive indices 3:537fsedimentary rocks 3:538-539

Plagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fPlagues (Exodus) 1:255planar deformation features 5:183tplanets

See specific planetsplankton

anoxic environments 4:495calcareous nannoplankton 3:366,

3:366f, 5:462, 5:467f, 5:468Carboniferous 4:212Cretaceous 3:366diatoms 4:500Eocene 5:467fgeneral discussion 4:158Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

3:3 73 foceanic anoxic events 4:497-499Oligocene 5:476Palaeocene 5:460f

Planolites 4:223-224plants

See vegetationplaster of Paris 3:572plate margin faults 5:360Plateosaurus 2:491fplate tectonics 4:340-349

Atlantic Margin 4:97f, 4:103fAustralia 1:208, l:231f, l:233f, 1:236,

1:237basic principles

asthenosphere 4:340, 4:343fdeformation mechanisms 4:340-341,

4:343fgeneral discussion 4:340global seismicity 4:341 flithosphere 4:340, 4:343fplate boundaries 4:340, 4:342f

crustal growth 1:407current research 3:205Dead Sea Rift 1:26, 1:27fDu Toit, Alexander 2:188, 2:190,

3:193-194Earth 1:424, 1:426 fEast African Rift 1:26, 1:27fEocene 5:466extraterrestrial planets 3:206Fiji 4:120geological research (1900-1962)

3:192geological research (post-1962)

continental drift theory 3:204East Pacific Rise 3:198, 3:203-204general discussion 3:197magnetic anomalies 3:200, 3:201fmagnetic field reversals 3:202milestone research efforts 3:204ocean basin exploration 3:197sea floor spreading 3:198transform faults 3:202, 3:203f

global tectonics 5:426Grenville orogeny 3:164, 3:164f

INDEX 745

plate tectonics (continued]hydrothermal activity 5:363fJapan 3:297, 3:298fmantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424, 4:348mechanisms

direct forces 4:349mantle convection 4:348plate velocities 4:349

morphologyconvergent plate boundaries 4:343f,

4:344divergent plate boundaries 4:342,

4:343f, 4:344f, 5:374f,5:429-430

transform plate boundaries 4:343,4:343f, 4:345f, 5:429-430

motive forces 2:251Nevadan orogeny 4:54Oceania 4:109ocean trenches 5:428-437Oligocene 5:474ore bodies l:440fPalaeocene 5:460plate boundries 3:206fplate kinematics

absolute plate motions 4:348, 4:348fEuler rotation poles 4:344, 4:346frelative plate motion 4:346, 4:347f

propagating rifts 5:396-405Russia 4:471, 4:472fSouth-east Asia 1:169, l:170f, 1:17If,

l:172fsouthern Cordillera 4:50, 4:54, 4:59^terranes 5:455Wegener, Alfred 2:246, 2:247, 2:247f,

3:193See also mountain-building processes

platinum (Pt)natural occurrences 3:553£, 3:554,

3:585tpartitioning behaviour 3:639tworld production rates 1:43 8t

Plato 3:168Plato crater 5:267, 5:268fplaty jointing 3:327-328Platyrhinops 2:476fplaya lakes

See deserts; sabkhasPlayfair, John 2:203, 5:542play fairways 4:229plays 4:229, 4:268, 4:269f, 4:295-296,

4:297f, 4:298fPleistocene 5:493-499

amphibians 2:526Anglian stage 5:496farchaeological sites 5:496fAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:23 O/", 1:236Aveley interglacial stage 5:496fbackground information 5:493biodiversity 1:260-261biostratigraphy 5:495biota 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498fcaves (endokarst) 5:497Cromerian complex 5:496fDevensian stage 5:496f

extinction events 5:497-498Flandrian stage 5:496fgeomagnetic polarity time-scale

3:332fglacial stages 5:496fglaciation 2:526, 4:131, 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fGunz stage 5:493historical research 5:493, 5:496fHoxnian stage 5:496fhuman activity 5:495, 5:496fIce Age 5:493interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fIpswichian stage 5:496fKyrgyzstan 1:167Lagerstatten 3:309mammoths 5:498, 5:498fmarine oxygen isotope record 5:496fMindel stage 5:493North American chronostratigraphy

4:25^palaeoclimate 5:495palaeogeography 5:496fPurfleet interglacial stage 5:496freef environments 4:506fRiss stage 5:493tektites 5:444, 5:445tWurm stage 5:493

pleochroism 3:550Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f, 3:358Plesiosaurus 2:506Plesioteuthis 2:394Pleurograptus linearis 4:179Pleuromeia 3:348-349, 3:349fPliensbachian stage 3:352t, 3:354f, 3:355,

5:506f,5:517fPlinian volcanoes 5:568t, 5:568f, 5:570tPliny the Elder 3:168Pliny the Younger 3:267-268Pliocene 5:486-493

amphibians 2:524, 2:525, 2:526fAndes Mountains 1:126, 1:130Antarctica 1:140Arabia 1:142f, l:144fAtlantic Margin 4:99f, 4:104fAtlantic ocean currents 5:488fbackground information 5:486Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fbiodiversity 1:260-261biotic events

American terrestrial biotic interchange5:487t, 5:490

marine biotic interchange 5:487t,5:491

marine trans-Arctic interchange5:487t, 5:491

climategeneral discussion 5:487t, 5:489glaciation 5:487t, 5:489mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t,

5:489geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332f

Global Standard Stratotype Sections andPoints (GSSPs) 5:506f

Gondwana 1:193 fHominin diversification 5:487t, 5:491,

5:491 t,5:492finsects 2:299^International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fLau Islands 4:120New Zealand 4:2f, 4:7North American chronostratigraphy

4:25forbital forcing 5:487tpalaeomagnetism 5:487tpredation 4:145fpunctuated equilibrium 1:269fSouth-east Asia 1:193 fstages

Gelasian (upper Pliocene) 5:487,5:487t,5:506f,5:517f

Mediterranean region 5:486Piacenzian (middle Pliocene) 5:486,

5:487t,5:506f,5:517fZanclean (lower Pliocene) 5:486,

5:487t,5:506f,5:517ftectonic processes 5:487, 5:487ttime-scale scaling concepts 5:516fVanuatu 4:116vegetation 5:489, 5:491

Pliosauria 3:358Pliosaurus 2:506plumose structures 5:361Pluto 5:293, 5:293t, 5:294fplutons

See granitesPo basin 2:125, 2:126f9 2:128f, 2:134f9

3:654-656Podocopa

classification 3:453, 3:454tecology 3:457living examples 3:454fmorphology 3:455f, 3:456fshell morphology 3:457/", 3:458f, 3:459fStratigraphic ranges 3:460f

Podolian Block 2:45, 2:45fPodolia, Ukraine 4:187f, 4:190podzolization 5:195, 5:196fPohlsepia mazonensis 2:395point load strength test 1:575, l:576t,

1:57 6fPoisson's ratio 1:571-572Poland 2:75, 5:506fPolar Ural Mountains 2:50f, 2:52Polish Trough 2:96f, 2:101 f, 3:648-649pollen

angiosperms 2:418, 2:424, 2:424f,2:426f

forensic geology 2:270microfossils 3:473See also palynology

pollucite 3:593tpollutants

environmental geochemistry 2:21-25acidification 2:23, 2:24fenvironmental restoration 2:23, 2:24t

746 INDEX

pollutants (continued]organic contaminants 2:23trace elements

abundance 2:22*bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

persistent organic pollutants 2:23polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

2:23polymaths 1:433-434polymolybdates 3:551, 3:552*Polystrata 2:430fPolyzoa

See bryozoans (Bryozoa)Pomerania 2:154fPontides of Turkey 5:458f, 5:458-459Poosa, S. 5:266tPopelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f,

4:89Popigai impact structure, Siberia 5:467f,

5:468Popp, Georg 2:261Parana oeningensis 2:420fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417

anatomy 2:408, 2:409fbiogenic silica 5:52Cambrian 2:408-417, 4:171Carboniferous 4:212classification

Archaeocyatha 2:408, 2:416, 2:416fCalcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414fchaetetids 2:413, 2:416fDemospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412fgeneral discussion 2:408Heteractinida 2:408, 2:413, 2:415fHexactinellida 2:408, 2:411, 2:413f,

2:414fSclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413, 2:415f,

2:416fstromatoporoids 2:413, 2:415f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:379, 3:380f

environmental settings 2:408hypercalcified sponges 2:412Jurassic 3:356megascleres 2:408, 2:410fmicroscleres 2:408, 2:411 fnodular cherts 5:5 7fspicules 2:408, 2:410/",

2:411f,5:57fstructural grades 2:409f

Porites 3:526f, 4:506f, 4:568f, 4:569fporosity

chalk 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49fdiagenetic processes 1:393dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 4:234f, 4:236f,

5:83, 5:88fevaporites 1:5 52tgravity measurements 1:99, 1:99fhydrothermal circulation 5:367,

S:368flava, flows 4:454limestones 4:234f, 5:107-108

petroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:148,5:149f

petroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233f,4:234f, 4:311, 4:317f

rock properties 1:5491, 1:552*, l:566f,1:566-567, 1:5 67t

sand 5:141f, 5:145, 5:146f, 5:147f9

5:149, 5:149f,5:150fsandstones 4:232, 4:233fsecondary porosity 5:145, 5:147fsedimentary rocks 4:452, 5:25

porphyrins 4:251/j 4:257porter 3:80Portlock, J. E. 3:476Portugal 2:75, 2:77f, 3:352*, 5:506fPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

3:310t, 3:311, 4:384fpost-depositional sedimentary structures

4:602-611climatically induced structures

desiccation 4:609, 4:609fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,4:61 Ofperiglacial deformation 4:610raindrop impressions 4:610

concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611fdeforming forces

burial alteration processes 4:604density inversions 4:604, 4:605fdown-slope gravitational forces

4:603-604, 4:605fglaciation 4:604liquefaction 1:525-534,4:604,4:605f,

4:606soft-sediment deformation processes

deforming forces 4:603, 4:605fgeneral discussion 4:602shear strength loss 4:603, 4:605f

soft-sediment deformation structuresconvolute lamination 4:604, 4:606fdescriptions 4:605fdish and pillar structures 4:606,

4:607fextruded sheets 4:607general discussion 4:604load casts 4:604, 4:605fmud diapirs 4:607, 4:608foverturned cross-bedding 4:606,

4:606fpseudonodules 4:604sand injection structures 4:607sand volcanoes 4:607, 4:608fsedimentary growth faults 4:608,

4:609fslumps and slides 4:607

potash deposits 5:94potassium (K)

brewing process 3:79, 3:80tcarbonatites 3:223*crustal composition 5:174*glauconite 3:542*hydrothermal fluids 3:629*kimberlites 3:248tlava/lava flows 3:224fmineral analysis 1:105*obsidian 3:269*

oceanic manganese nodular deposits5:114*

potash 1:43 8tradiometric dating

absolute dating techniques 1:88tCarboniferous stratigraphy 4:202fgeoarchaeology 3:20geological time-scale 5:518glauconite 3:547sedimentary rocks 5:69, 5:146, 5:147f

Venus 5:246*, 5:247*vine nourishment 3:88

Potato Blight 2:153Potiguar basin l:325f, l:326f, 1:327fpottsite (HPbBi(VO4)2-2H2O) 3:589tPovarennykh, Alexander 5:121powellite (CaMo04) 3:551, 3:552*Powell,]. W. 3:181-182Pozary Formation 4:189Pragian stage

Appalachians 4:87fbackground information 4:194biodiversity 4:197, 4:199fextinction events 4:197fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 Ifinsects 4:195-196International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine environments 4:197fpalaeoclimate 4:196fvegetation 4:195

Pranhita-Godavari Basin 3:142-147,3:146f

praseodymium (Pr) 3:223*, 3:224/", 3:242fprasinophytes 3:420, 3:424Pratt, John Henry 1:98, 3:183Pratt-Welker chain 3:315f, 3:316*, 4:479praying mantises 2:297f, 2:300*prebiotic organic molecules 4:127Precambrian

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425classification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359extraction methods 3:473late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:421fprocesses 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422fwall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426f, 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f

INDEX 747

Precambrian (continued]preservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f, 4:191

Archaeanatmospheric composition 4:351Australia 1:208, 1:209 fbanded iron formations (BIFs) 4:351banded ironstone formations (BIFs)

5:40biodiversity 1:261chert 4:351, 4:368Earth origins 4:3 64fEast European Craton 2:38, 2:42f,

2:43f, 2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47feukaryotes 4:357general discussion 4:350Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fIndian Sub-Continent 3:287International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmicroorganisms l:280fNorth American continental interior

4:23fplanetary comparisons 1:427fprokaryotes 4:368sedimentary rocks 4:351stromatolites

attributes l:289tbiosediments 1:285, 1:287columnar stromatolites 1:291 fconical stromatolites l:291fdomical stromatolites l:290fearly biosphere 4:367, 4:367fphysical properties l:286f

tektites 5:454banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39biodiversity 1:261China 1:347fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclimate 4:351Cnidarians 2:321, 2:323fearly biosphere

biogeochemistry 4:366evolution 4:3 64fstromatolites 4:367

early life forms 4:352, 4:364f, 4:365fearth origins 4:350East European Craton 2:34Ediacaran 4:371-381

background information 4:371biodiversity 1:261bioturbation 4:378Cambrian radiation patterns 4:171Cambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380carbon isotopic ratios 4:379Cnidarians 2:321, 2:323feukaryotes 4:362-363extinction events 4:379fossil lichens 2:441general discussion 4:350geological events

banded iron formations (BIFs) 4:372carbonates 4:372

continent formation 4:371glaciation 4:372marine transgressions 4:372

glossary information 4:380palaeobiological events

death mask hypothesis 4:374Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376t, 4:378feukaryotes 4:372-373general discussion 4:372metacellularity 4:373, 4:376tshelly fossils 4:373, 4:373fstromatolites 4:373, 4:377

Pan-African orogeny 4:378predators 4:379sedimentary structures 4:376, 4:379fstrontium isotopic ratios 4:378

eukaryotes 4:354-363algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359fArchaean eukaryotes 4:357atmospheric evolution 1:202, 1:203biodiversity 1:261biomineralization 4:359-360carbonaceous compression 4:357,

4:358,4:360general discussion 4:354heterotrophy 4:360Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,

4:357Neoproterozoic eukaryotes

early animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 4:362-363general discussion 4:358late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361f,

4:362fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360Vendian 4:372-373

Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,4:357

phylogenetic relationships 4:355ftestate amoeba 4:360tree of life 1:203f, 4:365f

evolutionary radiations 2:165-166fossil lichens 2:441glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fHadean

Earth origins 1:427-429, 4:364fmicroorganisms l:280fplanetary comparisons 1:427f

Indian Sub-Continent 3:285, 3:287fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fKazakhstan 1:164kimberlites 3:253fKyrgyzstan 1:167Laurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:352-354,

4:353fmajor outcrops 4:351New Zealand 4:5fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fNorth American continental nucleus

4:8-21

Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429,4:10f,4:13f, 4:15f, 4:350

Archaean cratons 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f,4:16, 4:23f

basement gneisses 4:1 OfCanadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:10f, 4:1 IfChurchill-Superior Boundary Zone

4:19 fcraton foundation 4:22crustal aggregation 4:14fcrustal provinces 4:23fGrenville orogeny 4:19Hearne craton 4:16, 4:17fLaurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:19mantle keel 4:8-9erogenic events 4:16, 4:17Rae craton 4:16Rodinia breakup 4:8Sask craton 4:16Slave craton 4:10f9 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13f,

4:16,4:18fstructure 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:14fSuperior craton 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13 f,

4:16, 4:17f, 4:19ftectonic map 4:9ftectonic processes 4:9Wyoming craton 4:12, 4:16

orogenic events 4:352palaeogeography 4:352, 4:353fporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Precambrian-Cambrian boundary

2:165-166prokaryotes 4:363-370

biochemical evidence 4:365biogenicity criteria 4:369filamentous microbes 4:367f, 4:368fossil evidence 4:352general discussion 4:354origins 4:3 64fphylogenetic relationships 4:355fsilicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368stromatolites 4:367, 4:367fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366tree of life 4:3 65f

ProterozoicArgentina l:156fbiospheric evolution 4:364flimestones 4:351microorganisms l:280fplanetary comparisons 1:427fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:331fsubdivisions 4:350

sea-level changes 4:26fshields 5:173, 5:173fSouth-east Asia 1:183 f, 1:185fsouthern Cordillera 4:48stromatolites 1:430, l:431fsubdivisions 4:350terranes 4:352time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fVendian 4:371-381

background information 4:371bioturbation 4:378Cambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380carbon isotopic ratios 4:379

748 INDEX

Precambrian (continued)chronostratigraphy 4:17OfEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38fextinction events 4:379fossil lichens 2:441general discussion 4:350geological events

banded iron formations (BIFs) 4:372carbonates 4:372continent formation 4:371glaciation 4:372marine transgressions 4:372

glossary information 4:380palaeobiological events

death mask hypothesis 4:374Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378feukaryotes 4:372-373general discussion 4:372metacellularity 4:373, 4:376*shelly fossils 4:373, 4:373fstromatolites 4:373, 4:377

palaeogeography 4:3S3fPan-African orogeny 4:378predators 4:379sedimentary structures 4:376, 4:379fSiberian craton 4:461strontium isotopic ratios 4:378Timanide Orogeny 2:49-50, 2:53,

2:54fprecipitation l:477f, 4:628, 5:17, 5:19f9

5:475Precordillera terrane 4:83fprehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:397, 3:398f,

3:405, 3:405f, 4:74fPreondactylus 2:513-514Press, Frank 3:195pressure-temperature-time (PTt) paths

3:409-417age determination 3:416anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416fbackground information 3:409basic principles 3:409, 3:410fclockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416fcontact metamorphism 3:406, 3:414,

3:415fcontrolling factors 3:410crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f, 3:414fexhumation rates 3:409-410, 3:413,

3:416, 3:416fgeneral discussion 3:417Gibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393fas interpretative tool 3:416, 3:416fmetamorphic facies 3:412, 3:412fschematic diagram 3:415fstable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f, 3:415ftemperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412fPre-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fPrevost, Constant 2:183Priabonian stage 1:322 ft l:325f, 5:466,

5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470, 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fPrice, George McCready 1:384priceite (Ca4B1oO19-7H2O) 3:5Jf2*

Pridoli Series 4:87f, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,5:511 f5:511 f 95:517f

Priest River Complex, northern Cordillera4:39-42

primates 2:538-539primitive organisms

acritarchs 3:418-428applications 3:427biostratigraphy 3:425Cambrian 4:169fclassification 3:422, 3:423fclusters 3:420colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419fearly Neoproterozoic 4:358-359late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361fMesoproterozoic 4:356/", 4:357middle Neoproterozoic 4:360morphology

excystment openings 3:420, 3:422fflanges 3:419f, 3:420general discussion 3:419microphotographs 3:421fprocesses 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422fwall types 3:420

occurrence 3:418palaeoenvironmental distribution

3:426, 3:426f, 3:427fPalaeoproterozoic 4:357palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427preservation 3:419reef environments 3:427fSilurian 3:426f, 4:191

biosediments 1:279-294Apex Chert, Pilbara region, Western

Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

biofilms 1:283, 1:283 fbiomarkers 1:292, 1:293 fbiosignatures 1:285, l:285tchemical fossils 1:293filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f^

4:368geographic distribution l:280f, 1:282glossary information 1:294microbial effects

precipitation processes 1:284,l:284t

trapping and binding 1:285microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,

4:223-224, 4:377microfossils

fossilization process 1:288interpretive processes 1:288, l:292foldest microfossils 1:291, l:292f

significance 1:282stromatolites

Archaean stromatolites. SeeArchaean; stromatolites

biosediments 1:285biosignatures l:285tformation processes 1:287f^ l:288tinterpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556physical properties l:286fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124, 4:125fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:428-440

applicationsbiostratigraphy 3:434palaeobiogeography 3:439palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439f

biological affinity 3:432carbon isotopic ratios 3:439classification

Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,3:435f

Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,3:435f

Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,3:435f

Operculatifera 3:430Ordovician 3:430Prosomatifera 3:430

evolutionary trends 3:434intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:43OfMargachitina 3:434morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,

3:436fPterochitina 3:434Silurian 4:191structure 3:428vesicle linkages 3:43 Of

eukaryotes 4:354-363algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359fArchaean eukaryotes 4:357atmospheric evolution 1:202, 1:203biodiversity 1:261biomineralization 4:359-360carbonaceous compression 4:357,

4:358,4:360fungi

Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,

2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f,

2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442general discussion 4:354heterotrophy 4:360Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356/",

4:357Neoproterozoic eukaryotes

early animals 4:360early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359fEdiacaran 4:362-363general discussion 4:358late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361f,

4:3 62 fmiddle Neoproterozoic 4:360

Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,4:357

phylogenetic relationships 4:3 55ftestate amoeba 4:360tree of life l:203f, 4:365f

ostracods (Ostracoda) 2:279, 4:191

INDEX 749

primitive organisms (continued]prokaryotes 4:363-370

biochemical evidence 4:365biogenicity criteria 4:369filamentous microbes 4:367'f, 4:368fossil evidence 4:352general discussion 4:354origins 4:364fphylogenetic relationships 4:355fsilicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368stromatolites 4:367, 4:367fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366tree of life 4:3 65f

Prince of Wales terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47Princeton University 3:197principle of effective stress 5:185Pringle,]. W. 3:476Pripyat-Dnieper-Donet rift 4:199Pripyat-Dnieper-Donet rift system 4:199probertite (NaCaB5O9-5H2O) 3:512t,

3:513tProcolophon 4:224procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480fProductive Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150fprokaryotes 4:363-370

biochemical evidence 4:365biogenicity criteria 4:369filamentous microbes 4:367'f, 4:368fossil evidence 4:352general discussion 4:354origins 4:3 64fphylogenetic relationships 4:355fsilicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368stromatolites 4:367, 4:367fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366tree of life 4:3 65f

Prolacertifornes 2:513Promissum 3:44IfPromyalina 4:223-224propagating rifts 5:396-405

bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, 5:404^causal mechanisms 5:398, 5:399fcontinental propagators 5:402f, 5:403,

5:403 f, 5:404fevolution 5:396implications 5:403microplates 5:398, 5:400f9 5:401foceanic propagators 5:396,5:396f, 5:397fpseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f

propane (C3H8) 4:258, 4:259fProspector 5:266t, 5:266-267, 5:271Prosser, Charles S. 2:196Protarchaeopteryx 2:495Proterocidaris 2:352-353, 2:354Proterocladus 4:358-359, 4:359/Proterosuchus 2:485Proterozoic

Antarctica 1:132, l:134fArgentina l:156fAustralia 1:208-222

Adelaide Rift Complex 1:215f, 1:220Arunta Inlier 1:214, 1:239fbackground information 1:208basin formation 1:208, 1:211, 1:215 f9

1:220

Birrindudu Basin 1:219Calvert Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215Centralian Superbasin 1:215f, 1:220Georgetown Inlier 1:215Granites-Tanami Complex l:210f,

1:211Hamersley Basin 1:208-209, 1:209f,

l:210f, 1:221Isa Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215Kimberley Basin l:209f, 1:211 f,

1:219, 1:221, 1:239 fLaurentia 1:213 f9 l:215fLeichhardt Superbasin 1:211 f,

1:214-215McArthur Basin l:209f, 1:214-215,

1:239 fMesoproterozoic 1:218mineral deposits l:218f, 1:221Mount Isa Inlier 1:214, l:239fNeoproterozoic 1:220orogenic events

Albany Fraser Orogeny l:209f,1:210-211, 1.-213/", I:214f9

1:219, I:239f9 4:352Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:21 If,

4:352Capricorn Orogeny l:209f,

1:209-210, 1:211 f, 1:212f,1:239 f

Chewings Orogeny l:212f, 1:215Edmundian Orogeny 1:214fEwamin Orogeny l:213f,

1:218-219Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, l:210fHall's Creek Orogeny 1:211 f,

1:212-213, 1:239 fHooper Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:212Isan Orogeny 1:213f, 1:218-219Kararan Orogeny l:212f, l:213f,

1:217-218Kimban Orogeny 1:209 f, 1:211/",

I:212f9 1:215-216King Leopold Orogeny 1:211,

1:215 f, 1:239 fOlarian Orogeny 1:213 f9 1:218-219Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209,

l:210fPaterson Orogeny 1:215 f9 1:220,

1:239 fPetermann Orogeny l:215fPine Creek Orogeny l:209f, l:210f,

1:211Pinjarra Orogeny 1:209 f,

1:210-211reactivation 1:214 f9 1:219-220Sleafordian Orogeny 1:210/", 4:352Strangways Orogeny 1:21 If,

1:214-215Tanami Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:213Thomson Orogeny 1:239fTrans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211,

4:352Wickham Orogeny l:215fYapungku Orogeny 1:211 f,

1:214-215

Palaeoproterozoic 1:208Pine Creek Inlier 1:23 9fTasmanides 1:208, 1:209 f, 1:239 fTasman Orogenic Belt l:223f, l:224f,

1:225-226Tennant Creek Inlier 1:211/", 1:214Victoria River Basin 1:209/, l:214f,

l:215f, 1:219biospheric evolution 4:3 64fboundary stratotypes 5:505calcareous algae 2:428fChina 1:347fcrustal provinces 4:23fEast European Craton 2:43f, 2:48fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fLagerstatten 3:310tlimestones 4:351Mesoproterozoic

Antarctica 1:132, l:134fAustralia 1:218boundary stratotypes 5:505Calymmian System 5:51 If, 5:517fEast European Craton 2:41f, 2:48fEctasian System 5:51 If, 5:517feukaryotes 4:356f, 4:357general discussion 4:350Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fPechora Basin 2:53fRodinia 1:218southern Cordillera 4:48Stenian System 5:511/", 5:517fUral Mountains 2:49-56

microorganisms 1:280 fNorth American continental interior

4:23forogenic events 4:17Palaeoproterozoic

Antarctica 1:132, l:134fAustralia 1:208boundary stratotypes 5:505East European Craton 2:42f, 2:43f,

2:45, 2:45f, 2:46, 2:47f, 2:48feukaryotes 4:356f, 4:357general discussion 4:350glaciation 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fnorthern Cordillera 4:39Orosinian System 5:51 If, 5:517fPechora Basin 2:53fPrecambrian basement 4:13 fRhyacian System 5:51 If, 5:517fSiderian System 5:511/", 5:517fsouthern Cordillera 4:48Statherian System 5:511f, 5:517fUral Mountains 2:49-56

planetary comparisons 1:427f

750 INDEX

Proterozoic (continued]polarity-bias superchrons 3:331fSiberian craton 4:462f, 4:463South-east Asia 1:177South-east Asia geological evolution

l:174fsouthern Cordillera 4:48subdivisions 4:350See also Neoproterozoic

proto-Alps 2:77fProtoarenicola baiguashanensis 4:3 59 f,

4:360protocataclasite 3:388tProtoclepsydrops 2:487Protoclepsydrops haplous 2:485protoliths 3:394, 3:396fprotomylonite 3:388tprotorothyridids 2:481Protorothyris 2:481-482Prototaxites 2:439f, 2:440-441Provencal Basin 2:120-124, 3:655f, 3:656Provincial Geological Bodies 3:78Prunum coniforme 1:269fPrydz Bay 3:154Prydz-Leeuwin Belt 3:128, 3:132f, 3:133fPsarolepis 2:467Psephoderma 2:506pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5) 4:149fPseudoclimacograptus 2:364f, 2:365pseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376fpseudofossils 4:382-386

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 4:3 69f

conchoidal fractures 4:382, 4:384fconcretions 4:384, 4:385fcone-in-cone structures 4:383, 4:385fdendrites 4:382, 4:383ffracture surfaces 4:382, 4:384fLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383fLiesegang banding 4:382, 4:383fnodules 4:384, 4:385fPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

4:3 84 fpseudokarst 4:679pseudomalachite 3:508f, 5:122pseudotachylite 3:388t, 5:183tPsiloceras 3:357psilomelane 5:394tPteraichnus 2:515-516Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515Pteraspis 2:462Pteridinium 4:375, 4:375fpteridophyte 3:351Pteridosperms 4:206f, 4:209fPterocanium charybdeum 1:27OfPterochitina 3:434pterodactyloids

azhdarchoids 2:514body hair 2:511 fctenochasmatoids 2:514dsungaripteroids 2:514general discussion 2:514life restoration 2:509flonchodectids 2:514

ornithocheiroids 2:5'10f, 2:514, 2:514fpterosaurs 2:513, 2:513fsoft tissue 2:512fwing membranes 2:511 fwing skeleton 2:51 Of

Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:511 f, 2:515Pterodaustro 2:514pteropods 4:646?, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75?pterosaurs

cladogram 2:513fdiversity 2:513Mesozoic 2:508

affinities 2:513Anhanguera 2:515Austriadactylus 2:510body hair 2:511, 2:511fCampylognathoides 2:513-514Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511,

2:513-514Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514,

2:515historical background 2:509integument 2:511Istiodactylus 2:510locomotion 2:515origins 2:513palaeobiology 2:514phylogeny 2:513, 2:S13fPreondactylus 2:513-514Pteraichnus 2:515-516Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515pterodactyloids

azhdarchoids 2:514body hair 2:511 fctenochasmatoids 2:514dsungaripteroids 2:514general discussion 2:514life restoration 2:509flonchodectids 2:514ornithocheiroids 2:51 Of, 2:514,

2:514 fsoft tissue 2:512fwing membranes 2:511 fwing skeleton 2:51 Of

Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:51 If,2:515

Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513, 2:514,

2:515skeletal material 2:510, 2:510f, 2:511fsoft tissue 2:51 l,2:512f

Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300tPtilophyllum 3:359PUCE

See Pattern-Unit-Component-Evaluation(PUCE) mapping system, Australia

pucherite (BiVO4) 3:589tPuerto Rico Trench 5:430?, 5:43 OfPukapuka Ridge 4:476-477Pulleniatina primalis 5:486-487pumice 4:387t, 4:390tpumpellyite 3:397, 3:398f, 3:405punctuated equilibrium

bryozoans (Bryozoa) 1:268-269, l:271fmicroevolution 2:164, 2:164f

Miocene 1:269 fPliocene 1:269 fspeciation 1:268, l:268f, l:271f

Purfleet interglacial stage 5:496fPusgillian stage 4:183fPu'u O'o volcanic vent 3:328-329, 3:329fpyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3) 3:630tPyrenees 2:96/", 2:98, 2:99, 3:650f, 3:654,

3:654f, 5:466-468, 5:488pyriclasite 3:387tpyrite (FeS2)

carbonatites 3:221tcrystal structure 3:575?, 3:576fdiagenetic processes 5:145fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,

5:394tLagerstatten 3:312nodules 4:385occurrence 3:574, 3:584, 3:585tphase transformation diagram 3:580fphysical properties 3:577?pyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497fpyritized fossils l:377f, 1:381, 3:312stability 3:580fsulphidation curves 3:582f

pyrobelonite (PbMnVO4(OH)) 3:589tpyrochlore 3:221, 3:221tpyroclastic deposits 1:34-43

background information 4:386characteristics

block and ash flows 4:394, 4:394ffall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392?general discussion 4:389ignimbrites 2:98, 4.-202/, 4:388f9

4:391-393, 4:393/i 4:395, 4:397fparticle size 4:390?pyroclastic density currents 4:391,

4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396fpyroclastic types 4:390?transport mechanisms 4:394, 4:396f,

4:397feruption plumes 4:388, 4:388f, 4:389fexplosive eruption characteristics 4:386,

4:387?, 4:388f, 4:389generation mechanisms 4:386geotechnical properties 1:546natural hazards 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576fPermo-Carboniferous basins 2:98zeolites 1:34-43, 3:597

pyrolite hypothesis 1:399, 1:401 fpyrolusite (MnC^)

dendrites 4:382, 4:383fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?Liesegang banding 4:382, 4:383f

pyromorphite 5:123, 5:126-127, 5:127fpyrope (Mg3Al2Si3Oi2) 3:561pyrophyllite 1:360, l:361t, 3:399f,

3:631-632pyrovanadates 3:589?pyroxenes 3:567-569

crystal structure 3:568f, 3:569fkimberlites 3:253shock metamorphic effects 5:183t

pyroxenite 3:220?, 3:253-254, 3:257fpyroxmangite 3:569

INDEX 751

pyrrhotite (FeySg)carbonatites 3:221tcrystal structure 3:575?, 3:577fhydrothermal ore deposits 5:394toccurrence 3:584, 3:585tphase transformation diagram 3:580fphysical properties 3:577?, 4:149tstability 3:579f, 3:580fsulphidation curves 3:582f

Qiangtang terrane 3:144fQinghai-Tibet Plateau 1:353Qingshania magnifica 4:357Qinling Shan-Dabie Shan-Sulu terrane belt

1:350-351, 1:352, 5:537Quaoar 5:223, 5:294quarrying 4:399-405

aggregates 1:35background information 4:399career opportunities 4:401design 4:400engineering considerations 4:401environmental issues 4:401, 4:404tgeneral description 4:399fgeological factors 4:400military geology 3:478, 3:479/~, 3:480f,

3:484foperational considerations 4:399planning considerations 4:401, 4:404?quarried stone

geological characteristics 4:400,4:402?

joint sets 4:401 fmass characteristics 4:400physical properties 4:400regional characteristics 4:403?

quarry restoration 4:402quarry types 4:400, 4:403?

quartz diorites 3:237?quartzites 3:396f, 5:27?, 5:29fquartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396, 3:396/",

3:397, 3:399/", 5:535-536, 5:538,5:S38f

quartz (SiO2) 3:569-571amphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:223?cementation 5:143, 5:143f, 5:144fchalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51, 5:52fchemical composition 3:569-570chemical diagenesis 1:394cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

3:571depth effects 5:63^diagenetic processes 5:145fdiaplectic minerals 3:281-282, 3:282ffused minerals 3:28Ifglauconite 3:542?granites 3:240hydrothermal fluids 3:629?industrial uses 3:570karst landscapes 4:679kimberlites 3:248?Lagerstatten 3:313

metamorphic facies 3:400/", 3:401fMeteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,

United States 3:571palisade quartz 5:533, 5:534fplanar microstructures 3:282, 3:282fsand 5:142sandstones 5:143?, 5:143fshock metamorphic effects 4:221, 5:183tsilica 3:570, 3:570fstructure 3:570tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

3:571types 3:570ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533, 5:533f, 5:534fVenus 5:247?weathering 5:17

quartz wackes 5:27?, 5:2 8fQuaternary

Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104fcephalopods 2:389fEast European Craton 4:461Fiji 4:120Holocene 2:147-160

background information 2:147Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2.-152/, 2:153f,

2:155-159, 2:156f, 2:159?climate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159?dating methods 2:147environmental periods 2:159?Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 5:506fhuman activity

environmental conservation 2:154environmental effects 2:152historical developments 2:159?industrialisation effects 2:155,

2:156fNeolithic period 2:152phosphate concentrations 2:156f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

North Africa 1:25sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150/",

2:151f,2:154f,2:155fvegetation 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f,

2:153f9 2:155fNew Zealand 4:7North American chronostratigraphy

4:2 6fostracods (Ostracoda) 3.-460/", 3:462palaeoclimate 4:133-134palynology 3:464Pleistocene 5:493-499

archaeological sites 5:496fAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:23O/", 1:236background information 5:493biodiversity 1:260-261biostratigraphy 5:495biota 5:495, 5:497/i 5:498fcaves (endokarst) 5:497extinction events 5:497-498geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332fglacial stages 5:496fglaciation 4:131, 4:663

Global Standard Stratotype Sectionsand Points (GSSPs) 5:506f

historical research 5:493, 5:496fhuman activity 5:495, 5:496fIce Age 5:493interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fKyrgyzstan 1:167mammoths 5:498, 5:498fmarine oxygen isotope record 5:496fpalaeoclimate 5:495palaeogeography 5:496freef environments 4:506ftektites 5:444

shelf-edge deltas 4:537Siberian craton 4:463

Quebec, Canada 3:155, 4:83-84Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault 4:38Queensland, Australia 2:472, 3:123, 3:142Quercus 2:420fQuesnel terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510quick clays 1:562, l:563f, 4:690quicksands 1:555, 1:5 5 6f

radaraltimetry 4:415applications

earthquakes 4:418ground motion measurements 4:417,

4:418 froughness mapping 4:416structural/geomorphological mapping

4:416subsidence 4:419tectonic processes 4:418volcanism 4:419, 4:419f

Doppler radar 4:415general discussion 4:414ground penetrating radar 1:488, 1:491?,

1:493 f, 1:495 f, 1:497, l:498fimaging radars 4:415operating geometries 4:415fradar amplitude images 4:415, 4:417fsynthetic aperture radar systems 4:415?,

4:417, 4:418fradiocarbon (14C)

See carbon (C); radiometric datingRadioisotopes and the Age of the Earth

(RATE) 1:386radiolarians

allopatric-speciation 2:163biogenic silica 4:500, 5:52Cretaceous 3:366fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:378, 3:378fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,

5:72/, S:74f, 5:75, 5:75?extraction methods 3:473Jurassic 3:356Palaeocene 5:464phyletic gradualism 1:27'Of

Q

R

752 INDEX

radiolarians (continued]radiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsiliceous sediments 5:35

radiometric datingabsolute dating techniques 1:87, 1:88tamphiboles 3:504biozones 1:295-296Cambrian 4:164Carboniferous 4:202f, 4:203cratonization 5:175, 5:175/Creation science 1:386Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383diagenetic quantification 5:69, 5:146,

5:147fdolomite formation 5:86Earth'sage 3:186end Permian extinctions 3:317, 3:319fission track analysis 1:43-53

age determination 1:47, l:48f, 1:49falpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:S2fannealing process 1:45, l:46f, 5:127applications 1:52background information 1:43etch pits 1:46, 1:47ffission track length 1:48, 1:48ffossil partial annealing zone 1:45,

1:46 fglossary information 1:53Helium Partial Retention Zone

1:50-51spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f, 1:45fthermal history modelling 1:49, 1:5Of,

1:5 Iftrack-in-cleavage 1:45 f, 1:49track-in-track l:45f, 1:49uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He

dating method 1:50,l:52f, 5:127

fossils 4:158-159geoarchaeology 3:20geochronology 1:77geological time-scale 5:518glauconite 3:547historical background 1:81-82,

5:298-299kimberlites 3:250, 3:252f9 3:253fMozambique Belt l:7fpotassium-argon (K-Ar) dating 5:69Triassic 3:345zircon 3:604

radon (Rn) 3:553tRae craton 4:16Raff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:399fRahonavis 2:497rainfall l:477f, 4:628, 5:17, 5:19fRainier, Mount 5:575rain shadow 5:485raised beaches 4:579fRajmahal Traps 3:292, 3:315f, 3:316t,

3:363tRamdohr, Paul 3:192Ramm, Bernard 1:384rammeisbergite (NiAs2) 3:575?Ramsay, Andrew 2:214, 3:181

Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525fRanger 7 5:266?rankachite (CaFeV4W8O36-12H2O)

3:587t, 3.-5S9?, 3:590rare earth elements 3:224f, 3:639traspite (PbWO4) 3:587traster data representation 4:421, 4:422fRastrites 2:361-362, 2:363fRaumer, Karl von 3:476Raup, David 3:370rauvite (Ca(UO2)2(Vi0O28)-16H2O) 3:589traw borax, anhydrous (NaB2O3) 3:519tRawtheyan stage 4:183 fRayleigh, John William Strutt, Baron 3:186Rayleigh waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334fRead, Herbert 3:187Reading Prong 3:157'frealgar (As4S4) 3:575?, 3:630?Reconcavo basin 1:327fRed Beers 3:81red clays 4:642f, 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f, 5:74f9

5:75?, 5:76Red Indian Line 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f, 4:89Redkinia 4:373Red Queen hypothesis 2:166Red Sea

Arabian-Nubian Shield l:4fMiocene 1:17,5:481-482orogenic events 1:4fplate tectonics 1:27frift valleys 1:17, 1:148, 3:237?satellite images 1:26fstructural geology 1:149f, 1:150f

Red Sea crossing (Exodus) 1:255reductionism 1:433-434Reduviasporonites 4:220reef environments 4:562-570

background information 4:562bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563fbindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563fcalcareous algae 2:243, 2:244, 2:428,

2:429fCambrian 4:565Carboniferous 4:565-566corallinales 2:428, 2:429fCretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368, 3:371,

4:567f, 4:567-568Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565extinction events 4:565-566, 4:566-567floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564fframestone 3:527f, 4:562f, 4:562-563,

4:568f9 4:569fJurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567fMiocene 4:568f, 4:569fmodern reef formation

atolls 4:481, 4:564barrier reefs 4:564carbonate sedimentation 1:343'/,

3:523f, 3:529corals 4:562fringing reefs 4:564, 4:568flagoons 4:564morphology 4:562

morphology 4:568fpatch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564

Permian 4:565-566, 4:566frudists 4:567f, 4:567-568rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564fSilurian 4:565stromatolites 3:52 4/~, 4:565Tertiary 4:568-569Triassic 4:566f, 4:566-567Walther, Johannes 2:244zonation 4:562

Reelfoot Rift 4:32fRefugian benthic foramineral stage 5:473freg 4:626regional metamorphism 4:407-413

definition 3:392-393deformation processes 4:408metamorphic facies

amphibolite facies 3:412f, 4:409,4:409f, 4:410, 4:413

Barrovian-type metamorphic complex,Naxos, Greece 4:410, 4:411 f,4:412t

blueschist facies 3:412f, 4:409f,4:409-410

contact metamorphism 3:406, 3:414,3:415~f

crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,3:414f

eclogite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,4:409-410

epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409,4:409f

facies diagram 4:409fgranulite facies 3:412f, 4:409f, 4:410,

4:413greenschist facies 3:412f, 4:409,

4:409f, 4:410, 4:413high pressure facies 4:409low pressure facies 4:410medium pressure facies 4:410petrologic studies 4:408temperature-depth diagram 3:412,

3:412fvery low grade facies 4:410

metasomatism 4:407mineral relationships 4:408prograde paths 4:408retrograde paths 4:408subduction zones 4:407terranes 4:407

Reid, H. 5:330Reitziites reitzi 3:345-346relative ages 1:77, 1:78relict dune systems 4:625frelict karst 4:679, 4:683fremediation techniques 2:23, 2:24?remote sensing

active sensors 4:414-420background information 4:414lidar 4:414, 4:415fradar

altimetry 4:415applications 4:416Doppler radar 4:415earthquakes 4:418general discussion 4:414

INDEX 753

remote sensing (continued]ground motion measurements

4:417, 4:418fimaging radars 4:415operating geometries 4:415fradar amplitude images 4:415,

4:417froughness mapping 4:416structural/geomorphological

mapping 4:416subsidence 4:419synthetic aperture radar systems

4:415t, 4:417, 4:41Sftectonic processes 4:418volcanism 4:419, 4:419f

sensing techniques 4:414sonar 4:414, 4:415f

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)4:420-431

applicationsearthquakes 4:427environmental quality 4:424exploration tools 4:424, 4:425ffield mapping 4:423, 4:424fgeohazards 4:424landslides 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428tnatural resources 4:424volcanism 4:426

basic principlesdatabase design and quality 4:422general discussion 4:421georeferencing 4:422spatial data representations 4:421,

4:422fvisualisation process 4:422, 4:423f

engineering geology 1:447, 1:476future directions 4:430historical background 4:420Internet applications 4:429software products 4:430, 4:430tspatial analysis tools

general discussion 4:427individual layers 4:427multicriteria evaluation 4:427,

4:428tmultiple layers 4:427, 4:428funcertainty analysis 4:427, 4:429f

military geology 3:486-487passive sensors 4:431-439

background information 4:431broadband reflective multispectral

sensors 4:436hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:43 8t,

4:438fpassive microwave sensors 4:438,

4:439fsensor instrumentation

across-track multispectral scanners4:433, 4:433f

along-track push-broom scanner4:435, 4:435f

broadband sensor systems 4:434tdigital cameras 4:435general discussion 4:432spectral band comparisons 4:434t

structure 4:432fspatial resolution 4:432, 4:434t, 4:436thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:437,

4:43 8 fthermal sensors 4:432

petroleum exploration 4:298fRenalcis 2:435, 3:350Renard, A. F. 5:70-71reppiaite (Mn5(VO4)2(OH)4) 3:S89treptation 4:612-614, 4:613freptiles (Reptilia) 2:479-490

amniotes 2:479, 2:480farchosauromorphs

crocodiles 2:485general discussion 2:484rhynchosaurs 2:484-485Sphenosuchidae 2:485

background information 2:479Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiapsids

Araeoscelis 2:482-483general discussion 2:482Lepidosauromorpha 2:483mosasaurs 2:483Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482fsnakes 2:483Sphenodon 2:483Spinoaequalis 2:482-483Squamata 2:483Younginiforms 2:483

dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,

3:358-359diagnostic characteristics 2:490,

2:491f, 2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495origins 2:492Ornithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493Thyreophora 2:493

physiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Saurischia

general discussion 2:492f9 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:350

Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350eureptiles

captorhinids 2:481, 2:481fprotorothyridids 2:481

flying reptiles 2:508-516pterosaurs 2:508

affinities 2:513Anhanguera 2:515Austriadactylus 2:510

body hair 2:511,2:511 fCampylognathoides 2:513-514Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511,

2:513-514Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514,

2:515historical background 2:509integument 2:511Istiodactylus 2:510locomotion 2:515origins 2:513palaeobiology 2:514phylogeny 2:513, 2:S13fPreondactylus 2:513-514Pteraichnus 2:515-516Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515pterodactyloids 2:514Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509 f, 2:511 f,

2:515Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513,

2:514,2:515skeletal material 2:510, 2:510f,

2:511 fsoft tissue 2:511, 2:512f

marine reptiles 2:502-508Askeptosaurus 2:504Augustasaurus 2:506axial swimmers 2:503Clarazia 2:504Coniasaurus 2:504-505Corosaurus 2:506Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:380, 3:381fCrocodylus porosus 2:504Cyamodus 2:506Dakosaurus 2:504Dermochelys 2:505fDolichosaurus 2:504-505Dyrosaurus 2:504general discussion 2:483, 2:502Geosaurus 2:504Globidens 2:505Henodus 2:506Heschelaria 2:504Hyposaurus 2:504Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f9

3:358,3:380Jurassic 3:358, 3:358fKeichousaurus 2:506Lariosaurus 2:506locomotion mechanisms 2:502-503mesosaurs 2:249, 2:479Mesosaurus 2:503fMetriorhynchus 2:504Mosasauroidea 2:504f, 2:504-505Mosasaurus 2:504-505Neusticosaurus 2:506nothosaurs 2:484Nothosaurus 2:506occurrences 2:502Ophthalmosaurus 2:503-504Paraplacodus 2:506paraxial swimmers 2:505, 2:505f

754 INDEX

reptiles (Reptilia) (continued]Pistosaurus 2:506Placodontia 2:484, 2:506Placodus 2:506Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f,

3:358Plesiosaurus 2:506Pliosaurus 2:506Psephoderma 2:506Rhomaleosaurus 2:507fSauropterygia 2:484, 2:506Simosaurus 2:506Sphenisciformes 2:507Steneosaurus 2:504Stenopterygius 2:503f, 2:503-504Styxosaurus 2:506Teleorhinus 2:504Thalassiodracon 2:506Thalattosauria 2:504Thalattosuchia 2:504Trinacromerum 2:506-507Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505

mesosaurs 2:479Miocene 5:483parareptiles

millerettids 2:479-481pareiasaurs 2:479-481procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480ftestudines 2:481

snakes 5:483synapsids

background information 2:479, 2:485Caseidae 2:485, 2:486fEdaphosauridae 2:487Eothyrididae 2:485Mesozoic 2:527Ophiacodontidae 2:487phylogenetic relationships 2:528fphysical appearance 2:477-478Sphenacodontia 2:488Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487f

therapsids 2:489residual sediments

classification 5:26tformation processes 5:33foccurrence 5:31

restite 3:388treticulite 4:3 871, 4:39OtReticuloceras subreticulatum 4:498fReunion hotspot 3:292-293, 3:336-337,

3:383Revelle, Roger 3:197Revueltian faunachron 3:345fReykjanes Ridge 3:203

gravity measurements 1:101 fmagma-lens reflections 5:416fseamounts 4:477tseismic structure 5:412

Reynolds number 5:8, 5:9/", 5:10, 5:llf,5:548

Rhabdinopora flabelliformis 4:177Rhacophyllites 3:357Rhaetian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f,5:506f,5:517fRhamphorhynchoidea 2:513,2:513f, 2:514

Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513, 2:514,2:515

Rhea 5:287t, 5:288Rheic Ocean

Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-58, 2:62Carboniferous 4:204Devonian 2:79Northern Appalachians 4:81Ordovician 2:78, 4:182palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77fSilurian 4:193tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:82fterranes 5:455

Rhenish MassifAnisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk

palaeogeography 2:110fAptian-Albian palaeogeography 2:116fBaj ocian-Bathonian palaeogeography

2:112fBerriasian-Valanginian palaeogeography

2:115 fKimmeridgian-Tithonian

palaeogeography 2:114fPermian 2:107fradiometric dating 4:202fRhaetian-Hettangian palaeogeography

2:11 IfScythian-Bundsandstein

palaeogeography 2:109fSenonian-Danian palaeogeography

2:118 fVariscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:79, 2:84volcanic centres 2:120

rhenium (Re) l:88tRheno-Hercynian Ocean 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81fRheno-Hercynian Terrane 2:97, 3:652/",

5:455Rhine graben 3:653-654Rhine Rift 5:440-441Rhine River 2:125, 2:152, 3:656-657Rhinobatis 2:464fRhipocephalus 2:432Rhizodus 2:467rhodite 3:119trhodium (Rh)

natural occurrences 3:553t, 3:554partitioning behaviour 3:639tworld production rates 1:43 8t

rhodochrosite 3:13rhodonite 3:569rhodophyta (red algae)

corallinales 2:428, 2:429fLithothamnion 2:429fpeyssonneliaceae 2:430, 2:430fPolystrata 2:430fsolenoporaceae 2:429, 2:430fSolenoporella 2:430f

Rhomaleosaurus 2:507frhomboclase 3:573Rhone graben 3:653-654Rhone River 2:125, 3:656-657, 5:19*Rhuddanian Stage 4:185, 4:186f9 4:187f,

5:511f,5:517fRhyacian System 5:511f9 5:517frhynchosaurs 2:484-485

Rhynie chertarthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275,

2:277fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310thydrothermal activity 5:59-60, 5:61flichens 2:441-442Old Red Sandstone 5:59-60

Rhyniella praecursor 2:296-298rhyolites

Argentina 1:161characteristics 5:567-569explosive eruption characteristics 4:3871lava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:326Mono Craters, California, United States

3:270, 3:272^North German Basin 2:98Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98Pyrenees 2:99quartz (SiO2) 3:571sulphide minerals 3:493tridymite 3:571

rhythmites 4:30-31Rhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fRiacho do Pontal Belt, Brazil 1:31 OfRibeira erogenic belt 1:313f9 1:318ribonucleic acid (RNA) 2:161Richter, Charles 3:195, 5:319-320Richter scale 5:319-320, 5:320tRichthofen, Ferdinand von 3:184riebeckite 3:505-506Ries Crater, Germany 5:444-445, 5:445frift valleys 5:437-442

Antarctica l:134f, 1:139Argentina 1:161Atlantic Margin 4:102,4:95,4:96 f, 4:97fbackground information 5:437Cenozoic European Rift System 2:120,

3:653Dead Sea Rift 1:26-34

Arabia 1:148, 1:149f, l:150farchaeology 1:33background information 1:26climate 1:33earthquakes 1:33fault zones 1:32fhydrology 1:32laminated beds 1:33fpetroleum reserves 5:441f, 5:442plate tectonics 1:26, 1:27friver systems 1:32, l:32fsatellite images 1:2 6/j 1:27fsedimentation 1:33structure 1:31topography 1:31

Death Valley, United States 5:442, 5:442fEast African Rift 1:26-34

background information 1:26, 5:437climate 1:29dome structures 1:28fault zones 1:28fgranitic rocks 3:237?hominids 1:31hydrology 1:29, 1:3 If

INDEX 755

rift valleys (continued]lake basins 4:558Miocene tectonics 5:481-482Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220*, 3:220-221,

3:224f, 3:225, 3:230fplate tectonics 1:26, 1:27fsatellite images l:26f, 1:30fsedimentation l:27f, 1:30structure 1:27, 1:27f, 5:438, 5:440ftopography 1:27volcanism 1:28, l:29f, l:30f

East European Craton 2:105economic deposits 5:439f, 5:442environmental impacts 5:439Europe

Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117background information 2:105Cretaceous 2:113East European Craton 2:36, 2:41f,

2:48fEocene 2:117geological map legend 2:123fJurassic 2:108Miocene 2:120Oligocene 2:120, 2:121fPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fpalaeogeography 2:107fPermian 2:105, 2:106fTriassic 2:105

evaporite deposits 5:95formation processes 5:438mid-ocean ridges 5:384-386, 5:438morphology 5:437North Africa 1:16, l:16f, 1:17petroleum reserves 5:43 9/", 5:442Rhine Rift 5:440-441Rio Grande Rift 5:43 8fsalt deposits 5:441f9 5:442sedimentary basins 5:441, 5:441fstructure 5:437, 5:439f, 5:442fvolcanism 1:28,1.-29/, I:30f9 5:438-439,

5:566fWegener, Alfred 2:249

rillenkarrenSee solution flutes (rillenkarren)

Rimmer, Harry 1:384ring dykes 3:218t,3:219fRingkbing-Fyn High 3:6S2fringwoodite 5:183trinnenkarren

See runnels (rinnenkarren)Rio de la Plata craton 1:307, 1.-307/", 1:312,

l:312f,3:164fRio Grande Rift 4:60, 5:438fRio Grande Rise 3:315f, 3:316*,

4:477_479

Rio Negro 5:20fRio Solimoes 5:2 OfRiphean 2:41f, 2:51, 4:350, 4:456, 4:458,

4:458f, 4:461rip-up clast deposits 4:63 6fRiss stage 5:493rivadavite (Na6MgB24O4o-22H2O) 3:S13tRiver Jordan, Crossing of (Joshua) 1:256rizalites 5:446-447

RNA worlddevelopment process 4:127fDNA-RNA proteins 4:125molecular structures 4:127forigins 4:126prebiotic organic molecules 4:127RNA precursors 4:126

Roadian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 5:511f,5:517f

robertinids 3:45OfRoberts Mountains allochthon 4:50-52Robertson Lake shear zone 3:158fRocche Rosse flow, Lipari, Italy

3:268-270, 3:269f, 3:270froches moutonnees 4:669-670, 4:671 fRochester Shale, New York 4:189rockbridgeite 5:122, 5:124-125rock classification 4:452-455

basement 4:453, 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453, 4:454figneous rocks 4:453t

anomalies 4:454differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452lava flows 4:454

metamorphic rocks 4:453tanomalies 4:455differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:453

nineteenth century stratigraphiccorrelations 2:219f

sedimentary rocks 4:4531anomalies 4:454differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:454fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452sandstones 5:142f

rockfalls 4:689, 4:689f, 5:2rock-forming minerals 3:567-569, 5:17,

5:582, 5:583fSee also silicate minerals

rock mechanics 4:440-451background information 4:440components

existing fractures 4:440, 4:442f,4:443f

intact rock 4:440, 4:444fin situ stress 4:440, 4:441 f, 4:446f

engineering geology 1:445fracture testing 4:444f, 4:445fgeotechnical engineering 3:101, 3:102tHoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443,

4:444f, 4:445fhydraulic fracturing 4:440, 4:441 fmagnitude measurements 4:446fovercoring 4:440, 4:441frock masses 4:443, 4:445f, 4:446fservo-controlled testing device 4:441,

4:443fshear box 4:443 f

single-plane-of-weakness theory 4:443,4:444f

techniquescontinuous rock analyses 4:449,

4:4Slfexcavation effects 4:446ffractured rock analyses 4:447general discussion 4:446kinematic analyses 4:447Kirsch solution 4:45Ifnumerical analyses 4:450slope instability 4:448fstress analysis 4:450fstress/strain analyses 4:45Ifunderground excavation analysis

3:103, 4:448f, 4:449fwedge instability 4:447f

rock properties 1:543-554, 1:566-580anhydrite 1:552background information 1:543carbonates 1:549, 1:549*, 1:5 5 Ofchalk 1:549*, 1:551-552coal 1:553deformation characteristics

classification 1:571*elasticity 1:570, 1:571general discussion 1:569moisture content 1:570plasticity 1:570rock composition 1:569-570strength analysis 1:570stress/strain analyses 1:570-571,

1:571 fyield strength 1:570

density 1:566, 1:567*discontinuities 1:543durability

general discussion 1:575geodurability classification chart

1:578 fslake durability test 1:41, 1:577,

1:577fsoak tests 1:575, 1:577*

evaporites 1:552, 1:552*folding 5:348, 5:350fgypsum 1:552,3:102*halite (NaCl) 1:552, 3:102*hardness 1:567igneous rocks

geotechnical properties 1:544, 1:545*granites 1:545*, 1:546 fweathering l:546f

limestones 1:549, 1:549*, l:550f, 3:102*mudrocks 1:548mudstone 1:548,3:102*permeability 1:579, 1:579*, 1:579 fporosity 1:549*, 1:552*, l:566f,

1:566-567, 1:567*sandstones 1:547, 3:102*Schmidt hammer 1:568, l:568fSchmidt hardness values 1:569fshales 1:548, 3:102*Shore hardness values 1:568fShore scleroscope 1:567, 1:567fspecific gravity 1:566

756 INDEX

rock properties (continued)strength analysis

Brazilian strength test 1:573-575direct shear 1:573, 1:575fMohr-Coulomb failure criterion 1:573Mohr stress circle l:574fpoint load strength test 1:40, 1:575,

l:576t, 1:57 6ftensile strength 1:573triaxial compression strength 1:573,

l:574funiaxial compression 1:572, l:572t,

1:573 fsylvite 1:552, 5:94-95weathering

general discussion 1:543rock-mass strength 5:581shales 1:548spheroidal weathering 1:543fweathering grades l:544fweathering profile 1:545f

Rocky MountainsLaramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:5 7/i

5:460-461Miocene 5:480Oligocene 5:477orogenic events 4:52Palaeocene 5:460-461Precambrian basement 4:12Rocky Mountains System

accretion terraneseconomic deposits 4:44evolution 4:44general discussion 4:42mountain building 4:43

bedrock features 4:39crustal thickness 4:39fexternal system 4:44internal system 4:45physiography 4:22f, 4:37, 4:37f

tectonic map 2:239/", 4:23fRodentia 2:539rodingite 3:388tRodinia

Antarctica 1:132, 1:133 fAppalachians 4:72, 4:73, 4:74fbreakup events 1:245, 4:8Caledonian Orogeny 2:56Cathaysiana 1:348Gondwana l:174fGrenville orogeny 3:155Mesoproterozoic 1:218Neoproterozoic 1:220, 1:245Northern Appalachians 4:81northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:44-45orogenic belts 3:164fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 1:174fplate tectonics 3:164, 3:164fPrecambrian 4:352-354, 4:353fProterozoic 1:208southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:50terranes 5:455Vendian 4:371

Rogers, Arthur 2:189Rogers, Henry D. 2:198

Rogers, William B. 2:198roggianite 3:593tRokelide Belt l:2f, 1:10rollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f, 4:240f,

4:537-539Roman climatic optimum 2:148, 2:148f,,

2:159tRomania 1:558, 4:471Rome de L'Isle, Jean Baptiste Louis de

3:171,3:500Romer, Alfred Sherwood 3:62Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473fRome Trough 4:32fRominger, Carl 2:196Rondonian/San Ignacio/Sunsas

thermotectonic event 1:3 08tRoo Rise 3:315/; 3:316?roscherite 5:121-122Rose, Gustav 3:500-501roselite 3:508fRosenbusch, Harry 3:184rosickyite 3:553?, 3:554rossite (Ca(V2O6)-4H2O) 3:589tRoss, John 5:70-71Ross Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245, l:248fRoss Sea 1:132, l:133frotaliana 3:45Ifrotaliata 3:45Ifrotaliids 3:45Ofrotational slides 4:689, 4:690fRotliegend subdivision 4:202frouaite (Cu2NO3(OH)3) 3:556?Rough Creek Graben 4:32fRoyal Society of London 3:60rozenite (FeSO4-4H2O) 3:573Roziere, Francois-Michel de 3:476Rub al Khali, Saudi Arabia 4:540-541Rubey, William 3:188rubidium (Rb)

carbonatites 3:223?crustal composition 5:174tlava/lava flows 3:224fpartitioning behaviour 3:639?radiometric dating l:88t, 4:202fsoil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

rubies 1:196, 3:7?, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12Rubisco 5:484Ruby Mountains 4:55-56Ruby terrane 4:40 f, 4:45-46rudaceous rocks 5:129-141

alluvial fans 5:135, 5:138fbackground information 5:129beaches 5:133, 5:136f9 5:137f, 5:138fbraided river systems 5:137, 5:138,

5:139fcomposition 5:134fconglomerates 5:26, 5:26?, 5:129, 5:139fdeep-water deposits 5:140imbrication 5:133, 5:139importance 5:140natural occurrences 5:131stream beds 5:132, 5:135fterminology 5:129textures

clast form notation 5:130, 5:131f,5:132f

form variations 5:133fgeneral discussion 5:129particle size 5:129roundness 5:129, 5:130f, 5:134fsphericity 5:129, 5:134f

till 5:139rudists 4:567/", 4:567-568Rudny-Altai arc 4:466rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564fRuffer, Sir Armand 4:160Ruhr 4:202fRuhr basin 2:95rumurutiites 5:2311Runcorn, Keith 3:194runnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681f,

4:682fRupelian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:473,

5:473f,5:506f,5:517frusakovite

((Fe,Al)5[(V,P)04]2(OH)9.3H20)3:559?

russellite (Bi2WO6) 3:5S7?Russia 4:456-473

Altaid CollageAltai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fgeneral discussion 4:465Kazakhstan-Khingan domain 4:467,

4:467fMongol-Okhotsk suture 4:465,

4:466-467tectonic map 4:458f

background information 4:456bolide impact craters 3:363?Devonian 4:463fEast European Craton 4:456

accretionary wedge terranes 4:459fCambrian 4:458-459Carboniferous 4:460Cretaceous 4:461crustal provinces 4:459fDevonian 4:459Eocene 4:461Jurassic 4:460-461Oligocene 4:461Ordovician 4:459Permian 4:459-460Quaternary 4:461sedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457f,

4:458f, 4:460ftectonic map 4:457f, 4:458fTimanide Orogeny 4:458-459, 4:464Triassic 4:460-461

energy resources 4:472^, 4:473fish 2:467gemstones 3:7?, 3:12geology 4:456Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 IfHolocene2:148Hyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f,

4:468kimberlites 4:463f, 4:473mineral deposits 4:472/, 4:473

INDEX 757

Russia (continued)non-amniote tetrapods 2:469,2:476-477erogenic events

Alpine Orogeny 4:471Arctic Shelf 4:464, 4:464fBaikalide Orogeny 4:463Circum-Pacific orogenic collages 4:468Neoproterozoic 4:463Nipponide collage 4:470, 4:470fPatom Highlands 4:463plate tectonics 4:471, 4:472fScythian Orogeny 4:471Taimyr Orogeny 4:464, 4:464fVerkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic

collage 4:468, 4:469fYenisei Ridge 4:464, 4:464f

Permian 4:214sedimentary basins

East European Craton 4:456, 4:457f,4:458f, 4:459f, 4:460f

mineral deposits 4:473Siberian craton 4:463fWest Siberian Basin 4:457f, 4:468

Siberian craton 4:456, 4:457f, 4:462f,4:463, 4:463f

Siberian TrapsDevonian 4:198-199end Permian extinctions 3:319, 3:322,

4:222flood basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 3:328Permian 4:215f, 4:227Permian-Triassic boundary 4:220,

4:222Triassic 3:348

tectonic map 4:45 7f, 4:458fterranes 4:456, 4:459f, 4:462f, 4:466fTimanide Orogeny 2:49-56

background information 2:49Barents Shelf 2:50/", 2:53Caledonian Orogeny 2:72-73Cambrian 4:62East European Craton 2:34, 2:49-50,

2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:5Of,

2:51geographic location 2:35fNovaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f, 2:53Ouachita Mountains 4:62Pechora Basin 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52/,

2:53/i 2:54fPolar Ural Mountains 2.-50/", 2:52Precambrian 4:352Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53, 2:54ftectonic relationships 2:5Ofterranes 2:5Of

Triassic 3:350See also Ural Mountains

Russian PlatformSee East European Craton

ruthenium (Ru)natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554partitioning behaviour 3:639tworld production rates 1:43 8t

Rutherford, Ernest 3:186

Rutherford, Wilhelm 3:604-605rutile (TiO2) 3:254, 3:256?, 3:489-490,

4:149?, 4:149f, 5:533fRyukyu Trench 5:43 0?, 5:43 Of

Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:96f, 2:97,2:98-99, 2:101 f,4:202f

Sabine Uplift 4:62/sabkhas

Arabia 1:146Arabian Gulf 4:509f, 4:510f, 4:511carbonates 5:110-112dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91evaporites 5:31, 5:32fgeneral discussion 4:542liquefaction l:528toccurrence 1:561

Sable Island 4:93, 4:93fSaccocoma 3:358Saetograptus leintwardinensis 4:189safflorite (CoAs2) 3:575tSagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fSager, Abram2:195Sahara Desert 5:21Sahara Metacraton 1:10Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17, 1:23Sahelanthropus 2:541Saichania 2:493fSaidmarreh Landslide 4:687-688Saint Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada

4:37-38, 4:45Saint Helens, Mount 1:200?, 4:690, 4.-691/,

5:568f, 5:574Saint-Hilaire, Etienne Geoffroy 2:179,

4:123St. Lawrence River 4:65ItSakhalin 4:470, 4:470 f, 4:471, 4:472/~,

5:461Sakmara Allochthon 2:88f, 2:88-89, 4:467Sakmarian stage 3:142, 4:208f, 4:209f,

4:215t,5:511f,5:517fSakurajima, Japan 5:575Salado basin, Argentina 1:159salamanders

CenozoicAndrias scheuchzeri 2:525fgeneral discussion 2:524Piceoerpeton 2:524-525

Mesozoic2:521/; 2:522salars l:123f, 1:126Salas, Jose Gonzalez 3:170Sala y Gomez Ridge 3:315 f, 3:316?Saldania Belt L-2/; 1:8saleeite 5:123fSalima Sandsheet, Sahara 4:542saline basins 1:123f, 1:126Salinic orogeny 4.-90/", 4:91salinity crisis 1:24salinization 5:196f, 5:201saltation 4:612-614, 4:613fsalt deposits

Atlantic Margin 4:102flow folding 5:348, 5:349f, 5:350f

gravity-driven processes 4:647North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fpetroleum reservoirs 4:237, 4:237'?,

4:238f, 4:242f, 4:297frift valleys 5:441f, 5:442salt diapirs

Atlantic Margin 4:102, 4:102fEast European Craton 2:38fflow folding 5:348, 5:349fpetroleum reservoirs 4:237?,

4:237-238, 4:238f, 4:242fsalt domes 3:554, 4:237-238, 5:348,

5:349fsulphur occurrences 3:554See also sabkhas

salt flatsSeesabkhas

Salton Trough 4:48, 4:58samarium (Sm)

carbonatites 3:223?, 3:224fcrustal composition 5:174?granitic rocks 3:242flava/lava flows 3:224fradiometric dating l:88t

Samoa 4:109, 4:121San Andreas Fault Zone, California

4:58-60, 4:59f, 4:343, 4:345f,5:476_477? 5.479.480

Sanbagawa belt, Japan 1:243-244sand 5:141-151

Atterberg Limits 5:187tcarbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f, 4:509f,

4:51 Ofcompaction 5:142, 5:145fdetrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f, 5:143?diagenesis

diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144fdiagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146, 5:147fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146/",

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:145f,

5:148, 5:149fquantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f

geophysical techniques 1:490f9 1:494fgeotechnical properties 3:104?grain size analysis 5:141liquefaction 1:525nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f, 4:646?oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:509f,

4:510, 4:510fpermeability 5:149, 5:149f, S:150fpetroleum reservoirs 4:23 6fphysical properties l:483tporosity

diagenetic impact 5:149mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f9

5:147fpermeability 5.-149/", 5:150fpetroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233fphotomicrograph 5:141f

s

75S INDEX

sand (continued)sand boils 1:526, l:526f, 1:533fshock metamorphic effects 5:183tsoil mechanics 5:184, 5:184fsorting 5:141, 5:141fvoid redistribution 1:526, l:526fSee also aggregates

sand boils 1:526, I:526f9 1:533fsand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355sand dunes

See dunesSander, Bruno 3:189Sanders,]. M. 3:190Sanders, John Essington 5:543sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621/", 4:622,

4:622fsandsheets 4:542sandstones

Arabia 1:141arkoses 5:27?, 5:29fBiblical geology 1:256chlorite 5:69, 5:69*classification 5:26?, 5:27?comparison with limestones 5:107composition 5:27densities 5:321fdiagenesis

cements 5:143, 5:1431diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146, 5:147fillite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fkaolinite 5:66, 5:66fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145,5:145f9

5:148, 5:149fporosity 1:394quantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:69, 5:146, 5:147fsmectites 5:67

geotechnical properties 1:547, 3:102tglauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69grain analysis 5:27, 5:107, 5:141greywackes 1:35, 3:102?, 5:27?, 5:28fmicas 5:143tmineralogy 5:143tpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235?,

4:236f, 4:239f, 4:243fphysical properties l:483tporosity 4:232, 4:233fquartzites 5:27?, 5:2 9fquartz wackes 5:27?, 5:28frock classification 5:142fsand 5:141-151

compaction 5:142, 5:145fdetrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f9

5:143tdiagenesis

diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144fdiagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146,

5:147f

isotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145,

5:145f9 5:148, 5:149fquantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f

geophysical techniques 1:490 f9 1:494fgeotechnical properties 3:104tgrain size analysis 5:141permeability 5:149, S:149f9 5:150fapetroleum reservoirs 4:23 6fphysical properties l:483tporosity

diagenetic impact 5:149mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f9

5:147fpermeability 5:149f, 5:15Ofpetroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233fphotomicrograph 5:141f

sorting 5:141, S:141fzeolites 3:597

San Fernando Dam, California, UnitedStates l:530f

sanidine 3:534f9 3:534-535sanidinite 3:406San Jorge basin, Argentina 1:161San Juan Basin, New Mexico, United States

5:461fsanmartinite (ZnWO4) 3:587tSanta Barbara fold-and-thrust belt 1:127,

1:158Santacrucian stage 5:479, 5:479fsantafeite ((Na,Ca,Sr)3(Mn,Fe)2Mn2

(V04)4(OH,0)5-2H20) 3:559?Santa Maria volcano, Guatemala 5:575santanaite (PbnOi2CrO4) 3:533?Santis thrust fault 2:130Santonian stage

anoxic events 3:363Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil l:322f, 1:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369f9 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:370f9 3:383f

Santorini, Greece 1:255, 5:575Santos basin 1:321 f, l:322fSao Francisco craton 1:307, I:307f9 1:310,

l:310f, l:312f, l:313fSao Luis craton 1:307, 1:307f, 1:312Sapas Mons, Venus 5:260fsaponite 1:369sapphires 1:196, 3:8, 3:12saprolites 4:683, 5:583-585

sapropelsanoxic environments 4:500-501claystones 5:30kerogenous sediments 5:34f

sarcopterygians 2:467, 2:469Sardinia 2:75, 3:655f, 5:466-468Sarmatia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f, 2:48fSask craton 4:16sassolite 3:510, 3:512?, 3:512fsatellite images 3:616?satpaevite (A112V8O37-30H2O) 3:589?Saturn

hydrogen concentrations 1:200forbital frequencies 1:41 Itphysical characteristics 5:285, 5:285?ring system 5:286, 5:286?, 5:286fsatellite system

characteristics 5:287?Dione 5:287?, 5:288Enceladus 5:287?, 5:288lapetus 5:287?, 5:287/i 5:288icy satellites 5:287Mimas 5:287, 5:287?minor satellites 5:287?, 5:288Rhea 5:287?, 5:288Tethys 5:287?, 5:288Titan 5:286, 5:287?

spacecraft missions 5:286, 5:286?telescope image 5:285f

Saturnalia 2:492Saudi Arabia

See ArabiaSauk sequence, North America 4:25, 4:26f9

4:27fSauratown Mountains anticlinorium 3:157fSaurischia

general discussion 2:492f, 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:351f

Sauropodomorpha 2:494Sauropterygia 2:484, 2:506Saussure, Horace Benedict de 3:171Saxo-Thuringian region 2:80-82, 2:81f,

2:97Sayan Mountains 4:456Sayan-Yenisei Shield 4:461scallops 4:685, 4:686fScammonden dam, England 1:53 7?, 1:53 7f9

1:538Scandinavia

Caledonian Orogeny 2:64-74Arctic Caledonides 2:71 f9 2:72fbackground information 2:64Baltica continental margin 2:65f9 2:67,

3:648Barents Shelf 2:50f, 2:64, 2:64f9 2:70eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69/", 2:71 fgeographic location 2:35fKoli Nappe Complex 2:65f, 2:67Laurentian continental margin 2:65f,

2:67Lower Allochthon 2:65f9 2:66Middle Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66Nordaustlandet Terrane 2:70-71Scandian collision 2:68

INDEX 759

Scandinavia (continued)Seve Nappe Complex 2:65 f, 2:67Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f9 2:71ftectonic evolution 2:7'3, 2:7'3ftectonic features 2:72fTertiary 2:64fthrust sheets 2:64, 2:65fUpper Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67Uppermost Allochthon 2:65/", 2:67western Scandinavia 2:64, 2:65fWest Ny Friesland Terrane

2:71-72Silurian formations 4:187f, 4:189ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:536/", 5:537scandium (Sc) 3:223*, 5:114*Scanning Multichannel Microwave

Radiometer (SMMR) 4:439scheelite (CaWO4) 3:587, 3:587*,

3:630*Schiehallion, Scotland 1:92, 1:94fSchimper, Karl2:176schist 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387, 3:388tSchizaster2:351fSchlumberger, Conrad 3:190-192, 3:191fSchmidt hammer 1:568, l:568fSchmidt hardness values 1:569fSchmidt, Walter 3:189Schmitt, Harrison 5:266*, 5:2 7OfSchneiderhohn, Hans 3:192scholzite 5:121-122Schott, Wolfgang 5:71-72, 5:77Schroter,J. 5:238schubnelite (Fe2-x(V2O4)(OH)8) 3:589tSchuchert, Charles 2:191, 2:196, 3:190schumacherite(Bi3[(V,As,P)O4]2(OH))

3:589*Sclavia4:14/; 4:16, 4:17scolecite 3:593*scoria 4:387*, 4:390*scorodite 3:508f, 3:509*scorpionflies 2:300*scorpions 4:210-211Scotch whisky 3:82Scotian basin 4:101f, 4:103, 4:96f,

4:98-100Scotian Shelf 4:88-89, 4:93f, 4:105Scotia Sea 5:468Scotland

beer brewing process 3:80*Carboniferous 4:209-210, 4:210-211,

4:212dykes 2:97-98fish 2:467flying reptiles 2:513Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:51 IfGranton Shrimp Bed, Scotland

2:455-456Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland, United

Kingdom 3:308, 3:441, 3:442fJurassic 3:352*, 5:506fnon-amniote tetrapods 2:469Ordovician 4:176, 4:178-179palaeosols 5:206f, S:207f

Permo-Carboniferousmagmatism 2:96f

Precambrian crust 4:11Silurian 4:185-186, 5:51 Ifwhisky 3:82-85

Scott, D. 5:266*Scripps Oceanographic Institute, University

of California San Diego 3:197Scriptural Geology 1:383Scyphozoa

classification 2:321life cycle 2:322fPhanerozoic 2:323

Scythian Ocean 4:459Scythian Orogeny 4:471Scythian Platform 2:35, 2:35fsea cows 5:469sea fans 2:324sea floor spreading

astronomically calibrated time-scales1:83 f

continental drift theory 3:204-205Cretaceous 3:362-363early research 3:198Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203Eocene 5:466ocean basin exploration 3:197

sea grasses 3:524/", 3:530, 4:506, 4:506f,4:564

sea-levelcarbonate rock abundances 4:504fCenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:371Cretaceous 3:360, 3:363, 3:364fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383eustatic cycles

accommodation 5:161faeolian systems 4:626, 4:626fanthropogenic hazards 1:519causal mechanisms 5:170*China 1:347fcycle charts 5:169fgeneral discussion 5:159, 5:171Holocene 2:149-150, 2.-150/", 2:151f,

2:154f,2:155fmarine fauna biodiversity 1:261North Africa 1:21Phanerozoic 4:26friver system development 4:660-661,

4:662fsequence stratigraphy 5:17IfSuess, Eduard 2:235, 2:235/,

3:182tectonic processes 5:17Ifunconformities 5:546/", 5:547f

glaciation 4:664*large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fmass extinctions 3:383Milankovich cycles 5:170, 5:170*Miocene 5:482Oligocene 5:473, 5:474fsequence stratigraphy 4:26^, 5:159,

5:166,5:171shorelines and shelves 4:573Triassic 3:347, 3:347f

seamounts 4:475-484aseismic ridges 4:476-477, 4:482Atlantic Margin 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95Cretaceous 4:480development process

deep-water stage 4:480emergent stage 4:481flat top formation 4:481growth stages 4:48Ifguyot stage 4:481ocean island stage 4:481shoaling stage 4:480

faulting 5:435f, 5:436fgeneral discussion 4:475geochemical composition 4:475geophysical characteristics 4:475global distribution 4:476,

4:476/; 4:477*habitat importance 4:482hydrothermal activity 4:482intraplate seamounts 4:477, 4:479fisland arcs 4:479large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:316*,

3:318,3:322mantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424mid-ocean ridges 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479morphology 4:480mud volcanoes 4:480nomenclature 4:484occurrence 3:316*oceanic circulation 4:482ocean islands 4:475-476palaeomagnetism 4:479seamount chains 4:476-477, 4:479fspatial arrangement 4:476-477,

4:479fsubduction effects 4:482, 4:483fvolcanoes 5:566

Sea of Galilee 1:27fSea of Marmara 1:254Sea of Okhotsk 4:470, 4:47Of, 4:471,

4:472fsea pens 2:321-322, 2:323/", 2:324searlesite (NaBSi2O6-H2O) 3:513*sea snakes 2:505seasonal beach profiles 4:572fsea turtles 2:505, 2:505fsea urchins 2:350seawater

Cambrian 4:165chemical composition 2:17,

4:165,5:96Cretaceous 3:367dolomitization 5:91evaporites 5:94magnesium/calcium (Mg/Ca) ratios

3:367sulphate concentrations 5:94, 5:95

Secodontosaurus 2:488-489Sederholm,Jakob3:187Sedgwick, Adam 2:216-220

background information 2:216Cambrian stratigraphy 2:211Darwin, Charles 2:184-185geological research 2:216, 4:176

760 INDEX

Sedgwick, Adam (continued)Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:217,

4:176,4:185petrology 3:178portrait 2:217fSmith, William 2:223-224stratigraphic controversy 2:211, 3:179,

4:176,4:185stratigraphic subdivisions 4:194university career 3:74

sedimentary basinsAndes Mountains 1:123, 1.-123/J 1:126,

1:129back-arc basins 2:135-146

Caucasus-Black Sea region 4:471East European Craton 3:648, 3:650Mediterranean region 3:654plate tectonics theory 1:440fsediment accumulation 3:597Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247, l:248f,

1:249basin formation 2:96, 2:101 fBrazil

Amazonas basin 1:316f, 1:317fBarreirinhas basin l:326fCampos basin l:321f, l:322fCeara basin 1:325fcontinental margin basins 1:316f,

1:325eastern Brazilian margin basins l:321f,

l:322f, 1:325equatorial margin basins l:324f,

l:325f, 1:326, l:326fEspirito Santo basin l:321f, 1:322fgeneral discussion 1:306, 1:324geographic distribution 1:306finterior rifts l:316f, 1:327, 1:327fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

l:319fPalaeozoic sag basins l:316f, l:317f,

l:318f, 1:324Para-Maranhao basin 1:325fParana basin 1:314, 1:316/", 1:317/",

1:318f, l:319f, l:320f, 1:324Parnaiba basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318fPotiguar basin 1.-325/", l:326f, 1:327fReconcavo basin 1:327fSantos basin 1:32If, 1:322fSergipe-Alagoas basin l:322fSolimoes basin 1.-316/", 1:317f, 1:318fstratigraphy 1:317f

Central Armorican Basin 2:96denudation history analysis l:46f,

1:52-53East European Craton 4:456, 4:457f,

4:458f, 4:460fEurope

Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117Anisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk

palaeogeography 2:11 OfAptian-Albian palaeogeography

2:116fBajocian-Bathonian palaeogeography

2:112fbasin formation 2:102

Berriasian-Valanginianpalaeogeography 2:115f

Cenozoic 2:122fCretaceous 2:113, 2:117East European Craton 4:456, 4:457f,

4:458f, 4:460fEocene 2:117geological map legend 2:123fhydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs2:103/",2:122/"Jurassic 2:108Kimmeridgian-Tithonian

palaeogeography 2:114fMiocene 2:120North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,

2:119f,2:121f,2:122fOligocene 2:120, 2:121fPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fPermian 2:105Rhaetian-Hettangian

palaeogeography 2:11 Ifrifting events 2:105Scythian-Bundsandstein

palaeogeography 2:109fsea-level changes 2:105Senonian-Danian palaeogeography

2:118 fthermal subsidence 2:105, 2:117Triassic 2:105western/central Europe 2:105,

2:113wrench tectonics 2:102Zechstein palaeogeography 2:107f

fore-arc basinsaccretionary wedges 5:307, 5:308f,

5:311 f,5:313fAndes Mountains

central Andes 1:125, 1:126general discussion 1:118southern Andes 1:127

Mediterranean region 3:654ocean trenches 5:431seamounts 4:482, 4:483fsediment accumulation 3:597

foreland basins 1:118-131gravity measurements 1:99,1:99f, 1:103,

1:103f, l:104fIndian Sub-Continent 3:290Mediterranean region 2:144North Africa 1:13, l:13fNorth German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,

2:101fPermo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124isopachs2:103/"Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f9 2:97North German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,

2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99

Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,2:101f

tectonic processes 2:102Variscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

petroleum exploration 4:295-307accumulation conditions 4:296fappraisal methods

deterministic models 4:302, 4:305fgeneral discussion 4:301Hubbert's peak 4:305fMonte Carlo technique 4:305fstatistical methods 4:302, 4:304f,

4:3 05 fsubjective methods 4:302

background information 4:295expected monetary value 4:295exploration costs 4:306, 4:307texploration drilling 4:304, 4:306fexploration methods

computer-based seismicinterpretation systems 4:3 03f

geological analysis 4:295, 4:297f^4:298f

geophysical techniques 4:296gravity measurements 4:296, 4:299fhydrocarbon identification

techniques 4:3 01 fmagnetic profiles 4:296, 4:299fremote sensing 4:298f

petroleum agreements 4:306seismic surveys

basic principles 4:296, 4:299ffour-dimensional (4D) seismic

surveys 4:302foffshore seismic surveys 4:3 00fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic cube

4:3 04 fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

seismic surveys 4:3 01 f, 4:3 04ftwo-dimensional (2D) seismic

surveys 4:3 00fwire-line drilling 4:306f

rift valleys 5:441, 5:441fRussia 4:456, 4:459f, 4:463f, 4:473Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,

2:101 fsaline basins 1:123 , 1:126sediment fluxes 5:17-24

basic principles 5:17, 5:18fbasin processes 5:20, 5:2Of, 5:21fcontrolling factors

climate 5:18general discussion 5:17landslides 5:17, 5:19frainfall 5:17, 5:19frivers 5:19tsediment characteristics 5:2 Oftectonic processes 5:18transport mechanisms 5:17, 5:19fweathering 5:17

rock types 5:22sediment budgets 5:23temporal variations 5:22, 5:22f, 5:23f

INDEX 761

sedimentary basins (continued]wind blown sediment 5:21

Siberian craton 4:463fTunguska basin 4:461West Siberian Basin 4:457f, 4:468

sedimentary environmentsalluvial environments 4:492-494

alluvial fans 4:492deserts 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542facies analysis 4:489frudaceous rocks 5:135, 5:138f

alluvions 4:492alluvium

densities 5:321fground subsidence 2:13shock metamorphic effects 5:180t

anthropogenic impact 4:493colluvial fans 4:492composition factors 4:492fluvial deposits 4:493Holocene 4:493nomenclature 4:492riverine deposits 4:492stratigraphic dating 4:492

anoxic environments 4:495-501dysaerobic assemblages 4:497, 4:498feuxinic environments 4:495-496formation processes 4:499identification process 4:495

biofacies 4:497, 4:499fblack shales 4:496-497fossils 4:497, 4:498fpyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497f

modern environments 4:495oceans 3:363, 3:370-371, 4:497oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ)

4:495, 4:496fsapropels 4:500-501silled basins 4:495, 4:496fsuperanoxic event 4:499upwelling zones 4:495, 4:496f

carbonate shorelines and shelves4:501-513

Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509 f, 4:51 OfAtlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103 fattached rimmed carbonate ramp,

temperate environment 3:528,4:511, 4:511f,4:512f

attached rimmed carbonate ramp,tropical environment 3:528,4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of

attached rimmed carbonate shelf3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f

beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135carbonate rock abundances 4:S04fcarbonate sands 4:506f9 4:508f,

4:509f, 4:5Wfcomposition 4:501Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:93f,

4:505, 4:505f, 4:506fglobal distribution 4:503fGreat Bahama Bank 4:503 f, 4:505f,

4:507, 4:S08flimestones 4:505-506, 5:110, 5:lllfmorphology 4:502-504, 4:504f

north-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:511,4:511 f,4:512f

oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:51 Ofreef environments 4:562-570

acritarchs 3:427fatolls 4:481, 4:564background information 4:562bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:563fbarrier reefs 4:564bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:563fCambrian 4:565carbonate sedimentation 1:343f,

3:523f, 3:529Carboniferous 4:565-566Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,

3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565examples 4:502fextinction events 4:565-566,

4:566-567floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:564fFlorida-Bahamas shelf region

4:506f, 4:507framestone 3:527f, 4:5 62f,

4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569ffringing reefs 4:564, 4:568fJurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567flagoons 4:564Miocene 4:568f, 4:569fmodern reef formation 4:562morphology 4:562, 4:568fpatch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564Permian 4:565-566, 4:566frudists 4:567f, 4:567-568rudstone 3:52 7/j 4:562-563,

4:564fSilurian 4:565stromatolites 3:524f, 4:565Tertiary 4:568-569Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567Walther, Johannes 2:244zonation 4:562

sediment accumulation 4:502seismic profile 4:503fsequence stratigraphy 5:166unattached rimmed carbonate shelf

4:507, 4:508fcontourites 4:513-527

background information 4:513deep-water bottom currents 4:514,

4:514f, 4:515, 4:517fdeep-water sediments 4:645-646facies analysis

grain analysis 4:523, 4:524f, 4:525f,4:5 26 f

palaeoclimate 4:513-514petroleum exploration 4:513-514seismic characteristics 4:523slope stability studies 4:513-514

facies continuum 4:526geographic distribution 4:516fhistorical background 4:514

sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f, 4:520f,4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648

seismic characteristicsfacies analysis 4:523identification process 4:522fsediment body 4:522, 4:523funits 4:522

terminology 4:515, 4:517tcratons 5:177deep water processes 4:641-649

channel systems 4:648continental slopes 4:642f, 4:646deep continental margins 4:648deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:648oozes 4:648Quaternary sediment accumulations

4:641-642, 4:642fseafloor morphology 4:641, 4:642fsediment drifts 4:648sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,

4:646tsediment sources 4:642, 4:642fsubmarine canyons 4:646transport processes

atmospheric circulation 4:644biota 4:645gravity-driven processes 4:644ocean currents 4:643submarine landslides 4:644-645turbidity currents 4:644volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645wind blown sediment 4:644

depositional structures 4:593-602basic principles

bedding 4:593bedload transport 4:593fine-grained sediments 4:594lamination 4:594plane bed transport 4:597-598suspension processes 4:593upper flow regime transport 4:597,

4:598fbedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596,4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599foccurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599f

762 INDEX

sedimentary environments (continued)wave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fdecelerating flow structures 4:600flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601flamination

aeolian systems 4:599aqueous bedforms 4:594Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fcross-lamination 4:594, 4:595ffine-grained sediments 4:594heterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599f

pebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601fstructureless features 4:600

facies analysis 4:485-491architectural elements 4:488, 4:489fbounding surfaces 4:488depositional environment

allocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490autocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490cyclothems 4:487, 4:488ffacies succession 4:486, 4:488fflooding surfaces 4:488f, 4:491grain size analysis 4:485-486,

4:487, 4:488ferosion surfaces 4:490, 4:490fgeological proxies 4:131glacigenic sediments 4:675, 4:675fhistorical background 4:485interbedded environments 4:486,

4:486f, 4:580models 4:490, 4:580scheme varieties 4:485sequence stratigraphy 4:490, 4:490fstorm deposits 4:580Walther's Law of the Correlation of

Facies 4:487, 4:487ffluvial geomorphology 4:650-663

abrasion analysis 4:655fbraided river systems 4:656f, 4:657f,

4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139fchannel networks 4:650fchannel patterns 4:656, 4:656/,

4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659fdeserts 4:S41f, 4:542downstream fining 4:655fdrainage basins 4:657, 4:660fflood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660fflood frequency 4:653-654, 4:654ffloodplain classification 4:658t, 4:658fflood plains 3:90f, 3:91 fgeneral discussion 4:650grain size analysis 4:654, 4:655flandforms 4:654material transfer process 4:651,

4:651t,4:652f,4:653fmeandering river systems 3:90f9

4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659fnetwork development

eustatic cycles 4:660-661, 4:662fmodels 4:661 f

time factors 4:659petroleum reservoirs 4:235tsediment transport 4:653f, 4:654fsolute transfer 4:65Itstraight river systems 4:656f, 4:659fstream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

geoarchaeology 3:14, 3:15fglaciers 4:663-678

Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,4:664?, 4:664f, 4:665f

background information 4:663characteristics

deformation mechanisms 4:667,4:667f

glacier flow 4:667, 4:667fmass balance 4:665, 4:666fmorphology 4:664regelation 4:667, 4:668fstructure 4:667, 4:669fthermal regime 4:666, 4:666f

cirque glacier 4:664debris entrainment 4:671, 4:673fdeposition

braided river systems 4:676drumlins 4:676eskers 4:677, 4:677fflutes 4:676, 4:677fglacigenic sediments 4:134, 4:675,

4:675fice-marginal landforms 4:676kames 4:676marine environments 4:677moraines 4:676, 4:677fprocesses 4:671, 4:674fsubglacial landforms 4:676, 4:677f

erosionaretes 4:670, 4:672fcirques 4:670, 4:672fcrescentic gouges

4:668-669, 4:670ffjords 4:670, 4:672fhorns 4:670, 4:672ficebergs 4:670-671landforms 4:668, 4:670f, 4:671fmarine environments 4:670microchannels 4:668-669, 4:670fprocesses 4:668roches moutonnees 4:669-670,

4:671fstriations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671ftunnel valleys 4:670-671

global distribution 4:663, 4:663?,4:664f

Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,4:664?, 4:664f

ice caps 4:665fice sheets 4:664sea-level effects 4:664?valley glacier 4:664, 4:666f

karst landscapes 4:678-687biokarst 4:679, 4:681fcaves (endokarst)

carbonate sedimentation 3:523fcave features 4:684f

general discussion 4:684paragenetic canyons 4:684f,

4:684-685, 4:685fscallops 4:685, 4:686fspeleothems 4:686, 4:686fvadose canyons 4:684f, 4:685f

classification scheme 4:683fclimatic effects 5:585clints 4:680, 4:682fcone karst 4:682-683cryokarst 4:679dissolution processes 1:550-551,

1:55If, 4:679drainage 4:683exhumed karst 4:679fluviokarst 4:682glaciokarst 4:682, 4:682fgrikes 4:680, 4:682finterstratal karst 4:686landscape development 4:683palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686fpseudokarst 4:679relict karst 4:679, 4:683frunnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681 f,

4:682fsolution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680,

4:680f, 4:682fsolution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680,

4:682fsurface karst (exokarst)

dolines 4:682f, 4:684fgeneral discussion 4:680lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681flarge-scale karst (karst landscapes)

4:682limestone pedastals 4:68Ifmedium-scale karst (karst

landforms) 4:681small-scale karst (karren) 4:680,

4:680fsolution pits 4:681f

tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683fweathering processes 5:583

lakes 4:550-561biological processes

biogenic silica 4:556calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 4:556diatomite 4:556organic matter 4:557

borate deposits 3:517calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 4:556,

4:557, 4:558fchemical processes

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:557evaporites 4:557, 4:559fmarl 4:557

general discussion 4:550hydrothermal processes 4:558physical processes

anoxic environments 4:550-551beaches 4:552, 4:554f, 5:135currents 4:552flacustrine deltas 4:552, 4:553fmass failure 4:554river inflow 4:552, 4:552f

INDEX 763

sedimentary environments (continued)seiche 4:551f, 4:551-552spits 4:554fsubsurface currents 4:552f, 4:554,

4:555fsurface currents 4:554thermocline 4:551 fturbidites 4:552f, 4:554-556,

4:555fvarves 4:554, 4:555fvertical mixing 4:550, 4:551fwater-column structure 4:550

playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517tectonic processes 4:558, 4:560f

long-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:33 8f,1:339 f

parasequences 5:lllf, 5:160particle-driven subaqueous gravity

processes 5:1-7deep water processes 4:644definition 5:1depositional sequences

bypass flows 5:6deposition process 5:6, 5:7ferosion 5:6

flow initiation mechanismsriver-derived flows 5:1sediment resuspension 5:1slope failure 5:1terrestrial input 5:1

flow typescreeps 5:2debris flows 5:2, 5:3fdense, deformed flows 5:2dense, undeformed flows 5:2flow transformations 5:3grain flows 5:2mudflows 5:2rockfalls 5:2slumps and slides 5:2turbidity currents 5:3, 5:3/", 5:5f

grain transport mechanismsbuoyancy 5:2hindered settling 5:2, 5:2fmatrix strength 5:2, 5:2fparticle-particle interactions 5:2,

5:2fturbulence 5:2, 5:2f

influencing factorschannelised flow 5:5, 5:5fconfined flows 5:6flow duration 5:4flow velocity 5:4momentum loss 5:4run-out length 5:4spatial changes 5:4, 5:5ftemporal changes 5:4unconfined flows 5:6

post-depositional structures 4:602-611climatically induced structures

desiccation 4:609, 4:609fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:610fperiglacial deformation 4:610raindrop impressions 4:610

concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611fdeforming forces

burial alteration processes 4:604density inversions 4:604, 4:605fdown-slope gravitational forces

4:603-604, 4:605fglaciation 4:604liquefaction 1:525-534, 4:604,

4:605f, 4:606soft-sediment deformation processes

deforming forces 4:603, 4:605fgeneral discussion 4:602shear strength loss 4:603, 4:605f

soft-sediment deformation structuresconvolute lamination 4:604, 4:606fdescriptions 4:605fdish and pillar structures 4:606,

4:607fextruded sheets 4:607general discussion 4:604load casts 4:604, 4:605fmud diapirs 4:607, 4:608foverturned cross-bedding 4:606,

4:606fpseudonodules 4:604sand injection structures 4:607sand volcanoes 4:607, 4:608fsedimentary growth faults 4:608,

4:609fslumps and slides 4:607

sand 5:141-151carbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f,

4:509f, 4:5Wfcompaction 5:142, 5:145fdetrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f,

5:143tdiagenesis

diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144fdiagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146,

5:147fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145,

5:145f, 5:148, 5:149fquantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f

geophysical techniques l:490f, 1:494fgeotechnical properties 3:104tgrain size analysis 5:141liquefaction 1:525nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f, 4:646toolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:509f,

4:510, 4:S10fpermeability 5:149, 5:149f9 5:150fpetroleum reservoirs 4:23 6fphysical properties 1:4831porosity

diagenetic impact 5:149mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpermeability 5:149f, 5:150fpetroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233f

photomicrograph 5:141fsand boils 1:526, l:526f, l:533fshock metamorphic effects 5:183tsorting 5:141, 5:141fvoid redistribution 1:526, l:526f

sediment deposition processes 5:8-17Appalachians 4:73bedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596,..4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15,

5:15fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599flongitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15fmud waves 5:15occurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:5 74 f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599,4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

controlling factorsaggregation 5:9, 5:10fboundary layer turbulence 5:10,

5:11 f

flocculation factor 5:1 Offlow characteristics 5:10, 5:llfsettling velocity 5:8, 5:9f

critical suspension conditions 5:11,5:12f

currents 5:14deposition rates 5:13, 5:14ferosion diagram 5:12ffractionation 5:14general discussion 5:13long-term carbon cycle l:336f, l:338f,

1:339 fnepheloid layers 5:13, 5:14pelagic flux 5:12shear stress limitations 5:14short-term carbon cycle 1:335,1:33 6f,

1:337'fsuspension transport criteria 5:11,

5:12fturbulent boundary layers 5:13viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:1 If

sediment fluxes 5:17-24basic principles 5:17, 5:18fbasin processes 5:20, 5:2 0/j 5:21fcontrolling factors

764 INDEX

sedimentary environments (continued]climate 5:18general discussion 5:17landslides 5:17, 5:19frainfall 5:17, S:19frivers 5:19tsediment characteristics 5:2Oftectonic processes 5:18transport mechanisms 5:17, 5:19fweathering 5:17

rock types 5:22sediment budgets 5:23temporal variations 5:22, 5:22f, 5:23fwind blown sediment 5:21

sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,4:646t

short-term carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f,1:337'f

unidirectional aqueous flow 5:548-556background information 5:548bedform type 5:554, 5:554fboundary layer structure 5:549, 5:550fboundary shear stress estimation 5:550coherent flow structure 5:548, 5:551flow separation 5:552, 5:552f, 5:554ffree shear layers 5:553Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552/",

5:552-553laminar flows 5:548, 5:549particle roughness 5:553f, 5:554porous beds 5:556, 5:556fstress-strain relationships 5:549,

5:549fsubcritical flows 5:548-549, 5:549fsuspended sediment characteristics

5:554, 5:554f, 5:555fturbulent flows

boundary layer structure 5:549clay concentrations 5:555flaminar-turbulent transition 5:552fprocesses 5:548turbulent boundary layers 5:551,

5:55 Ifvortices 5:551, 5:552f

velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f9 5:5 54f,5:555f

viscous sublayer 5:550, 5:550fSee also shorelines and shelves

sedimentary rocksallochthonous (detrital) sediments

classification 5:26, 5:26tconglomerates 5:26general discussion 5:26

aragonite (CaCO3)bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372fchemical diagenesis 1:394gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383fhydrothermal vents 5:394tironstones 5:99lacustrine deposits 4:558limestones 5:108, 5:W8toccurrence 5:108toolitic sands 4:510-511ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533f

autochthonous sediments 5:26t, 5:30biosediments 1:279-294

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 1:291, 1:292^, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

biofilms 1:283, 1:283 fbiomarkers 1:292, 1:293 fbiosignatures 1:285, l:285tchemical fossils 1:293filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367'f,

4:368geographic distribution 1:280f, 1:282glossary information 1:294microbial effects

precipitation processes 1:284,l:284t

trapping and binding 1:285microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,

4:223-224, 4:377microfossils

fossilization process 1:288interpretive processes 1:288, 1:292foldest microfossils 1:291, l:292f

significance 1:282stromatolites

Archaean stromatolites. SeeArchaean; stromatolites

biosediments 1:285biosignatures l:285tformation processes 1:287f9 1:28 8t,

3:109interpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556physical properties l:286fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124,4:125fbreccia 5:129chalk 5:42-50

brewing process 3:80tchalk sea

cyclic sedimentation 5:48, 5:48forbital forcing 5:48palaeogeography 5:43f, 5:46

Coccolithophoridae 4:556, 5:42,5:43f, 5:44, 5:45 f, 5:112

cognac 3:85composition 5:42Cretaceous 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367,

5:42, 5:43f, S:4Sf, 5:46depositional environment 5:110facies analysis 5:44, 5:45f9 5:46fgeotechnical properties 1:549t,

1:551-552,3:202*ground transitions 5:44, 5:48fgroundwater aquifers 5:48hydrocarbon reservoirs 5:48ichnofabric 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47flacustrine deposits 4:556mining techniques 1:434North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPalaeocene 5:461fpelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45 f,

5:47fpermeability 5:48-49, 5:49f

physical properties l:483tporosity l:549t, 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49fresedimentation 5:44-46wine geology 3:87

chemical diagenesis 1:394chert

Archaean 4:351, 4:368banded ironstone formations (BIFs)

5:38classification 4:454, 5:26teukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361fGunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f,

4:367-368nodules 4:385North American continental interior

4:29, 4:30foccurrence 5:35-36, 5:53prokaryotes 4:368Rhynie chert

arthropods (Arthropoda)2:274-275, 2:277

fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310tgeneral discussion 3:310thydrothermal activity 5:59-60,

5:61flichens 2:441-442

classification 4:453t, 5:25-37allochthonous (detrital) sediments

5:26, 5:26tanomalies 4:454autochthonous sediments 5:26, 5:26tconglomerates 5:26differentiation techniques 4:453,

4:4S4fformation processes 4:452fgeneral discussion 4:452mineralogy 5:25

clays. See claysconglomerates

classification 5:2 6?grain analysis 5:26rudaceous rocks 5:26, 5:26t9 5:129,

5:139funconformities 5:544

contourites 4:513-527background information 4:513deep-water bottom currents 4:514,

4:514f, 4:515, 4:517fdeep-water sediments 4:645-646facies analysis

grain analysis 4:523, 4:524f, 4:525f,4:526f

palaeoclimate 4:513-514petroleum exploration 4:513-514seismic characteristics 4:523slope stability studies 4:513-514

facies continuum 4:526geographic distribution 4:516fhistorical background 4:514sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f, 4:520f,

4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648seismic characteristics

facies analysis 4:523

INDEX 765

sedimentary rocks (continued]identification process 4:522fsediment body 4:522, 4:523funits 4:522

terminology 4:515, 4:517tdepositional structures 4:593-602

basic principlesbedding 4:593bedload transport 4:593fine-grained sediments 4:594lamination 4:594plane bed transport 4:597-598suspension processes 4:593upper flow regime transport 4:597,

4:S98fbedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599foccurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f9

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599,4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601 fdecelerating flow structures 4:600flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601flamination

aeolian systems 4:599aqueous bedforms 4:594Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fcross-lamination 4:594, 4:595ffine-grained sediments 4:594heterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599^undulating lamination 4:599,4:599f

pebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601fstructureless features 4:600

diagenesischemical diagenesis 1:394ironstones 5:102flimestones 5:112physical diagenesis 1:393, l:394fsandstones 1:394

dolomite 5:79-94Mps2:131famphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:220, 3:221*

cementation 5:143chemical diagenesis 1:394classification 4:454, 5:26tcomposition 5:79densities 5:321fdiagenetic processes 5:145fdolomitization

anhydrite replacement 5:84fcarbonate diagenesis 3:531dolostone development 5:85fenvironmental settings 5:88hypersaline environments 5:90hyposaline environments 5:89limestone dolomitization 5:86fmass balance constraints 5:80matrix replacement 5:83fmicrobial/organogenic models 5:88mixing zone model 5:89molds 5:84fpenecontemporaneous dolomites

5:88reflux model 5:90sabkha model 5:90-91seawater dolomitization 5:91subsurface environments 5:91textural evolution 5:82vugs 5:83f

formation processes 5:79general discussion 5:79geochemistry

general discussion 5:84isotope studies 5:85, 5:89frecrystallization 5:86-87, 5:89f

grain analysis 5:30, 5:31fhydrothermal activity 5:87-88, 5:9Ofkarst landscapes 4:679kinetic constraints 5:80limestones 5:107-108mass balance constraints 5:80metamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:401fNorth Africa 1:24permeability 5:83, 5:88fpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235,

4:23 6 fpore size classification 5:81, 5:82fporosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 5:83, 5:88fsaddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f, 5:87f,

5:87-88secular distribution 5:93textural classification 5:81, 5:8Ifthermodynamic constraints 5:80ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533ferosion surfaces 4:587-593

catastrophic floods 4:635fchannels 4:592, 4:592ferosional sole marks

chevron marks 4:591, 4:591 fdevelopmental stages 4:589ffluid turbulence 4:589flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590fgeneral discussion 4:588gutter casts 4:590, 4:590flongitudinal furrows 4:590obstacle scours 4:589, 4:589f, 4:591

tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591fway-up indicators 4:588-589

facies analysis 4:490, 4:490fpalaeosols 5:207fprocesses

abrasion 4:588cohesiveness 4:588, 4:588fcritical erosion velocity 4:588,

4:588fsurface structures 4:591

evaporites 5:94-97Alps 2:132anhydrite

classification 5:26tdensities 5:32Ifgeotechnical properties 1:552hydrothermal ore deposits

3:631-632, 5:394thydrothermal vents 5:391occurrence 5:32fporosity 1:5 52t

Arabia 1:141Arabian Gulf 4:511borate deposits 3:517calcium brines 5:95, 5:96Cambrian 4:165classification 4:454, 5:26*composition 5:94Cretaceous 3:365densities 5:32Ifevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:610fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 1:552tgypsum 3:572-573

classification 5:26t, 5:394tcrystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties 1:552,

3:102tground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572porosity l:552tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

halite (NaCl)brewing process 3:80classification 5:26tdensities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:610fgeotechnical properties 1:552,

3:102tground subsidence 2:12karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558,

4:559fporosity l:552tseawater evaporation

deposits 5:94hydrothermal deposits 5:95lacustrine deposits 4:557, 4:559fnitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556*non-rift basins 5:96North Africa 1:21, 1:24

766 INDEX

sedimentary rocks (continued)North American continental interior

4:28, 4:29foccurrence 5:31palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134,

4:138-139palaeoterranes 5:458porosity 1:5 52trift valleys 5:95sea water chemistry 4:165, 5:96seawater evaporation deposits 5:94Silurian 4:193sulphate concentrations 5:94, 5:95sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95

flintconchoidal fractures 4:3 84fmining techniques l:434fnodules 4:385occurrence 5:35-36

gemstones 3:13geological research (1835-1900) 3:184gypsum 3:572-573

classification 5:26tcrystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties

1:552,3:102*ground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal vents 5:394tkarst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572porosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

halite (Nad)Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80carbonatites 3:22Itclassification 5:26tdensities 5:32Ifevaporite pseudomorphs

4:610, 4:610ffluid inclusions 5:97geotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629*karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559fpetroleum geology 4:229-230phase diagram 5:37Ifporosity 1:5 52tseawater evaporation deposits 5:94

ironstones 5:97-107background information 5:97banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:37-42

ancient sedimentary rockassociations 3:494-495

Archaean 4:351, 5:40background information 5:37banding 5:38, S:38fbanding continuity 5:39classification 5:37definition 5:37economic deposits 1:438-439future research 5:41

global distribution 5:39Indian Sub-Continent 3:286, 3:287lithologic associations 5:40metamorphism 5:39mineralogy 5:38nomenclature 5:37occurrence 5:33-34origins 5:40tectonic processes 5:39temporal distribution 5:39Vendian 4:372weathering processes 3:489

blackband ironstonesdiagenesis 5:102ferruginization process 5:103,

5:104fgeneral description 5:99occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

bog iron ores 5:101, 5:102classification 4:454, 5:26*claystone ironstones

diagenesis 5:102, 5:102fferruginization process 5:103,

5:104fgeneral description 5:100photomicrograph 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:100f

definition 5:98depositional environment 5:101diagenesis S:102fferruginization process 5:103, 5:104f,

5:105fferruginous peloids 5:101, 5:103glossary information 5:106lithification 5:101mineralogy 5:98nodules 4:385nomenclature 5:98occurrence 5:33ooidal ironstones

background information 5:97-98diagenesis 5:102-103ferruginization process 5:103-105,

5:105 fgeneral description 5:100occurrence 5:34photomicrograph 5:35/j 5:99fsedimentation depth 5:101f

stratigraphic record 5:106tectonic setting 5:106verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545/",

3:547,5:101kerogenous sediments 4:454, 5:26*, 5:33,

5:34flimestones 5:107-113

aggregates 1:35Alps 2:131fbryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319fclassification 4:454, 5:26*, 5:110comparison with sandstones 5:107densities 5:321fdepositional environment 5:110,

5:110f,5:lllf

diagenesis 5:112dissolution processes 1:550, 1:550fdolomitization 5:107-108, 5:112economic importance 5:112encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349fgeotechnical properties 1:549, 1:549*,

l:550f,3:102tgrain analysis 5:30, 5:30f, 5:107,

5:108, 5:109fkarst landscapes 1:550-551, I:551f9

4:679matrix composition 5:110mineralogy 5:108, 5:108tnomenclature 5:110nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24fOrdovician4:lS2/"Pagoda Limestone 4:178-179petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235physical properties l:483tporosity 1:549*, 4:234f, 5:107-108Proterozoic 4:351shorelines and shelves 4:505-506,

5:110, Silllfmagnesite (MgCO3) 5:31, 5:108, 5:108tmicas 3:550mineralogical classification 5:25-37mudrocks

bentonite illitization 5:65chlorite 5:65, 5:65fgeotechnical properties 1:548geothermometry 5:64-65illite crystallinity 5:65kaolinite 5:65, 5:66fpetroleum geology 4:229-230sharpness ratio 5:65smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f

mudstone 1:548,3:102*opal 5:26*, 5:35-36palaeoterranes 5:458phosphates

bedded phosphates 5:34-35classification 5:26*guano 5:26*, 5:35, 5:35foccurrence 5:34placer deposits 5:34-35

physical diagenesis 1:393, l:394fplagioclase 3:538-539post-depositional structures 4:602-611

climatically induced structuresdesiccation 4:609, 4:609fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:61 Ofperiglacial deformation 4:610raindrop impressions 4:610

concretions 4:61 Of, 4:611, 4:61 Ifdeforming forces

burial alteration processes 4:604density inversions 4:604, 4:605fdown-slope gravitational forces

4:603-604, 4:605fglaciation 4:604liquefaction 1:525-534, 4:604,

4:605f, 4:606soft-sediment deformation processes

deforming forces 4:603, 4:605f

INDEX 767

sedimentary rocks (continued)general discussion 4:602shear strength loss 4:603, 4:605f

soft-sediment deformation structuresconvolute lamination 4:604, 4:606fdescriptions 4:605fdish and pillar structures 4:606,

4:607fextruded sheets 4:607general discussion 4:604load casts 4:604, 4:605fmud diapirs 4:607, 4:608foverturned cross-bedding 4:606,

4:606fpseudonodules 4:604sand injection structures 4:607sand volcanoes 4:607, 4:608fsedimentary growth faults 4:608,

4:609fslumps and slides 4:607

quartz (SiO2) 3:571residual sediments

classification 5:26tformation processes 5:33foccurrence 5:31

rudaceous rocks 5:129-141alluvial fans 5:135, 5:138fbackground information 5:129beaches 5:133, 5:136f9 5:137f, 5:138fbraided river systems 5:137, 5:138,

5:139 fcomposition 5:134fconglomerates 5:26, 5:26t, 5:129,

5:139fdeep-water deposits 5:140imbrication 5:133, 5:139importance 5:140natural occurrences 5:131stream beds 5:132, 5:135fterminology 5:129textures

clast form notation 5:130, 5:13If,5:132f

form variations 5:133fgeneral discussion 5:129particle size 5:129roundness 5:129, 5:130/i 5:134fsphericity 5:129, S:134f

till 5:139sand 5:141-151

carbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f,4:509/, 4:5lOf

compaction 5:142, 5:145fdetrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f,

5:143tdiagenesis

diagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144fdiagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146, 5:147fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145f,

5:145, 5:148, 5:149f

quantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f

geophysical techniques 1:490f, 1:494fgeotechnical properties 3:104tgrain size analysis 5:141oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f9 4:509f,

4:510, 4:5'10fpermeability 5:149, 5:149f9 S:150fpetroleum reservoirs 4:23 6fphysical properties 1:4831porosity

diagenetic impact 5:149mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpermeability 5:149f, 5:15Ofpetroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233fphotomicrograph 5:141f

shock metamorphic effects 5:183tsorting 5:141, 5:141f

sandstonesArabia 1:141arkoses 5:27t, 5:29fBiblical geology 1:256chlorite 5:69, 5:69tclassification 5:26t, 5:27tcomparison with limestones 5:107composition 5:27densities 5:321fdiagenesis

cements 5:143, 5:143tdiagenetic controls 5:150diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144ffluid inclusion analysis 5:146,

5:147fgrain analysis 1:394illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68fisotope analysis 5:146, 5:148fkaolinite 5:66, 5:66fmineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,

5:147fpetroleum emplacement 5:145,

5:145f, 5:148, 5:149fquantification analysis 5:146radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f,

5:69smectites 5:67

geotechnical properties 1:547, 3:102tglauconite 5:27, 5:69grain analysis 5:27, 5:27/", 5:107,

5:141greywackes 3:102t, 5:27t, 5:28fmicas 5:143tmineralogy 5:143tpetroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235t,

4:236f, 4:239f, 4:243fphysical properties 1:483tporosity 4:232, 4:233fquartzites 5:2 7£, 5:29fquartz wackes 5:27t, 5:28frock classification 5:142fzeolites 3:597

sediment deposition processes 5:8-17bedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597

bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15,

S:15fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599flongitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15fmud waves 5:15occurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599,

4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f,

4:599fcontrolling factors

aggregation 5:9, 5:1 Ofboundary layer turbulence 5:10,

5:1 Ifflocculation factor 5:10fflow characteristics 5:10, 5:11 fsettling velocity 5:8, 5:9f

critical suspension conditions 5:11,5:12f

currents 5:14deposition rates 5:13, 5:14ferosion diagram 5:12ffractionation 5:14general discussion 5:13nepheloid layers 5:13, 5:14pelagic flux 5:12shear stress limitations 5:14suspension transport criteria 5:11,

S:12fturbulent boundary layers 5:13viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:1 If

shalesanoxic environments 4:496-497Arabia 1:141Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185black shales

anoxic environments 4:193,4:496-497

bedded cherts 5:54fossils 4:497, 4:498fGondwana 3:129North Africa 1:21, l:22fNorth American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPhosphoria Formation, United

States 4:500Silurian 4:193

768 INDEX

sedimentary rocks (continued)Burgess Shale

arthropods (Arthropoda)2:274-275

bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general discussion 3:310tinsects 2:296obrution 3:310, 3:311 fOpabinia3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

classification 5:26?, 5:28densities 5:32Ifgeotechnical properties 1:548, 3:102tPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

3:310?, 3:311, 4:384fSenzeilles Shale, Belgium 5:454weathering 1:548

siderite (FeCO3)chemical diagenesis 1:394classification 5:26?grain analysis 5:31limestones 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:108t

siliceous sediments 5:26?, 5:35siltstone 5:26?, 5:28site classification 2:3?stratification 4:454, 5:25sulphide minerals 3:585-586Vendian 4:376, 4:379fzeolites 3:596zircon 3:602

sediment deposition processes 5:8-17bedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597/i

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15,5:15fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599fhummocky cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599flongitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15fmud waves 5:15occurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596/", 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

controlling factorsaggregation 5:9, 5:1 Of

boundary layer turbulence 5:10, 5:llfflocculation factor 5:10fflow characteristics 5:10, 5:llfsettling velocity 5:8, 5:9f

critical suspension conditions 5:11, 5:12fcurrents 5:14deposition rates 5:13, 5:14ferosion diagram 5:12ffractionation 5:14general discussion 5:13nepheloid layers 5:13, 5:14pelagic flux 5:12shear stress limitations 5:14suspension transport criteria 5:11, 5:12fturbulent boundary layers 5:13viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:1 If

sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f, 4:520f,4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648

sedovite (U(MoO4)2) 3:552?Seeley, H. 2:509seiche 4:551f, 4:551-552seif dunes 4:600Seilacher, Adolf 3:307seismites 4:32, 4:36fseismology 5:151-158

archaeoseismology 3:16body waves 5:333, 5:333fearthquakes 5:318-330

active tectonics 5:425Biblical geology 1:256characteristics

epicentre 5:318, 5:318ffocus 5:318, 5:318fgeneral discussion 5:318generation process 1:500, l:500fmagnitude measurements 5:318,

5:319f,5:320fRichter scale 5:319-320, 5:320?seismic waves 5:318-319, 5:32 O/",

5:332, 5:332f, 5:333feighteenth century viewpoints 3:172elastic-rebound model 5:33Ifengineering geology 1:456-463focal mechanism 5:332-333, 5:334fgeological research (1900-1962)

3:194global distribution 4:341f, 5:321,

5:322fground displacement 1:457, 5:33Ifhazard analysis

accelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,1:505 f, 1:509 f

bearing failure 1:531, l:531fBritish Isles 5:32 7fdamage effects 1:500-501, 5:324f,

5:325f, 5:327fdisease 5:328environmental geology 2:31European Macroseismic Scale

1:502?exposure 5:328fire effects 5:325Fourier spectral data 1:512ffrequency 1:517tgeneral discussion 5:321

Geographical Information Systems(CIS) 4:427

ground motion characterizations1:504

ground motion predictiontechniques 1:506

ground oscillation 1:530hazard assessment techniques 1:510,

1:513fhistoric earthquakes 5:326?intensity scales 1:501, 1:502?isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503flandslides 3:93/i 5:327lateral spreading 1:530, l:530fliquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,

1:5 56f, 3:94, 5:325, 5:328flooting 5:328man-made earthquakes 5:329mitigation methods 1:533, 5:328modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity

scale 5:322, 5:323?mortality rates 1:517?, l:518tquantification analysis 1:516research programs 5:328residual shear strength 1:531, l:531fseismic hazards 1:499, 1:510settlement 1:530, l:531fshear anlysis 1:53 Ofsite response analysis 1:511 fstarvation 5:328tectonic earthquakes 5:322, 5:324ftsunamis 5:325urban environments 5:322, 5:324f,

5:327fvelocity profiles l:512fvolcanic earthquakes 5:329

Japan 3:298, 3:300fNorth American continental interior

4:32Oceania 4:110fradar techniques 4:418rock densities 5:321fseismological records 5:320Suess,Eduard 2:237, 2:237fsurface traces 5:321fTibetan Plateau 5:423-424volcanism 5:575

engineering seismology 1:499-515. Seealso geophysical techniques

basic principles 3:646fcrustal structure 3:646ground motion characterizations

Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505fgeneral discussion 1:504Husid plot 1:505, 1:505fpeak ground acceleration 1:504,

1:505 f9 1:507'f, l:508f, 1:509fresponse spectrum 1:505-506,

l:506f, 1:507f, 1:51 Of, 1:514fshaking duration 1:504-505single-degree-of-freedom oscillators

1:505-506, l:506fground motion measurement techniques

accelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,1:505 f, 1:509 f

INDEX 769

seismology (continued]European Macroseismic Scale

l:502tFourier spectral data 1:512fgeneral discussion 1:501intensity scales 1:501, l:502tisoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503fsite response analysis 1:511 fvelocity profiles 1:512f

ground motion prediction techniques1:506

hazard assessment techniques 1:510,l:513f

Mississippi embayment seismic datal:513f, 1:514f

Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:647fseismic hazards 1:499, l:500f, 1:510

gravity measurements 1:101-103, l:102fLove waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334fmantle plumes (hotspots)

D" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338, 4:14ftransition zone 3:338, 3:338fupper mantle 3:337, 3:337f

mantle sampling technique 1:397mid-ocean ridges 5:405-417

axial magma chambercharacteristics 5:408f, 5:409f,

5:410, 5:414fcrustal structure 5:411fearly research 5:407schematic diagram 5:413fseismic profile 5:409fseismic velocities 5:410, 5:411 f

background information 5:405crustal thickness 5:415f, 5:416fmagma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity

characteristics 5:412, 5:414fgeneral discussion 5:412schematic diagram 5:413f

seismic layer 2Acharacteristics 5:407, 5:408f,

5:409fcrustal structure 5:411f, 5:415fcrustal thickening 5:41 Ofearly research 5:406geological significance 5:407seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f

structural variations 5:414, 5:415 f,5:416f

mineral exploration 3:619tmoonquakes 5:265, 5:329P waves 3:194-195, 4:341, 5:151,

5:174f, 5:318-319, 5:332f,5:332-333

Rayleigh waves 5:318-319, 5:333,5:334f

seismic layer 2Acharacteristics 5:407, 5:408f, 5:409fcrustal structure 5:41 If, 5:415fcrustal thickening 5:410fearly research 5:406

geological significance 5:407seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f

seismic reflectionacoustic impedance 5:152, 5:157famplitude measurements 5:152fbasic principles 3:646f, 5:15If,

5:151-152cratons5:173,5:]74/r

crustal structure 3:646data acquisition

general discussion 5:152multiple signals 5:153, 5:153foffset reflection points 5:154fsignal traces 5:153ftravel paths 5:154, 5:154f

data interpretationdepositional environment 5:157faulting 5:157fgeneral discussion 5:156migration 5:154seismic resolution 5:155-156unconformities 5:156f

exploration geophysics 3:190-192four-dimensional (4D) seismic imaging

5:158gas hydrates 5:313, S:314fMohorovicic discontinuity 3:647fOuachita Mountains 4:69-70petroleum exploration

acoustic impedance 4:315, 5:157fbasic principles 4:299fcomputer-based interpretation

systems 4:303ffour-dimensional (4D) seismic

imaging 4:300-301, 4:302 f,4:315,5:158

general discussion 4:296, 5:157hydrocarbon indicators 5:158foffshore seismic surveys 4:3 00ftechniques 4:315, 4:318fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:297-300, 4:301f,4:304f, 4:315, 4:319f

two-dimensional (2D) seismicimaging 4:296-297, 4:300f

receiver arrays 5:153fthree-dimensional (3D) seismic

imaging 4:310f, 4:315, 5:154,5:155f,5:156f

unconformities 5:545seismic refraction 1:488, l:491t, l:493f,

5:152, 5:152fseismic waves 3:194f, 5:318-319,

5:320f, 5:332, 5:332f, 5:333fseismographs 1:501, 5:318, 5:319f,

5:320fS waves 3:194-195, 4:341, 5:151,

5:318-319,5:332-333transport infrastructure determinations

1:488, 1:49 It, 1:493 fSee also faulting processes; geophysical

techniquesSelandian stage

background information 5:459-460biozones 5:460f

boundary stratotypes 3:372-373Brazil l:322f, 1:325fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine invertebrates 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:381fterrestrial invertebrates 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:382fvegetation 3:383f

Selenga arc 4:466selenium (Se)

hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tmineral classification systems 3:501t,

3:502tnatural occurrences 3:553t, 3:554soil concentrations 2:22ttoxicity 2:22t

Selukwe complex, Zimbabwe 3:491-492selwynite 5:121-122sengierite(Cu(UO2)(VO4)(OH)-3H2O)

3:589tsensitive high-resolution ion microprobe

technique (SHRIMP) 3:606sensors

active sensors 4:414-420background information 4:414lidar 4:414, 4:415fradar

altimetry 4:415applications 4:416Doppler radar 4:415earthquakes 4:418general discussion 4:414ground motion measurements

4A1794:418fimaging radars 4:415operating geometries 4:415fradar amplitude images 4:415,

4:417froughness mapping 4:416structural/geomorphological

mapping 4:416subsidence 4:419synthetic aperture radar systems

4:415t, 4:417, 4:418ftectonic processes 4:418volcanism 4:419, 4:419f

sensing techniques 4:414sonar 4:414, 4:415f

passive sensors 4:431-439background information 4:431broadband reflective multispectral

sensors 4:436hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t,

4:43 8 fpassive microwave sensors 4:438,

4:439^sensor instrumentation

across-track multispectral scanners4:433, 4:433f

along-track push-broom scanner4:435, 4:435f

770 INDEX

sensors (continued]broadband sensor systems 4:434tdigital cameras 4:435general discussion 4:432spectral band comparisons 4:434tstructure 4:432f

spatial resolution 4:432, 4:434t, 4:436thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:437,

4:43 8 fthermal sensors 4:432

Senzeilles Shale, Belgium 5:454Sepia 2:394sepiolite l:361t, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369Sepkoski, J. J. 1:260-261, 3:370sequence stratigraphy 5:159-173

causal mechanismssea-level changes 5:170t, 5:171,

5:171fsediment supply 5:171tectonic processes 5:171, 5:17If

chronostratigraphy 5:168, 5:169fcorrelation comparisons 5:162fcycle charts 5:169fdefinition 5:159eustatic cycles 5:169 f, 5:546f, 5:547ffacies analysis 4:490, 4:490fhistorical background 5:159marine fauna biodiversity 1:261parasequences

accommodation eustasy 5:161fbasic principles 5:160, 5:161f, 5:546parasequence-stacking patterns 5:160,

5:162fshorelines 5:161f

Phanerozoic 4:25f, 4:26frecognition criteria

biofacies analysis 5:167depositional systems 5:166descriptive terminology 5:164, 5:164fmaximum flooding surface 5:163f,

5:165sequence boundary 5:163f, 5:164,

5:165 fsystems tracts

general discussion 5:162highstand systems tracts 4:662/,

5:163t, 5:163f, 5:166lowstand systems tracts 4:662f,

5:163t, 5:163f, 5:165transgressive systems tracts 4:662f9

5:163t, 5:163f, 5:166transgressive surface 5:163f, 5:165

unconformities 5:545, 5:545?, 5:546f,5:547f

Serbia 3:596Sergipano Belt, Brazil 1:3 WfSergipe-Alagoas basin l:322fsericite 3:631-632serpentine 1:360, l:361t, 3:396-397,

3:566f, 3:566serpentinite 1:243f, 3:396fserpentinization 3:559, 5:365Serpukhovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511f,

5:517fSerra do Mar Uplift, Brazil 1:309, l:309f

Serravallian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,5:479f,5:506f,5:517f

Serres, Marcel de 2:183Sevatian stage 3:345fSeve Nappe Complex 2:65f, 2:67Seventh Day Adventists 1:384Severnaya Zemlya 4:464, 4:464fSevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55/", 4:56,

4:75fSevier-Laramide mountains 3:364Seward Peninsula 4:45Seward terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46Seychelles 2:79Seychelles Bank 3:315f, 3:316tSeymouria 2:477f, 2:477-478seymouriamorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478shale ridges 4:534f, 4:535shales

anoxic environments 4:496-497Arabia 1:141Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185black shales

anoxic environments 4:193,4:496-497

bedded cherts 5:54fossils 4:497, 4:498fGondwana 3:129large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fNorth Africa 1:21, l:22fNorth American continental interior

4:28, 4:29fPhosphoria Formation, United States

4:500Silurian 4:193

Burgess Shalearthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275bacteria 3:311-312clay mineralisation 3:313Cnidarians 2:324conservation deposits 3:310early chordates 2:455general discussion 3:310tinsects 2:296obrution 3:310, 3:311fOpabinia 3:311fpalaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146

classification 5:26t, 5:28densities 5:32Ifgeotechnical properties 1:548, 3:102tPosidonia Shale Formation, Germany

3:310t, 3:311, 4:384fSenzeilles Shale, Belgium 5:454weathering 1:548

Shamal winds 4:509, 4:S09fShand, Samuel 3:187sharks 2:229/", 2:463Sharovipteryx 2:513Shatsky Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t, 4:480shear fractures 5:352, 5:352f,

5:354fSheinwoodian Stage 4:186f, 4:187%

4:lSS-lS9,5:511f,5:517fShelburne Dike 4:95Shepard, A. 5:266tShepard, Francis 3:188

Shepard sediment nomenclature system4:645f

Sherbonaspis 2:464fShergottite-Nakhlite-Chassigny (SNC)

meteorites 3:560-561, 5:231t, 5:234,5:234f, 5:280

Shergotty, India 5:280sherwoodite (Ca9(AlV14O4o)2-56H2O)

3:589t, 3:590shock metamorphism 5:179-184

controversies 5:182damage effects 5:182fhydrocode calculations 5:181impact craters 5:179, S:182fimpact structures

diaplectic minerals 3:281-282, 3:282ffused minerals 3:281, 3:281fgeneral discussion 3:280high-pressure polymorphs 3:282impact melting 3:281, 3:281fplanar microstructures 3:282, 3:282fpressure-temperature diagram 3:280fshatter cones 3:282, 3:282f

melting 5:180t, 5:183tpeak pressure magnitudes 5:180t, 5:183planar deformation features 5:183tshock metamorphic effects 5:182, 5:183tshock wave propagation 5:180vaporization 5:180t

Shoemaker, Eugene 3:195Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fShona Ridge 3:315f,3:316tShore hardness values l:S68fshorelines and shelves 4:570-579

arches 4:579fbackground information 4:570barrier islands 4:577, 4:577/", 4:578fcarbonates 4:501-513

Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5WfAtlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103fattached rimmed carbonate ramp,

temperate environment 3:528,4:511, 4:511f,4:512f

attached rimmed carbonate ramp,tropical environment 3:528,4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of

attached rimmed carbonate shelf3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f

beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135carbonate rock abundances 4:504fcarbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f,

4:509/, 4:5 Wfcomposition 4:501Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:505,

4:505f, 4:506f, 4:93fglobal distribution 4:503fGreat Bahama Bank 4:503 f, 4:505f,

4:507, 4:508flimestones 4:505-506, 5:110, 5:lllfmorphology 4:502-504, 4:504fnorth-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:511,

4:511 f,4:512foolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:5Wfreef environments 4:562-570

acritarchs 3:427f

INDEX 771

shorelines and shelves (continued)atolls 4:481, 4:564background information 4:562bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:S63fbarrier reefs 4:564bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:563fCambrian 4:565carbonate sedimentation 1:343/,

3:523f, 3:529Carboniferous 4:565-566Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,

3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565examples 4:502fextinction events 4:565-566,

4:566-567floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:564fFlorida-Bahamas shelf region

4:506f, 4:507framestone 3:527/", 4:562/",

4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569ffringing reefs 4:564, 4:568fJurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567flagoons 4:564Miocene 4:568f, 4:569fmodern reef formation 4:562morphology 4:562, 4:568fpatch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564Permian 4:565-566, 4:566frudists 4:567f, 4:567-568rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564fSilurian 4:565stromatolites 3:524f, 4:565Tertiary 4:568-569Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567Walther, Johannes 2:244zonation 4:562

sediment accumulation 4:502seismic profile 4:503fsequence stratigraphy 5:166unattached rimmed carbonate shelf

4:507, 4:508fcaves 4:579fcliffs 4:579fcoastal deposition systems 4:57Ifdefinition 4:570geoarchaeology 3:15fgeomorphological classification 4:573high-relief transgressive shorelines 4:578,

4:579fliquefaction l:528tlow-relief transgressive coastlines 4:577,

4:577f, 4:578foffshore transition zone 4:572/", 4:574,

4:575-577, 4:576fparasequences 5:161fpetroleum reservoirs 4:23 5t, 4:23 6fprogradational wave-dominated

shorelinesbackshore 4:575barred coastline 4:574f, 4:575berms 4:574f, 4:575

bioturbated mudstones 4:574f, 4:575,4:576f, 4:578f

cheniers 4:577facies models 4:574fforeshore 4:574f, 4:575, 4:576fgeneral discussion 4:574hummocky cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:575, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599fmuddy coastlines 4:577non-barred coastline 4:574f, 4:575,

4:576fridge and runnel systems 4:574f,

4:575, 4:576fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:575, 4:576f, 4:599fvertical succession 4:574f, 4:575

raised beaches 4:579fstacks 4:579fstumps 4:579fwave processes

bedforms 4:572-573, 4:573fcoastal deposition systems 4:57Iffair weather wave base 4:570-571,

4:574fgeneral discussion 4:570longshore drift 4:572, 4:573fseasonal beach profiles 4:572fstorm wave base 4:570-571wave dimensions 4:572f

zircon occurrences 3:602, 3:604fShore scleroscope 1:567, 1:567fshoshonite 3:237tShropshire, United Kingdom 4:176,

4:177-178,4:185,4:188-189Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum

4:356f, 4:358Siberia

Cambrian l:173f, 4:164, 4:17OfCarboniferous l:182f, l:184f, 4:204Devonian 1:182fEocene 5:467f, 5:468flora 3:349fOligocene 5:476Ordovician l:173f, 4:181-182orogenic belts 3:164fpalaeoclimate 4:138palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,

4:353f, 4:354Permian l:184f, 4:215-216Permian-Triassic boundary 4:219fPopigai impact structure 5:467f, 5:468Silurian 1:173f, 4:192tektites 5:451terranes 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:4S8fTriassic l:184f, 3:344, 3:349ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:291, 2:293

Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167% 4:456,4:457% 4:462f, 4:463, 4:463f

Siberian TrapsDevonian 4:198-199end Permian extinctions 2:319, 3:322,

4:222flood basalts 3:315f, 3:316t, 3:328Permian 4:215f, 4:227Permian-Triassic boundary 4:220, 4:222

Triassic 3:348Sibumasu terrane

boundaries 5:457fCarboniferous-Permian events 1:175diamonds l:178fgeneral discussion 5:455glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174Gondwana 3:133f, 3:144fSilurian 4:192-193stratigraphic correlation 1:185f

Siccar Point, Scotland 3:175, 3:175f, 5:542Siderian System 5:511 f, 5:517fsiderite (FeCO3)

carbonatites 3:221tchemical diagenesis 1:394classification 5:26tdiagenetic processes 5:145fgrain analysis 5:31hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632ironstones 5:99limestones 5:108, 5:108toccurrence 5:108t

Sideropskehli2:519fSierra Leone Rise 3:315f, 3:316tSierra Madre Occidental 4:48Sierra Nevada Batholith, United States

3:237*, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:55fSierra Nevada Range 4:48, 5:481, 5:488Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158, 3:129,

3:137fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377, 3:377fSijes mining district, Argentina

See ore bodies, boratesSikhot-Alin meteorite fall 5:22 8fSikhote-Alin meteorite fall 5:22 S/", 5:23 It,

5:233-234Sikhote-Alin Mountains 4:456, 4:458f,

4:470, 4:470fSilbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:5 37t, 1:537fsilcrete 5:588, 5:61Silesia 4:202fSilesian division 4:201silicate minerals 3:561-567

aluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562famphiboles 3:503-506

chemical variations 3:505fcrystal structure 3:503, 3:504felement substitution 3:503-504hornblende 3:505, 3:505fradiometric dating 3:504

chloritecation exchange capacity 1:3 60tcementation 5:143characteristics 3:564chemical variations 5:69tclaystones 5:30crystal structure 3:564fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76depth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65f, 5:69formation processes 1:363, 1:363fglauconite 3:542hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632iron/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratio 3:565flayer type 1:361t, 1:362

772 INDEX

silicate minerals (continued)metamorphic rocks 3:397f, 3:398f,

3:399f, 3.-400/; 3:401foptical properties 3:565fsandstones 5:69serpentine 3:566f, 3:566structure l:360f

clinopyroxenescharacteristics 3:567granites 3:235?, 3:242kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404nomenclature 3:568fspectral data 1:111 fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535fcordierite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:241f,

3:400f, 3:563epidote mineral group

cordierite 3:563general discussion 3:563tourmaline 3:563

feldspathoids 3:539-541occurrences 3:541structure

general discussion 3:539leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541fnepheline 3:539, 3:S40fsodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f

garnetsaluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562fcharacteristics 3:561geographic distribution 3:7?granites 3:235?, 3:240-241kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257fmetamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:399f,

3:400f, 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405mineral analysis l:108t, 1:117fmineral deposit formation 3:496pressure-temperature diagram 3:S62fspectral data 1:111 fstaurolite 3:563thermodynamic diagram 3:562fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535fhornblende

carbonatites 3:23Ifcharacteristics 3:505chemical variations 3:505fgranites 3:235?, 3:242metamorphic rocks 3:397, 3:398f,

3:401f, 3:403pressure-temperature diagram 3:243f

micas 3:548-550chemical composition 3:549crystal structure l:360f, 3:549, 3.-549/J

3:S50fgeneral discussion 3:548granites 3:235?, 3:240-241hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632igneous rocks 3:550layer type 1:361, l:361tmetamorphic rocks 3:399f, 3:400f,

3:401f, 3:550optical properties 3:550

paragenesis 3:550physical properties 3:550pressure-temperature diagram 3:243fsandstones 5:143?sedimentary rocks 3:550vine nourishment 3:87/~, 3:88

orthopyroxenes 3:567-569granites 3:240-241kimberlites 3:256?metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:399f,

3:400f, 3:404ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:534-535, 5:535fpyroxenes 3:567-569

crystal structure 3:568f, 3:569fkimberlites 3:253shock metamorphic effects 5:183t

serpentine 3:566staurolite 3:563tourmaline 3:7?, 3:563zeolites 3:591-600

applications 3:599chabazite 3:593, 3:593?, 3:594fchemical composition 3:593?, 3:595,

3:595fclinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593?,

3:593-594, 3:594fcrystal structure 3:591, 3:593?general discussion 3:591glossary information 3:600heulandite 3:593?, 3:593-594, 3:594fmetamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404,

3:405f, 3:412fnatrolite 3:591-593, 3:593?, 3:594foccurrence

alkaline lakes 3:596, 3:596fdeep-sea sediments 3:597fault zone alteration 3:599general discussion 3:595geothermal systems 3:599granitic gneiss 3:599hydrothermal alteration 3:591,

3:591f, 3:599, 3:631-632lava flows 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598fmetamorphic rocks 3:598pegmatitic crystallization 3:599pressure-temperature diagram

3:596fsandstones 3:597sedimentary rocks 3:596terrestrial pyroclastic deposits

3:597, 3:597fzircon 3:601-608

analysesradiometric geochronology 3:604samples 3:605sensitive high-resolution ion

microprobe technique(SHRIMP) 3:606

thermal ionization massspectrometry (TIMS) 3:605

zircon crystals 3:604chemical composition 3:601, 3:602?economic aspects

aeolian placers 3:603?, 3:604

beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f,3:605f

mining 3:604, 3:607fplacer classification 3:603?placer deposits 3:489-490processing 3:604, 3:607fuses 3:604world production 3:604, 3:606?,

3:606ffission track analysis 1:45, 1:47gem-quality stones 3:602, 3:603fhafnium (Hf) 3:601Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607f, 3:607-608occurrence

aeolian placers 3:603?, 3:604beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604/~,

3:605fgeneral discussion 3:602

optical properties 3:602, 3:602?overgrowths 3:608, 3:608fproperties 3:601, 3:60^?South-east Asia 1:196structure 3:601, 3:601fxenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608fzircon crystals

geographic distribution 3:7?kimberlites 3:256?magmatism time-scales 3:245,3:245fnorthern Cordillera 4:42placer deposits 3:489-490provenance studies 1:47, 1:52-53

siliceous oozes 4:642/", 5:53, 5:55/i 5:71f,5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?

silicified wood 5:61silicoflagellates 5:75silicoloculinids 3:45Ofsilicon (Si)

biogenic silicachert 5:52lacustrine deposits 4:556as organic proxy 4:500

carbonatites 3:220?chert 5:51-62

Apex Chert, Pilbara region, WesternAustralia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,4:368-369, 4:369f

Archaean 4:351banded ironstone formations (BIFs)

5:38classification 4:454, 5:26?composition

chalcedony 5:51, 5:52fmegaquartz 5:51, 5:52fmicrocrystalline quartz 5:51, 5:52fopal 5:51precipitation 5:51silica solubility 5:51textures 5:52

eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361fnodules 4:385occurrence

bedded cherts 5:53, 5:54fdiatomaceous ooze accumulation

5:54, 5:54f

INDEX 773

silicon (Si) (continued]general discussion 5:51geysers 5:59hot springs 5:59hydrothermal origins 5:59, 5:60flakes 5:58nodular cherts 5:55, 5:57f, 5:58fPrecambrian 5:55, 5:56fradiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55fsedimentary environments 5:35-36silcrete 5:61siliceous ooze accumulation 5:53,

5:SSfsilicified wood 5:61Tertiary bedded chert 5:54

Rhynie chertarthropods (Arthropoda)

2:274-275, 2:277fossil mineralisation 3:313fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fgeneral description 3:310thydrothermal activity 5:59-60,

S:61flichens 2:441-442

silica sourcesbiogenic silica 5:52hydrothermal activity 5:53lacustrine deposits 5:53siliceous sediments 5:53volcanism 5:53, 5:54

terminology 3:570feldspathoids

occurrences 3:541structure

general discussion 3:539leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541fnepheline 3:539, 3:540fsodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f

geothermal systems 3:113tmineral classification systems 3:501t,

3:502tobsidian 3:269toceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tquartz (SiO2) 3:569-571

amphiboles 3:505carbonatites 3:223tcementation 5:143, 5:143f, 5:144fchalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51,

5:52fchemical composition 3:569-570chemical diagenesis 1:394cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

3:571crustal composition l:406t, 5:174tdepth effects 5:63fdiagenetic processes 5:145fdiaplectic minerals

3:281-282, 3:282ffused minerals 3:28Ifglauconite 3:542tgranites 3:240hydrothermal fluids 3:629thydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tindustrial uses 3:570

karst landscapes 4:679kimberlites 3:248tLagerstatten 3:313Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,

United States 3:571mineral analysis l:108tpalisade quartz 5:533, 5:534fplanar microstructures 3:282, 3:282fsand 5:142sandstones 5:27, 5:143t, 5:143fshock metamorphic effects 4:221,

5:183tsilica 3:570, 3:570fstructure 3:570tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

3:571types 3:570ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533, 5:533f, 5:534fVenus 5:2471weathering 5:17

siliceous sedimentschert 5:53classification 5:26toccurrence 5:35silcrete 5:588, 5:61

See also silicate mineralsSiljan impact event 4:199silled basins 4:495, 4:496fsillimanite

characteristics 3:562granites 3:235t, 3:240-241, 3:241 fkimberlites 3:254metamorphic facies 3:399f, 3:400f,

3:412f94:411f,4:412tphase diagram 3:562fpressure-temperature diagram 3:243f

sills l:136f, 3:218t, 3:249silt 1:561, 3:103t, 5:8, 5:9, 5:11-12,

5:14siltstone 5:26t, 5:28Silurian 4:184-193

acritarchs 3:418-428, 4:191Aeronian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f,

4:187f,5:511f,5:517fanoxic environments 4:193Antarctica 1:134 fAppalachians 4:78apparent polar wander paths 4:153 fArabia l:142f, l:144fArmorica 2:78arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:276-277,

3:314f, 4:191Australia l:226f, 1:229, 3:129,

4:191-192Avalonia 2:78, 4:191,4:192background information 4:184Baltica l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192biota 4:191biozones 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185brachiopods

South-east Asia l:173f, 1:177fstratigraphic distribution 2:306ftrace fossils 4:158, 4:lS8f

Brazil 1:317f, l:318f, l:320fBringewood Formation 4:186f9 4:189Buildwas Formation 4:186f, 4:188-189calcareous algae 2:428fCaledonian Orogeny 2:61, 2:62, 2:64carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fcephalopods 2.-3S9/", 4:191Cerig Formation 4:186f, 4:188China 1:347f, 4:192-193chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430, 3:435f,

3:436, 3:436f, 3:438f, 4:191chronostratigraphy 4:25fclimate 4:193Coalbrookdale Mudstone Formation

4:186f, 4:188-189conodonts 3:447-448corals 2:325fcrinoids 2:346, 2:347fdating methods 4:190East European Craton 2:36, 2:38fechinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336fElton Formation 4:186f, 4:189fish 2:462, 2:463ffossil fungi 2:437Fossil Konservat-Lagerstatten 2:274-275gastropods 2:386f, 2:386-387glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglaciation 4:663Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana

early Silurian 3:129geological evolution 1:178palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:78,

3:136f, 4:191f, 4:192, 4:192ftectonic processes 4:191terranes 1:173f, 3:130f

Gorstian Stage 4:186f9 4:187f, 4:189,5:511 f,5:517f

graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,2:365f, 2:366, 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f

Gwernfelen Formation 4:186f, 4:188historical background 4:185Homerian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:188-189, 5:511f9 5:517flapetus Ocean 2:78, 4:193International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517 fjawless fish 2:454, 2:460fKazakhstan l:173f, 4:191-192Kopanina Formation 4:189Lagerstatten 3:310tLaurentia l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192Laurussia 4:193Leintwardine Formation 4:186f, 4:189Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:188f,5:511f,5:517fLochkov Formation 4:189Ludfordian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,

5:511f,5:517fLudlow Bone Bed 4:185, 4:186f, 4:189Ludlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,

5:511f,5:517fLudlow subdivision 4:185molluscs 2:367

774 INDEX

Silurian (continued)Much Wenlock Limestone Formation

4:186f, 4:188-189Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:212fnineteenth century stratigraphic

correlations 2:219fNorth Africa l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,

l:20f,l:22fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fNorthern Appalachians

arc magmatism 4:85Avalon tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fGander tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87fMeguma tectonostratigraphical zone

4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90fosteichthyans 2:466ostracoderms 2:457ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460f9

3:46^,4:191Ouachita Mountains 4:64foxygen concentrations 1:206fpalaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77fpalaeogeography 4:191f9 4:192, 4:192fPanthalassic Ocean 4:193Parana basin I:319f9 l:320fPechora Basin 2:53fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417Pozary Formation 4:189Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,

5:511f,5:517freef environments 4:565Rheic Ocean 4:193Rhuddanian Stage 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,

5:511f,5:517fScotland 4:185-186sea-level changes 4:2 6fSheinwoodian Stage 4:186f, 4:187'f,

4:188-189, 5:511f,5:517f4:188-189, 5:511f,5:517fSiberia l:173f, 4:192Siberian craton 4:461South-east Asia

brachiopods 1:173 f, 1:177fgeological evolution 1:178stratigraphic correlation l:183f,

1:185 fstratigraphic controversy 5:504stratigraphic subdivisions 4:185Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251tectonic processes 4:191Telychian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f,

4:187f,5:511f,5:517ftime-scale scaling concepts S:516ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:293type areas

Anticosti Island, Canada 4:187f, 4:190Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f,

4:187f, 4:188fLudlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189New York 4:187f, 4:189, 4:190fPodolia, Ukraine 4:187f, 4:190

Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189Scandinavia 4:187f, 4:189stratigraphic correlation 4:186f,

4:187fWenlock Series 4:186f, 4:187f9 4:188

Valentian subdivision 4:185Variscides Orogeny 2:78Wales 4:185-186, 4:188fWenlock Series 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:18S,5:511f,5:517fWhitcliffe Formation 4:186f, 4:189Wormwood Formation 4:186f9

4:186-188silver (Ag)

carbonatites 3:223?hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?, 5:394?natural occurrences 3:553, 3:553?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsoil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?world production rates 1:438t

silverfish 2:296Simosaurus 2:506simplotite (CaV4O9-5H2O) 3:589?Simpson, George Gaylord 1:266f,

1:266-267Simpson, G. G. 2:191Sinemurian stage 3:348, 3:352?, 5:506f,

5:517fSinghbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f, 3:290f,

3:291tsinkholes l:491t, 1:493, 1:495 f,

1:550-551, l:551f, 4:682f, 4:684fsinks (geosphere) 1:431Sinocarpus 1:353Sinoconodon 2:528f, 2:531Sinocyclocyclicus guizhouensis 4:362fSinodelphys szalayi 2:533f, 2:533-534Sinokanemeyeria 1:352Sino-Korea craton 1:346, l:346fSinornithosaurus 2:495Sinosabellidites huainanensis 4:360Sinosauropterix 1:353Sinosauropteryx 2:495Sinospongia typica 4:360, 4:361fSinotubulites 4:373, 4:373fsinter 3:108, 3:628Sinus yEstuum 5:267?Sinus Medii 5:267?Sinus Roris 5:267?Sitter, Lamoral de 3:189Skagerrak 2:98, 2:99-100skarn 3:388tSkeena Mountains 4:45Skolithos 4:224, 4:378slate l:545t, 3:102?, 3:387?, 3:396fSlave craton 4:12

kimberlites 3:23, 3:23fPrecambrian continental nucleus 4:10f,

4:llf,4:13f94:1694:18fSee also Canadian Shield

Sleafordian Orogeny l:210f, 4:352Slide Mountain terrane 4:40f, 4:42,

4:46-47

Sloan, Chris 2:170-171Sloss, L. L. 5:159, 5:545Slovakia 2:477-478, 3:79, S:506fslumps and slides 4:607, 4:689,

4:690^smectites

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76diagenetic processes 5:67formation processes 1:363, 1:363fglauconite 3:542humid tropical zone soils 1:561hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394?layer type 1:361, l:361tphysicochemical properties 1:369sandstones 5:67smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64fsolonization 5:200structure 1:3 60 fvine nourishment 3:88

Smithian stage 3:345, 3:345fsmithsonite (ZnCO3) 3:630?Smith, William 2:221-226

background information 2:221biozones 1:294engineering geology 1:445first geological map 1:463, 2:221,

2:223, 3:39, 3:74, 3:173, 5:297fossils 4:158-159geological societies 3:60legacy 2:224Murchison, Roderick 2:211portrait 2:221 fprinciple of faunal succession 2:221,

5:297stratigraphic order 2:218, 2:225, 3:174,

3:39Wollaston Medals 3:62

snake flies 2:300?Snake Range 4:58Snake River Plain 4:48-50snakes 2:483, 5:483snowball Earth events

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2-3atmospheric evolution 1:204biodiversity 1:261Ediacaran 1:261Gaia hypothesis 3:4, 3:5glaciation 4:358, 4:372, 4:663Neoproterozoic 4:358Precambrian climate 4:351Vendian 4:372

Snowbird Group, Appalachians 4:73-74Snowbird Tectonic Zone 4:16snowfall 4:628Sociedad Venezolana de Geologos 3:64Societa Geologica Italiana 3:64Societe Geologique de France 2:183, 3:64Society of Exploration Geophysicists 3:75sodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541, 3:541fsodium betpakdalite

(MgCa2[Mo8As2Fe3036(OH)](H20)23) 3:552?

sodium (Na)brewing process 3:79, 3:80?carbonatites 3:223?

INDEX 775

sodium (Na) (continued)crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174tgeothermal systems 3:113tglauconite 3:542thalite (NaCl)

Atlantic Margin 4:102brewing process 3:80carbonatites 3:22Itclassification 5:26?densities 5:321fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610, 4:610fgeotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629tkarst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559fpetroleum geology 4:229-230phase diagram 5:37Ifporosity l:552t

hydrothermal fluids 3:629?kimberlites 3:248tmineral analysis l:108toceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsodium perborate (NaBO3-4H2O) 3:519tSodom and Gomorrah (Genesis) 1:255,

1:33-34soffioni 3:110, 3:110fsoils

albedo 3:85-87alluvial environments 4:492calcrete 1:562, 3:365, 5:588clay formation 1:362, l:363fclay soils 3:104tcold regions

permafrost 1:563quick clays 1:562, l:563ftill 1:562varved clays 1:562, 1:563f

collapsible soils 1:555, l:556f, 1:557?,1:5 57f

crete formation 1:562deserts 1:561Devonian 4:195dispersive soils 1:558, l:559f, l:560fenvironmental geochemistry 2:21-25

acidification 2:23, 2:24fenvironmental geochemical mapping

3:28 fenvironmental restoration 2:23, 2:24torganic contaminants 2:23trace elements

abundance 2:22?bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22?toxicity 2:22?

environmental geology 2:28expansive clays 1:557, l:559fferricrete 5:588forensic geology 2:261-273

background information 2:261evidence

analytical techniques 2:262, 2:265?burnt-out car 2:264f

characteristics 2:262evidence persistence 2:266primary transfer modification 2:268secondary transfer 2:268trace evidence 2:262/", 2:263f

human remains 2:270, 2:272fisotope analysis 2:271location identification 2:268, 2:269/,

2:270/i 2:271freference sample comparisons

exotic particles 2:267/", 2:268f,2:270, 2:272f

general discussion 2:262house brick 2:266fsample properties 2:265?soil-stained boot 2:266f, 2:267f

geoarchaeology 3:14geochemical analysis 3:21, 3:25f, 3:618tgeodiversity 3:31geophysical techniques 1:490, 1:49Itgypcrete 1:562, 5:588humid tropical zone soils 1:560laterites 1:560-561, 5:26?, 5:31-32,

5:588liquefaction

basic principles 1:525contractive behaviour 1:525, l:526fcyclic resistance ratio 1:528cyclic shear stress ratio 1:528damage effects 1:532, l:532f, 1:533fdilative behaviour 1:525, l:526fmitigation methods 1:533permanent ground deformation

bearing failure 1:531, l:531fflow failure 1:530general discussion 1:529ground oscillation 1:530lateral spreading 1:530, l:530fresidual shear strength 1:531,1:53If

sand boils 1:526, l:526f, 1:533fsettlement 1:530, 1:531 fshear anlysis 1:528, 1.-529/, l:S30fstress/strain analyses 1:525, l:526fsusceptibility criteria 1:527, l:528tvoid redistribution 1:526, l:526f

modern soils 5:194-202andisolization 5:199anthrosolization 5:200basic processes

chronofunctions 5:194, 5:195fchronosequence 5:194climatic effects 5:194-195, S:196fdevelopmental stages 5:194fgeneral discussion 5:194lessivage 5:194, 5:194f9 5:195fsoil-horizon terminology 5:197ttaxonomy 5:196t

biocycling 5:197calcification 5:194f, 5:196f, 5:200cryoturbation 5:201ferrallitization 5.-196/", 5:197gleization 5:195, 5:198^glossary information 5:201lessivage 5:194/", 5:195f, 5:196f,

5:198, 5:198f

lixiviation 5:198melanization 5:199, S:199fpaludization 5.-194/", 5:195podzolization 5:195, 5:196fsalinization 5:196f, 5:201solodization 5:200solonization 5:200, 5:201fvertization 5:199, 5:200fweathering reactions 5:197?

palaeosols 5:203-208aeolian systems 4:616-618, 4:617f,

4:626burial alteration processes 5:204,

5:204fclay formation 1:362, l:363fcolor banding 5:203ferosion surfaces 5:207ffacies analysis 4:490-491formation duration 5:207fossils 5:206, 5:206fgeosol 5:203gleization 5:204identification process

general discussion 5:203peds 5:204, 5:204froot traces 5:203soil horizons 5:204, 5:204fsoil structure 5:204

lateritic palaeosols 5:203fnomenclature 5:203, 5:207palaeoclimate 4:134, 5:205, 5:206fpalaeoecology 5:205palaeogeography 5:206, 5:206fpalaeogully 5:207^parent materials 5:206, 5:207fpedoderm 5:203pedolith 5:203pedotype 5:203Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204,

1:205 fsedimentation rate 5:207volcanic materials 5:206-207

peat 1:564, 1:5 64fpedocretes 1:562phreatic zone 4:684fquicksands 1:555, 1:5 S6fresource management 2:28sabkhas 1:561sandy soils 1:561,3:104?sediment transport effects 1:555tshock metamorphic effects 5:183?silcrete 5:588, 5:61silty soils 1:561soil mechanics 5:184-193

applications 5:193basic principles 5:184, 5:184fCam Clay 5:185, 5:192compression 5:187, 5:188fconsolidation 5:192, 5:192fdense/loose states 5:189drainage 5:185, 5:186general discussion 1:445geotechnical engineering 3:101,

3:103?, 3:104?, 5:558Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 5:185

776 INDEX

soils (continued)one-dimensional compression 5:188packing states 5:188, 5:189fplasticity 5:185, 5:187, 5:187fprinciple of effective stress 5:185shear modulus 5:191, 5:191fsoil classification

Atterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186,5:187t

drainage 5:186general discussion 5:186grain characteristics 5:186, 5:186fHazen permeability formula 5:186Liquidity Index 5:187, 5:187floading rates 5:186relative density 5:187, 5:187f

soil strengthcritical state strength 5:190, 5:190fpeak strength 5:191, 5:191fshearing behaviour 5:189, 5:189f,

5:190fundrained strength 5:190, 5:190f

state boundary surfaces 5:192, 5:193fstate parameters 5:189fstiffness 5:191, 5:191fstress/strain analyses 5:184, 5:185fswelling 5:187, 5:188fTerzaghi effective stress equation

5:185topsoil loss 1:519urban geology 5:558vadose zone 3:23-24, 4:684fvertisols 1:557-558weathering processes 5:588, 5:589wine geology 3:87, 3:87'fSee also clays; geohazards

Sojourn Ridge 4:476-477solar flares 5:212, 5:218-219solar radiation 4:414-420

biogeochemical cycles 1:433fgeosphere 1:431, 1:432 f, 1:433 fglaciation 5:215global warming 5:215orbital variations 1:415, 1:416fpassive sensors 4:431terrestrial atmosphere 5:215, 5:217f,

5:219vineyard temperature 3:85, 3:86fwavelength types 5:214

solar systematmospheric evolution 1:197Earth 1:197, 1:421-429nuclide binding energy 1:198, l:198fsolar luminosity l:197f, 1:197-198See also meteorites; planets

Solenoporella 2:430fsolfataras 3:107solids 3:554, 3:629*Solimoes basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318fSolnhofen Limestone

Archaeopteryx 2:497arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275Cnidarians 2:323dendrites 4:3 83 fgeneral description 3:310t

Liesegang banding 4:3 83 fPterodactylus 2:509, 2:509fstratiform deposits 3:311Walther, Johannes 2:244

solodization 5:200Solomon Islands

background information 4:109economic geology 4:114geology 4:113, 4:114, 4:114fobsidian 3:274-275

solonization 5:200, 5:201 fsolution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680, 4:680f,

4:682fsolution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680, 4:682fSolway Line 2:58-59Somali Basin 1:138-139, 3:147sonar 4:414, 4:415fSongxites 4:185Sonoma orogeny 4:52Sonoran Basin and Range Province, Mexico

4:48Soom Shale, South Africa 2:274-275,

3:310t, 3:313, 3:441, 3:441fSorachi Plateau 3:315 f, 3:316tSorby, Henry 3:184, 3:62Sorgenfrei-Tornquist Zone 3:651, 3:6S2fSossusvlei region, Namibia 4:541 fSoudleyan substage 4:183fSoufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat 4:387t,

4:389f, 4:394f, 5:575tSouth Africa

Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa3:491-492

dispersive soils 1:559f, 1:560fgemstones 3:7t, 3:12Kaapvaal craton, South Africa

1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39Karoo Basin, South Africa l:319f,

3:142-147, 3:146f, 3:347, 4:219f9

4:220, 4:224Palabora complex, South Africa 3:492,

3:492fPliocene 5:491 £sharks 2:463-465soils 1:558Soom Shale, South Africa 2:274-275,

3:310f, 3:313, 3:441, 3:441 ftektites 5:454Triassic 3:350Vredefort impact structure, South Africa

3:283Witwatersrand, South Africa 3:121,

3:121f, 3:123-124, 3:490-491,3:494, 3:494f, 3:585-586

Southalpine nappes 2:125, 2:126f, 2:134fSouth America

See Andes Mountains; Argentina; Brazil;Gondwana

South American Land Mammal Age 5:479fSouth Atlantic Margins 3:315f, 3:316tSouth Atlantic thermotectonic event l:308tSouth Australia 4:164South Australian Craton 1:208, l:209f,

l:211f, 1:215South Carolina, United States 4:73f

South China terrane 3:130f, 3:133f, 4:215,4:219f9 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f

South Dakota, United States 4:21, 4:33-34,4:35-36, 5:203f, 5:475, 5:476-477

South-east Asia 1:169-196accretion terranes

amalgamation 1:176, 1:17 6tconstraining factors l:176t, l:179tdistribution l:170f, l:172f, I:182f9

1:184forigins 1:171, 1:17 6trifting and separation events

Carboniferous-Permian events1:175

constraining factors 1:176t, 1:1791general discussion 1:174Jurassic 1:175sutures I ill 91timeframes 1:175 fTriassic 1:175

alluvial diamond deposits 1:178fbackground information

accretion terranes 1:17'Of\ 1:171,1:172 f, 1:173 f

general discussion 1:169Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169,

l:170fplate tectonics 1:169, l:170f, l:171f,

l:172fstrike-slip fault systems 1:169, l:170fWallace's Line 1:169, l:171f, l:172f

bmchiopodsl:173f,l:177fenergy resources

coal and lignite deposits 1:195epigenetic deposits 1:195hydrocarbon basins 1:190, 1:194firon ore deposits 1:195magmatic arcs 1:190mineral deposits 1:190, 1:195fnon-volcanic epithermal deposits

1:190oil and gas 1:187, l:194fophiolites 1:190tin deposits 1:194tungsten deposits 1:190

faunal assemblages 1:171, 1:178-182,1:183/, 1:185'f

floral provinces 1:178-182, l:186fgemstones 1:196geological evolution

Cenozoic 1:187Cretaceous l:181t, 1:187, l:188fEocene 1:18It, 1:188f9 l:190fJurassic 1:1 Sit, 1:186, l:188fMiocene 1:18It, l:192f, 1:193fOligocene l:181t, 1:191 f, 1:193 fPhanerozoic

Cambrian 1:178Carboniferous 1:178, l:181t,

l:182f, 1:184fDevonian 1:178, l:181t, 1:182fgeneral discussion 1:177Ordovician 1:178Permian l:181t, 1:182, 1:184fSilurian 1:178

INDEX 777

South-east Asia (continued]Pliocene 1:193 fProterozoicL-174/; 1:177Triassic l:181t, 1:184, l:184f

glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174,l:178f, 1:182

granitoid belts l:187flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363tpalaeoclimate 1:183 f, 1:18 5 fPrecambrian 1:183 f, 1:185 fRodiniai:174/"stratigraphic correlation l:183f, l:185ftectonic evolution 1:177

Southeast Indian Ridge 5:411-412Southern Appalachians 4:72-81

Alleghanian orogeny 4:79Carolina terrane 4:74/", 4:75f, 4:78Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:77Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,

4:80figneous processes 4:73, 4:75fmagnetostratigraphy 4:76fNeoacadian orogeny 4:78occurrence 4:72origins 4:72passive margin development 4:76, 4:76fphysiographic provinces 4:73fPine Mountain terrane 4:77sedimentary depositional processes 4:73superterranes 4:74/, 4:75fSuwannee terrane 4:72, 4:80Taconic orogeny 4:77tectonic evolution 4:74f, 4:75fTugaloo terrane 4:78volcanism 4:73, 4:75f

Southern Granulite Terrain 3:287f, 3:288,3:288f

southern lightsSee auroras

Southern Uplands terrane 2:60Southland Syncline, New Zealand 3:597South Mountain Batholith, Canada

3:240-241South Mountain, United States 4:72South Pacific Superswell 3:338, 3:338/~,

3:339fSouth Portuguese Zone 2:80-82South Sandwich Trench 5:430;, 5:43 OfSouth Solomons Trench 5:430;, 5:43 OfSouth Victoria Land 3:129, 3:137fSouthwest Indian Ocean Ridge 5:3 63 f,

5:384Southwest US-East Antarctic (SWEAT)

connection hypothesis 1:132, l:133f,1:135

Soviet UnionSee Russia

sovite 3:220-221spacecraft missions

Apollo 11 5:266;Apollo 12 5:266;Apollo 14 5:266;Apollo 15 5:266;Apollo 16 5:266;Apollo 17 5:266;, 5:270f

Clementine 5:266;, 5:271Gallileo 5:2 70fJupiter 5:283;Luna 3 5:266-267Luna 9 5:266-267lunar missions 5:266Lunar Prospector 5:265Lunokhods 5:266-267Magellan orbiter 5:244-245, 5:260-261,

5:262-263Mercury 5:238, 5:242Orbiter 1 5:266;Orbiter 5 5:266;Pioneer Venus 5:244Prospector 5:266;, 5:271Ranger 7 5:266;Saturn 5:286, 5:286;Surveyor 1 5:266;Surveyor 2 5:266;Venera 15/16 orbiters 5:244-245

space dust 5:227Spain 2:75, 2:463-465, 3:82, 3:352;,

4:167f,5:506fspas 3:113f, 3:116, 3:116fSpathian stage 3:345, 3:345fspatter 4:357;, 4:390;spectral reflectance 4:431speleothems 4:686, 4:686fspencerite 5:121-122spessartine (Mn3Al2Si3Oi2) 3:561Sphaerocongregus variabilis 4:360sphalerite (Zn(Fe)S)

carbonatites 3:221tcrystal structure 3:575;, 3:576/", 3:577fhydrothermal ore deposits 3:630;,

3:630f, 5:394;iron sulphide content 3:584foccurrence 3:585;physical properties 3:577;sulphidation curves 3:582f

Sphenacodon 2:488-489Sphenacodontia 2:488Sphenisciformes 2:507Sphenodon 2:483Sphenolitus 5:486-487Sphenopsids 4.-206/", 4:209fSphenosuchidae 2:485Sphenozamites 3:359spilite 3:388tspinel 1:196, 3:7;, 3:253-254, 3:256;,

3:257f, 3:397fspinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f, 3:264fSpinoaequalis 2:482-483spirillinana 3:45Ifspirillinata 3:45Ifspirillinids 3:45OfSpirula 2:394Spitsbergen, Greenland 2:465, 3:344,

4:224See also Svalbard

spodosols 5:195, 5:296;, 5:196fspodumene 3:567sponges

See porifera (Porifera)Spongiophyton 2:441

spores 3:473SPOT 4:434;, 4:435, 4:436Spriggina 4:373-374springtails 2:300;Squamata 2:483Sri Lanka 3:7;, 3:8stacks 4:579fStanley Group, Ouachita Mountains 4:63,

4:66fstannite (Cu2FeSnS4) 3:575;, 3:577f, 3:630;Stanovoy Ridge 4:471, 4:472fstar dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620fstarvation 5:328Staterian rifting event 1:3 08tStatherian System 5:511f, 5:517fStaurikosaurus 2:492staurolite 3:400f, 3:563, 4:411f9 4:412tStavely Belt, Australia 1:247Steen River, Canada 3:363;stegosaurs 2:493stellerite 3:593;Steneosaurus 2:504Stenian System 5:511f, 5:517fSteno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226-233

anatomical studies 2:227catastrophism 3:176crystallography 2:226, 2:230, 2:231fearly career 2:226fossil origins 2:228, 2:229fpalaeontology 2:226portrait 2:227frecognitive induction 2:226, 2:228reconstruction principle 2:226, 2:229,

2:231fscientific philosophy 2:232stratigraphic correlation 5:503-504stratigraphic principles 2:226, 2:229,

3:169,3:73,5:295superposition 2:226unconformities 5:542

Stenopterygius 2.-503/", 2:503-504Steno's Law 2:226, 2:229, 2:230Stenzel, Henryk 5:443Stephanian stage 2:95-96, 2:96/", 4:202f,

4:208f, 4:209fsteranes 4:357Stereocidaris 2:35IfStereognathus 3:359fstereom 2:334, 2:335fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518fstibarsen 3:553;, 3:554stibnite (Sb2S3) 3:575;, 3:630;Stichocorys peregrina 5:487stick insects 2:297/", 2:300;Stigmaria ficoides 5:206, 5:206fStikine terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46stilbite 3:593;Stille, Hans 3:192Still well, Frank 3:192stilpnomelane 3:399fstishovite 3:282, 3:569-570, 3:570f,

5:183;, 5:447-448St. Lawrence River 5:19tstoiberite (Cu5O2(VO4)2) 3:588-589,

3:589;

778 INDEX

Stoke's law 5:8stolzite (PbWO4) 3:587tstoneflies 2:297f, 2:300tstorms 4:580-587

carbonate systemsflat-pebble conglomerate beds 4:586shell beds 4:586

facies models 4:580oceanographic studies 4:580, 4:S81fstorm deposits

bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:58Sffacies analysis 4:580geostrophic flow 4:581, 4:582fhummocky cross-stratification

4:581-582, 4:582f, 4:584f,4:585f, 4:599f

hyperpycnal oceanic flows 4:582-583,4:644

stability diagram 4:583fstratification 4:582f, 4:583ftempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581,

4:S8Sfstorm wave base 4:570-571

stout 3:80Stowts 3:80Strachey, John 5:542straczekite((Ca,K,Ba)2(V8O2o)-6H2O)

3:589tStrahler, Arthur 3:189straight river systems 4:656/", 4:659fStraight Wall (Moon) 5:268stramenopile algae 4:358, 4:360strandplains 4:57IfStrangways Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:214-215stratiform ores 3:634stratigraphy

basic principles 5:295-305early research 5:295

biostratigraphy 5:297, 5:298Cuvier, Georges 5:297Hutton, James 5:296-297landscape development 5:296fLyell, Charles 5:297-298Oppel, Albert 1:295principle of faunal succession 5:297,

5:298fradiometric dating 5:298-299Smith, William 1:294, 5:297Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen)

5:295stratigraphic correlation 5:296funiformitarianism 5:296-297,

5:297-298geological research (1835-1900) 3:179glossary information 5:304historical background 5:295magnetostratigraphy 5:303original continuity 5:295original horizontality 5:295Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226,

2:229, 3:169, 5:295stratigraphic classification

biostratigraphic units 5:301, 5:301 fchronostratigraphic units 5:301,

5:302t

correlation relationships 5:300fgeneral discussion 5:299geochronological units 5:302trock stratigraphic units 5:300,

5:300f, 5:301ftime stratigraphic units 5:300f

stratotypes 5:303superposition 2:226, 5:295

biostratigraphyapplications 1:84, l:86fbiozones

biochronozones 1:304biostratigraphic principles 5:301,

5:301f, 5:302fchitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434Eocene 5:467fmultivariate biostratigraphic

analyses 1:3 04 fOrdovician4:176, 4:182Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,

4:189Cretaceous 3:361Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:373/~, 3:374historical background 3:180, 5:297,

5:298Jurassic 3:353methodology 1:84Oligocene 5:472Ordovician 4:182Pleistocene 5:495

biozones 1:294-305boundary stratotypes 3:361, 5:504,

5:506fCarboniferous

absolute ages 4:202f, 4:203biostratigraphy 4:203Carboniferous-Permian boundary

4:201, 4:206fchronostratigraphy 4:202fDevonian-Carboniferous boundary

4:201general discussion 4:201Mississippian-Pennsylvanian

boundary 4:201nomenclature 4:201 fsubdivisions 4:202

chemostratigraphyapplications I:86f9 1:87Jurassic 3:353methodology 1:84

chronostratigraphyAustralia, Phanerozoic 1:223fbiozones 1:29 6fCambrian 4:164, 4:167f, 4:169f,

4:170fCarboniferous 4:202fchronozones 5:301, 5:302fCretaceous 3:361, 3:361fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:373fEocene 5:466, 5:467f, 5:468fgeneral discussion 5:301geological time-scale 5:504Jurassic 3:352, 3:352;

nomenclature 5:302tNorth Africa 1:14fOligocene 5:473fOrdovician 4:182, 4:183fparasequence-stacking patterns

5:161-162, 5:162fPermian 4:214, 4:225;sequence stratigraphy 5:168, 5:169fTriassic 3:345, 3:345f

clays 1:364geoarchaeology 3:14geological research (1900-1962) 3:188geological time-scale 5:503geophysical techniques l:491tInternational Commission on

Stratigraphy (ICS) 4:201magnetostratigraphy 3:331-335

analytical techniques 3:333Appalachians 4:76fapparent polar wander paths 1:85/,

4:153, 4:153fapplications 1:84, l:86fBrunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal

5:506fcycle charts 5:169fEast Coast Magnetic Anomaly

(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99fEocene 5:467ffield sampling 3:333gauss 3:333-334general discussion 5:303geomagnetic polarity time-scale l:81f,

l:83f, 3:331, 3:332fhistorical background 1:82-83Jurassic 3:353large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321fmagnetic anomalies 1:101, 1:101 f,

l:83f,2:37f, 3:200, 3:201fmagnetic field reversals 1:424 f, 3:202magnetostratigraphical correlation

3:333/i 3:334methodology 1:84normal polarity 3:331polarity-bias superchrons 3:331fRaff-Mason magnetic

anomaly 5:399fremnant magnetization 3:332reversed polarity 3:331secular variation 3:334

Miocene 5:478, 5:479^nineteenth century stratigraphic

correlations 2:219fOligocene 5:473Ouachita Mountains

general discussion 4:63pre-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:64fsedimentary facies 4:64f, 4:66fsyn-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:66f

Permian 4:214, 4:215tprinciple of faunal succession 2:221,

5:297sequence stratigraphy 5:159-173

causal mechanismssea-level changes 4:26f, 5:170t,

5:171, 5:171 f

INDEX 779

stratigraphy (continued]sediment supply 5:171tectonic processes 5:171, 5:171 f

chronostratigraphy 5:168, 5:169fcorrelation comparisons 5:162fcycle charts 5:169fdefinition 5:159eustatic cycles 5:169f, 5:546f, 5:547ffacies analysis 4:490, 4:490 fhistorical background 5:159parasequences

accommodation eustasy 5:161 fbasic principles 5:160, 5:161f,

5:546parasequence-stacking patterns

5:160, 5:162fshorelines 5:161f

Phanerozoic 4:25 f, 4:26frecognition criteria

biofacies analysis 5:167depositional systems 5:166descriptive terminology 5:164,

5:164fhighstand systems tracts 4:662 f,

5:163;, 5:1 63f, 5:166lowstand systems tracts 4:662f,

5:163;, 5:1 63f, 5:165maximum flooding surface 5:163f,

5:165sequence boundary 5:163f, 5:164,

5:165 fsystems tracts 5:162, 5:163;, 5:163f,

5:165transgressive surface 5:163f, 5:165transgressive systems tracts 4:662f,

5:163;, 5:1 63 f, 5:166unconformities 5:545, 5:545;, 5:546f,

5:547fSilurian 4: 185site classification 2:3 1Smith, William 2:221South-east Asia 1:183 f9 1:185 fstratigraphic classification

basic principles 5:299biostratigraphic units 5:301, 5:301fchronostratigraphic units 5:301,

5:302;correlation relationships 5:300fCuvier, Georges 2:181geochronological units 5:302;Hall, James, Jr. 2:195rock stratigraphic units 5:300, 5:3OOf,

5:301fSmith, William 2:225time stratigraphic units 5:300f

stratigraphic controversy 3:179, 4:176,5:504

unconformities 5:544See also geochronology

stratopause 1:201 fstratosphere l:201f, 5:217fstream terraces 3:90Streffordian stage 4:183fstrelkinite(Na2(U02)2(V04)2-6H20)

3:589;

strengite 5:124-125Strepsodus 2:464fStricklandia 4:185-186strike-slip fault systems

See faulting processes; foldingStrokkur geyser, Iceland 3:108fstromatolites 4:3 83 f

Arabian Gulf 4:51 Of, 4:511Archaean stromatolites

attributes l:286f, l:289tbiosediments

domical stromatolites 1:291 fgeneral discussion 1:285

columnar stromatolites 1:29Ifconical stromatolites 1:291 fgeneral discussion 4:367geographic distribution l:280fphotograph 4:367fstromatolite-like structures 1:287

biodiversity 1:261biosignatures 1:28 5tfilamentous microbes 1:282fformation processes 1:287f, 1:288;,

3:109geographic distribution 1:280fHamelin Bay, Shark Pool, Western

Australia 1:282, 1:283 finterpretive processes 1:286lacustrine deposits 4:556limestones 1:430, 1:43 Iforigins 4:352Permian-Triassic boundary 4:223-224physical properties l:286fProterozoic 4:351reef environments 3:524f, 4:565Vendian 4:373, 4:377volcanic-related processes 3:109

Strombolian volcanoes 5:568;, 5:570;Stromboli volcano, Italy 4:3871strontium (Sr)

carbonatites 3:223;crustal composition 5:174;hydrothermal fluids 3:629;hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394;isotopes

Cambrian 4:165, 4:171fcarbonatites 3:224;, 3:224f, 3:226f,

3:227f, 3:228fchemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86/i 1:87dolomite formation 5:86radiometric dating 1:88;Vendian 4:378

lava/lava flows 3:224foceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114;radiometric dating 4:202f

structural geologySee history of geology

structure, definition of 3:390;Strunian stage 3:138fStrunius 2:464fStrunz, Hugo 5:121strunzite 5:124-125Struthio 5:483struvite 5:122

stumps 4:579fsturtzstroms 4:690-691stylolites5:112stylopids 2:300;Styxosaurus 2:506suanite (Mg2B2O5) 3:512;sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt 1:127,

1:158Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52Subcommission on the Systematics of

Metamorphic Rocks, IUGS (SCMR)3:386

subcretion 5:309f, 5:314subcritical climbing 4:543subduction zones

accretionary wedges 5:307-317controlling factors 5:317;critical taper 5:309fdecollement 5:309, 5:309 f, 5:3 Wf,

5:311f,5:315f,5:316ffluid flow 5:312, 5:313ffluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f,

5:31 If, 5:315, 5:316fformation processes 5:307, 5:308f,

5:309, 5:310/", 5:31 Ifmethane hydrates 5:312, 5:314fobduction 5:315oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316foccurrences 5:307ocean trenches 5:430;, 5:431-432,

5:435fsediment thickness 5:311, 5:312fseeps and vents 5:312stability 5:309fsubcretion 5:309f, 5:314tectonic erosion

background information 5:313basement topography 5:314, 5:315ffluid pressure effects 5:315, 5:316f

turbi&tes5:310f95:311fAlps 2:133fAmpferer, Otto 3:193Andes Mountains 1:118, l:125f, l:155fAsia 1:346 fcollision zones 5:429f9 5:430-431crustal recycling processes 1:404, 1:405fEocene 5:466, 5:468flux melting 3:21 If, 3:212Japan 3:297, 3:298f, 3:303-304large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:318f,

3:319, 3:319flong-term carbon cycle 1:338, l:338fMediterranean region 2:136, 2:137f,

2:141f,2:142fmetamorphic facies 3:404f9 3:411,

3:412fMiocene 5:479-480Oceania 4:109, 4:114, 4:117ocean trenches 5:428-437

accretionary wedges 5:307-317,5:430;, 5:431-432, 5:435f

chemosynthetic communities5:433-434

convergent plate boundaries 4:343/,4:344, 4:345f, 5:429f9 5:429-430

780 INDEX

subduction zones (continued)critical taper 5:433depth control factors 5:435early research 5:428empty trenches 5:434faulting 5:435f, 5:43 6ffilled trenches 5:432geographic distribution 5:430,

5:43 Ofisland arcs 5:431major trenches 5:430tmaximum depth 5:430tmorphology 5:431, 5:43Ifouter rise 5:434sediment transport 5:432subduction erosion 5:431-432, 5:434,

5:435 fwater volume 5:433

Palaeocene 5:461Pangaea3:143/"regional metamorphism 4:407seamounts 4:482, 4:483fslab-breakoff model 5:538-539, 5:539fsouthern Cordillera 4:60subducted slabs 1:402temperature-depth diagram 3:412fultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:539fUralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89, 2:89fvolcanoes 5:566f

sub-greenschist facies 3:397, 3:403/",3:404f, 3:405, 3:407f

submarine canyons 4:646, 4:93-94, 4:94f,5:432

subsidence 2:9-14causal mechanisms

alluvium 2:13flowing water 2:12ground shrinkage/swelling cycles 2:13ground water extraction 2:11groundwater regime changes 2:13karst2:10mining 2:9oil and gas extractions 2:11salt dissolution 2:12thermokarst 2:13volcanism 2:13

glossary information 2:13Succodium 2:434Sudan 3:129, 3:137fSudan Arch 3:140fSudbury complex, Canada 3:283,

3:491-492Sudetes 2:235-237, 2:81fSuess, Eduard 2:233-242

early career 2:234earthquake distribution 2:237, 2:237fearth system science 3:2engineering projects 2:234-235eustatic theory 2:235, 2:235fgeological research (1900-1962) 3:192global tectonics 2:233, 2:238, 2:239f,

2:240f, 2:248Gondwana 3:128legacy 2:241

mountain-building theoryAlps 2:235cooling/contraction theory 3:177-178,

3:182eustasy 3:182folding 2:237fglobal tectonics 2:237influence 2:233virgation 2:239f

nappe folding 2:241palaeontological research 2:234, 2:235portrait 2:234fpublications 2:235, 2:238stratigraphic research 2:235tektites 5:443-444Wollaston Medals 3:62

Suevian land mammal age 5:473fsulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366sulphur (S)

allotropes 3:554atmospheric concentrations 1:1971carbonatites 3:223thydrogen sulphide (H2S) 1:197?, 1:200?,

3:628, 3:629?, 4:259?, 4:260hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394tisotopes

atmospheric evolution 1:201carbonatites 3:222diagenetic quantification 5:146, 5:148f

natural gas content 4:259?, 4:260natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554obsidian 3:269?oil composition 4:253f, 4:256, 4:256fpyrrhotite (Fe7S8) 4:149tsulphates

barite (BaSO4) 3:573, 5:394tbrewing process 3:79-80, 3:80tcarbonatites 3:223?geothermal systems 3:113tgypsum 3:572-573

classification 5:26?crystal structure 3:572, 3:572fgeotechnical properties 3:102tground subsidence 2:12hydrothermal vents 5:394?karst landscapes 4:679lacustrine deposits 4:557-558occurrence 3:573physical properties 3:572

Hey's chemical classification system3:501t

hydrothermal fluids 3:629?hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:394?melanterite (FeSO4-7H20) 3:573rhomboclase 3:573rozenite (FeSO4-4H2O) 3:573seawater concentrations 5:94, 5:95szomolnokite (FeSO4-H20) 3:573

sulphide minerals 3:574-586ancient sedimentary rock associations

3:494-495, 3:495fanoxic environments 4:495-496,

4:497farsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:582-583,

3:583f

base metal depositscharacteristics 3:644?emplacement mechanisms 3:643,

3:643fgeneral discussion 3:643

carbonate sequences 3:495crystal structure 3:574, 3:575?, 3:576f,

3:577fDana classification system 3:502?general discussion 3:641geobarometry 3:583geochemical analysis 3:21, 3:26fgeothermometry 3:582-583Hey's chemical classification system

3:501thydrothermal alteration 3:492-493,

3:493fhydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:3 93/,

5:394?igneous rock associations 3:492-493,

3:493flimestones 5:112magmatic concentrations 3:642fmetamorphic processes 3:496new deposit discovery 1:441 fore deposit types 3:584, 3:585?partitioning behaviour 3:639?phase relationships 3:581fphase transformation diagram 3:580fphysical properties 3:576, 3:577?plate tectonics 1:440fprecious metal sulphide deposits

3:642, 3:642/", 3:644, 3:644fpyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497fsphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:584fstability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580fStrunz classification system 3:502?sulphidation curves 3:582fweathering processes 3:489, 3:489f

sulphur dioxide (SO2) 2:197?, 1:200?,3:320f9 3:322, 3:383, 5:246?

terrestrial volcanic-gas compositions1:200?

Venus 5:246?, 5:247?weathering processes 5:589

Sulmenev Bay 2:53Sultancayir mining district, Turkey

See ore bodies, boratesSulzer, Johan Georg 3:172Sumatra 4:53-54Summan Platform 3:140fSumy-Dnieper terrane 2:45, 2:45fSun 5:209-220

corona 5:211coronal mass ejections 5:212, 5:213f,

5:219physical characteristics 5:210?

absolute solar luminosity 5:209composition 5:209corona 5:211distance between Earth and Sun 5:209effective temperature 5:209magnetic field 5:210mass 5:209radius 5:209

INDEX 781

Sun (continued)rotation 5:210solar atmosphere 5:211, 5:211fsolar luminosity l:197f, 1:197-198

solar flares 5:212, 5:218-219solar wind

basic properties 5:212heliosphere 5:214interplanetary magnetic field 5:213,

5:214fmagnetosphere 5:217, 5:218forigins 5:213parameters 5:213t

Sun-Earth connectionauroras 5:218, 5:219fdistances 5:209geomagnetic fluctuations 5:218geomagnetic storms 5:217glaciation 5:215global warming 5:215magnetosphere 5:217, 5:217f, 5:218fsolar constant 5:215, 5:216fsolar radiation 5:214, 5:219space weather 5:218terrestrial atmosphere 5:215, 5:217f,

5:219X-ray image 5:21 If

Sunda Islands 2:238Sundarban Delta 3:296Sunda Trench 5:430t, 5:43 Ofsupercontinents

Antarctica 1:132crustal aggregation 4:14fglaciation 4:14fGondwana 4:14f, 5:177-178Laurentia 4:14f, 5:177-178Nuna4:14/;4:16Pangaea 3:346, 3:346f, 4:14f, 5:177,

5:178fPermian 4:214Rodinia 3:164/i 4:371Sclavia4:14/; 4:16, 4:17Superia 4:14fTriassic 3:346, 3:346fVaalbara4:14/"Vendian 4:371

supercratons 4:14f, 4:16, 4:17Superia 4:14fSuperior craton 4:llf, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,

4:17f, 4:19fsuperplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461surface processes

aeolian systems 4:612-627anoxic environments 4:495-501

Cretaceous 3:363, 3:370-371crinoids 2:349dysaerobic assemblages 4:497,

4:498fearly Earth 1:201euxinic environments 4:495-496formation processes 4:499identification process

biofacies 4:497, 4:499fblack shales 4:496-497fossils 4:497, 4:498f

general discussion 4:495pyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497f

Jurassic 3:355lakes 4:550-551modern environments 4:495oceanic anoxic events 4:497oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ)

4:495, 4:496fsapropels 4:500-501silled basins 4:495, 4:496fSilurian 4:193superanoxic event 4:499upwelling zones 4:495, 4:496f

carbon cycle 1:335-345anthropogenic carbon dioxide sources

1:343, 1:343f, I:344f9 1:345fbasic principles 1:335, l:336fCambrian 1:204-206Carboniferous 1:204-206geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,

l:342fglacial/interglacial periods 1:341,

l:342f, 1:343 flong-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:338,

1:338 f,l:339fOrdovician 1:204-206Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204,

1:205f, 1:206, l:206fshort-term carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f,

1:337 fdeep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:70-78

biogenic sedimentation rates 5:77calcite compensation depth (CCD)

5:73, 5:73fcomposition 5:70deep water processes 4:648distribution controls 5:73, 5:73fgeographic distribution 4:642f,

4:643f, 5:71fhistorical research 5:70lysocline 5:73, 5:73fsediment types

calcareous oozes 4:642f, 4:648,5:70, 5:71f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t

continental margin sediments 4:642fdiatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54,

5:54fferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,

5:76,5:77^,5:119general discussion 5:73glacial deposits 4:642fmud 4:642fnomenclature 4:645, 4:645/~, 4:646tpelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f,

5:47fred clays 4:642/i 5:70, 5:71f9 5:72f,

5:74f, 5:75t, 5:76siliceous oozes 4:642/", 5:53, 5:55f,

5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75tsilicoflagellates 5:75sources 4:642f, 5:72f

deep water processes 4:641-649channel systems 4:648continental slopes 4:642/~, 4:646deep continental margins 4:648

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:648oozes 4:648Quaternary sediment accumulations

4:641-642, 4:642fseafloor morphology 4:641, 4:642fsediment drifts 4:648sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/",

4:646tsediment sources 4:642, 4:642fsubmarine canyons 4:646transport processes

atmospheric circulation 4:644biota 4:645gravity-driven processes 4:644ocean currents 4:643submarine landslides 4:644-645turbidity currents 4:644volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645wind blown sediment 4:644

deltas 4:528-539abandonment 4:531, 4:533f, 4:534fAtchafalaya River delta 4:531, 4:532fbackground information 4:528classification 4:529fcontrolling factors 4:528deformation processes

collapse depressions 4:534f, 4:535,4:535f

growth faults 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536fhangingwall anticlines 4:535linear gullies 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535fmud diapirs 4:534f, 4:535, 4:537fmudflows 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535f,

4:5 37frotational slides 4:534/", 4:535,

4:535fshale ridges 4:534/r, 4:535syn-sedimentary deformation 4:532,

4:534fdistributaries 4:531 feconomic aspects 4:536f, 4:537,

4:53 8fformation processes 4:528importance 4:528levees 4:534flife cycle 4:531, 4:532f, 4:533flobe complexes 4:532f, 4:533fMississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532fpetroleum traps 4:537plume formation dynamics

4:529-530, 4:530f, 4:531f, 5:20f,5:21f

river mouth processes 4:529, 4:53Ofsedimentary growth faults 4:608,

4:609fsediment suspension processes

4:593-594sequence stratigraphy 5:161fshelf-edge deltas 4:534f, 4:537submerged delta plain 4:534fSundarban Delta 3:296tidal sand-banks 5:21ftransgressive barrier islands 4:534ftransgressive beaches 4:533fWax River delta 4:531, 4:532f

782 INDEX

surface processes (continued)depositional sedimentary structures

4:593-602basic principles

bedding 4:593bedload transport 4:593fine-grained sediments 4:594lamination 4:594plane bed transport 4:597-598suspension processes 4:593upper flow regime transport 4:597,

4:598fbedforms

aeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595 f, 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599foccurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fdecelerating flow structures 4:600flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601 flamination

aeolian systems 4:599aqueous bedforms 4:594Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601fcross-lamination 4:594, 4:595ffine-grained sediments 4:594heterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fundulating lamination 4:599,

4:599fpebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601fstructureless features 4:600

deserts 4:539-549aeolian systems

accumulation 4:543, 4:543fbedform climb 4:543, 4:543fbedforms 4:599bounding surfaces 4:543, 4:544fbypass supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545fcross-bedding 4:600deflationary supersurfaces 4:545,

4:545fdesert pavement (reg) 4:626dry aeolian systems 4:544

interdune migration surfaces 4:543,4:544f, 4:546f

preservation 4:543reactivation surfaces 4:543, 4:544fsand sea construction 4:543subcritical climbing 4:543superimposition surfaces 4:543,

4:544fsupersurfaces 4:545, 4:545fwet aeolian systems 4:544wind blown sediment 5:21zircon occurrences 3:604

alluvial fans 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:542ancient aeolian systems

depositional models 4:547, 4:548fdry aeolian systems 4:545dune-interdune interactions 4:547finterdune migration surfaces 4:546fstabilization 4:546wet aeolian systems 4:546

Atacama Desert 3:555borate deposits 3:516f, 3:516-517braid-plains 4:541f, 4:542dunes 4:540, 4:541f, 4:599ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542fluvial systems 4:541 f, 4:542geographic distribution 4:540fgeomorphic features 4:541 finterdunes 4:541, 4:541fKara Kum Desert 1:166Kyzyl Kum Desert 1:167playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517sabkhas

Arabia 1:146Arabian Gulf 4:509f9 4:510f, 4:511carbonates 5:110-112dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91evaporites 5:31, 5:32fgeneral discussion 4:542liquefaction 1:5 28toccurrence 1:561

sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,4:622f

sandsheets 4:542Thar Desert 3:296zircon 3:604

erosion surfaces 4:587-593catastrophic floods 4:635fchannels 4:592, 4:592ferosional sole marks

chevron marks 4:591, 4:591fdevelopmental stages 4:589ffluid turbulence 4:589flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590fgeneral discussion 4:588gutter casts 4:590, 4:590flongitudinal furrows 4:590obstacle scours 4:589, 4:589f, 4:591tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591fway-up indicators 4:588-589

facies analysis 4:490, 4:490fpalaeosols 5:207fprocesses

abrasion 4:588cohesiveness 4:588, 4:588f

critical erosion velocity 4:588,4:S88f

surface structures 4:591facies analysis 4:485-491

architectural elements 4:488, 4:489fbounding surfaces 4:488depositional environment

allocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490autocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490cyclothems 4:487, 4:488ffacies succession 4:486, 4:488fflooding surfaces 4:488f, 4:491grain size analysis 4:485-486,

4:487, 4:488ferosion surfaces 4:490, 4:490fgeological proxies 4:131glacigenic sediments 4:675, 4:67Sfhistorical background 4:485interbedded environments 4:486,

4:486f, 4:580models 4:490, 4:580scheme varieties 4:485sequence stratigraphy 4:490, 4:490fstorm deposits 4:580Walther's Law of the Correlation of

Facies 4:487, 4:487ffluvial geomorphology 4:650-663

abrasion analysis 4:655fbraided river systems 4:656/", 4:657f,

4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, S:139fchannel networks 4:65Ofchannel patterns 4:656, 4:656f,

4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659fdeserts 4:541f, 4:542downstream fining 4:655fdrainage basins 4:657, 4:660fflood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660fflood frequency 4:653-654, 4:654ffloodplain classification 4:658t, 4:658fflood plains 3:90f, 3:91 fgeneral discussion 4:650grain size analysis 4:654, 4:655flandforms 4:654material transfer process 4:651,

4:651t,4:652f,4:653fmeandering river systems 3:90f,

4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659fnetwork development

eustatic cycles 4:660-661, 4:662fmodels 4:661ftime factors 4:659

sediment transport 4:653f, 4:654fsolute transfer 4:65Itstraight river systems 4:656f, 4:659fstream terraces 3:90surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f

geysers 3:105-117ecology 3:105energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:111 f

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

3:lllfpower installation 3:11 Of

INDEX 783

surface processes (continued]soffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109fwater temperature

variations 3:11 Ofworldwide utilization rates 3:112t

geothermal systems 3:105nonvolcanic-related processes 3:114occurrence 3:105volcanic-related processes 3:106,

3:107, 3:107f,3:108fglaciers 4:663-678

Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,4:664?, 4:664f, 4:665f

background information 4:663characteristics

deformation mechanisms 4:667,4:667^

glacier flow 4:667, 4:667^mass balance 4:665, 4:666fmorphology 4:664regelation 4:667, 4:668fstructure 4:667, 4:669fthermal regime 4:666, 4:666f

cirque glacier 4:664debris entrainment 4:671, 4:673fdeposition

braided river systems 4:676drumlins 4:676eskers 4:677, 4:677fflutes 4:676, 4:677/glacigenic sediments 4:134, 4:675,

4:675fice-marginal landforms 4:676kames 4:676marine environments 4:677moraines 4:676, 4:677fprocesses 4:671, 4:674fsubglacial landforms 4:676, 4:677fsurficial deposits 3:94

erosionaretes 4:670, 4:672fcirques 4:670, 4:672fcrescentic gouges 4:668-669, 4:670ffjords 4:670, 4:672fhorns 4:670, 4:672ficebergs 4:670-671landforms 4:668, 4:670f, 4:671fmarine environments 4:670microchannels 4:668-669, 4:670fprocesses 4:668roches moutonnees 4:669-670,

4:671fstriations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671ftunnel valleys 4:670-671

global distribution 4:663, 4:663?,4:664 f

Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,4:664?, 4:664f

ice caps 4:665fice sheets 4:664sea-level effects 4:664?valley glacier 4:664, 4:666f

hot springs 3:105-117carbonate sedimentation 3:523f

ecology 3:105energy exploitation

cascading geothermal powerutilization process 3:11 If

general discussion 3:109liquid-dominated geothermal field

3:lllfpower installation 3:110fsoffioni 3:110, 3:110ftemperature requirements 3:109fwater temperature variations 3:11 Ofworldwide utilization rates 3:112t

geothermal systems 3:105nonvolcanic-related processes

Bath, England 3:113?, 3:113f, 3:114commercial applications 3:116doublet system 3:114fgeneral discussion 3:114geochemical analysis 3:113tgeothermal utilization 3:11 5 'fheat output 3:113tParis Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115fseafloor activity 3:115spas/thermal baths 3:113f, 3:116,

3:1 16foccurrence 3:105volcanic-related processes

bioherms 3:109general discussion 3:106hot- water waterfall 3:106fsinter 3:108stromatolites 3:109travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f

karst landscapes 4:678-687biokarst 4:679, 4:681fcaves (endokarst)

carbonate sedimentation 3:523fcave features 4:684fgeneral discussion 4:684paragenetic canyons 4:684f,

4:684-685, 4:68Sfscallops 4:685, 4:686fspeleothems 4:686, 4:686fvadose canyons 4:684f, 4:685f

classification scheme 4:683fclimatic effects 5:585clints 4:680, 4:682fcone karst 4:682-683cryokarst 4:679dissolution processes 1:550-551,

1:551 f, 4:679drainage 4:683exhumed karst 4:679fluviokarst 4:682geophysical techniques 1:49 It, 1:493,

1:495 fglaciokarst 4:682, 4:682fgrikes 4:680, 4:682finterstratal karst 4:686landscape development 4:683palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686fpseudokarst 4:679relict karst 4:679, 4:683frunnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681f,

4:682f

solution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680,4:680f, 4:682f

solution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680,4:682f

surface karst (exokarst)dolines 4:682f, 4:684fgeneral discussion 4:680lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681flarge-scale karst (karst landscapes)

4:682limestone pedastals 4:68Ifmedium-scale karst (karst

landforms) 4:681small-scale karst (karren) 4:680,

4:680fsolution pits 4:681 f

tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683fweathering processes 5:583

landslides 4:687-692ancient landslides 4:690f, 4:691angle of repose 4:688, 4:692Atlantic Margin 4:94f, 4:94-95catastrophic floods 4:632classification 4:688, 4:689fcreep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691fdebris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573,

5:576?, 5:576fdebris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690fearthflows 4:690earthquakes 3:93feconomic losses 4:688, 4:688fengineering geomorphology 1:476/1,

1:476-478, 1:477fhazard analysis

earthquakes 5:327frequency 1:517thazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523 fmortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?,

4:688quantification analysis 1:516

lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f

lidar topography 3:93fmitigation methods 4:692Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691 fmud flows 4:689occurrence 4:687quick clay landslides 4:690rainfall 5:17, 5:19frockfalls 4:689, 4:689frotational slides 4:689, 4:690fslope stability studies 4:688slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690fsturtzstroms 4:690-691submarine landslides 4:644-645Tadzhikistanl:51S/"talus 4:689topples 4:689translational slides 4:689volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?,

5:576fmass wasting 3:93modern soils 5:194-202

andisolization 5:199anthrosolization 5:200

784 INDEX

surface processes (continued]basic processes

chronofunctions 5:194, 5:195fchronosequence 5:194climatic effects 5:194-195, S:196fdevelopmental stages 5:194fgeneral discussion 5:194lessivage 5:194, 5:194f, 5:195fsoil-horizon terminology 5:197ttaxonomy 5:196t

biocycling 5:197calcification 5:194f, 5:196f, 5:200cryoturbation 5:201ferrallitization 5:196f, 5:197gleization 5:195, S:198fglossary information 5:201lessivage 5:194f, 5:195f, 5:l96f,

5:198, 5:198flixiviation 5:198melanization 5:199, 5:199fpaludization 5:194f, 5:195podzolization 5:195, 5:196fsalinization 5:196f, 5:201solodization 5:200solonization 5:200, 5:201fvertization 5:199, 5:200fweathering reactions 5:197t

palaeosols 5:203-208burial alteration processes 5:204,

5:204fcolor banding 5:203ferosion surfaces 5:207ffacies analysis 4:490-491formation duration 5:207fossils 5:206, 5:206^geosol 5:203gleization 5:204identification process 5:203

peds 5:204, 5:204froot traces 5:203soil horizons 5:204, 5:204fsoil structure 5:204

lateritic palaeosols S:203fnomenclature 5:203, 5:207palaeoclimate 5:205, 5:206fpalaeoecology 5:205palaeogeography 5:206, 5:206fpalaeogully 5:207fparent materials 5:206, 5:207fpedoderm 5:203pedolith 5:203pedotype 5:203sedimentation rate 5:207volcanic materials 5:206-207

post-depositional sedimentary structures4:602-611

climatically induced structuresdesiccation 4:609, 4:609fevaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,

4:610fperiglacial deformation 4:610raindrop impressions 4:610

concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611 fdeforming forces

burial alteration processes 4:604

density inversions 4:604, 4:60Sfdown-slope gravitational forces

4:603-604, 4:605fglaciation 4:604liquefaction 1:525-534, 4:604,

4:605f, 4:606soft-sediment deformation processes

deforming forces 4:603, 4:605fgeneral discussion 4:602shear strength loss 4:603, 4:605f

soft-sediment deformation structuresconvolute lamination 4:604, 4:606fdescriptions 4:605fdish and pillar structures 4:606,

4:607fextruded sheets 4:607general discussion 4:604load casts 4:604, 4:605fmud diapirs 4:607, 4:608foverturned cross-bedding 4:606,

4:606fpseudonodules 4:604sand injection structures 4:607sand volcanoes 4:607, 4:608fsedimentary growth faults 4:608,

4:609fslumps and slides 4:607

reef environments 4:562-570background information 4:562bafflestone 3:527/j 4:562-563,

4:563fbindstone 3:527/i 4:562-563, 4:563fCambrian 4:565Carboniferous 4:565-566Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368, 3:371,

4:567f, 4:567-568Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565extinction events 4:565-566,

4:566-567floatstone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:S64fframestone 3:527f, 4:5 62f, 4:562-563,

4:568f, 4:S69fJurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567fMiocene 4:568f, 4:569fmodern reef formation

atolls 4:481, 4:564barrier reefs 4:564carbonate sedimentation 1:343f,

3:523f, 3:529corals 4:562fringing reefs 4:564, 4:568flagoons 4:564morphology 4:562

morphology 4:568fpatch reefs 3:526/i 4:562f, 4:564Permian 4:565-566, 4:566frudists 4:567/i 4:567-568rudstone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:564fSilurian 4:565stromatolites 3:524f, 4:565Tertiary 4:568-569Triassic 4:566f, 4:566-567Walther, Johannes 2:244zonation 4:562

sediment deposition processes 5:8-17

bedformsaeolian systems 4:599antidunes 4:597bars 4:597compound bedforms 4:597cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,

4:600cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595fcurrent-controlled bedforms 5:15,

5:15 fcurrent ripples 4:594, 4:594fdunes 4:596, 4:596fheterolithic lamination 4:599,

4:599fhummocky cross-stratification

4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599flongitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15fmud waves 5:15occurrence criteria 4:595fparting lineation 4:598, 4:598freactivation surfaces 4:597fripple lamination 4:594sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597fstanding waves 4:597, 4:598fswaley cross-stratification 4:574f,

4:576f, 4:599fundulating lamination 4:599, 4:599fwave-current interactions 4:599wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f

controlling factorsaggregation 5:9, 5:10fboundary layer turbulence 5:10,

5:11 fflocculation factor 5:10fflow characteristics 5:10, 5:11 fsettling velocity 5:8, 5:9f

critical suspension conditions 5:11,5:12f

currents 5:14deposition rates 5:13, 5:14ferosion diagram 5:12ffractionation 5:14general discussion 5:13nepheloid layers 5:13, 5:14pelagic flux 5:12shear stress limitations 5:14suspension transport criteria 5:11,

5:12fturbulent boundary layers 5:13viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:llf

shorelines and shelves. See shorelinesand shelves

storms 4:580-587carbonate systems

flat-pebble conglomerate beds 4:586shell beds 4:586

facies models 4:580oceanographic studies 4:580, 4:581fstorm deposits

bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:585ffacies analysis 4:580geostrophic flow 4:581, 4:582fhummocky cross-stratification

4:581-582, 4:582f, 4:584f,4:585f, 4:599f

INDEX 785

surface processes (continued)hyperpycnal oceanic flows

4:582-583stability diagram 4:583fstratification 4:582f, 4:583ftempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581,

4:585funidirectional aqueous flow 5:548-556

background information 5:548bedform type 5:554, 5:554fboundary layer structure 5:549, 5:550fboundary shear stress estimation 5:550coherent flow structure 5:548, 5:551flow separation 5:552, 5:552f, 5:554ffree shear layers 5:553Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552f,

5:552-553laminar flows 5:548, 5:549particle roughness 5:553f, 5:554porous beds 5:556, 5:556fstress-strain relationships 5:549, 5:549fsubcritical flows 5:548-549, 5:549fsuspended sediment characteristics

5:554, 5:554f, 5:555fturbulent flows

boundary layer structure 5:549clay concentrations 5:555flaminar-turbulent transition 5:552fprocesses 5:548turbulent boundary layers 5:551,

5:551fvortices 5:551, 5:552f

velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f, 5:554f,5:555f

viscous sublayer 5:550, 5:550fweathering 5:581-590

atmospheric effects 5:589biological processes 5:589building materials 5:588chemical reactions 5:197tclay formation 1:362cracks and joints 5:581, 5:584fdefinition 5:581dehydration 5:19 7;dissolution 5:197tduricrusts 5:588early Earth 1:200-201economic geology 5:588engineering geology 1:451, 5:588hydrolysis 5:197tigneous rocksl:546flandscape development

chemical weathering 5:582t, 5:583,5:584f, 5:587-588

climatic effects 5:585, 5:586fequifinality 5:587feedback mechanisms 5:586, 5:587fgeneral discussion 5:583inheritance effects 5:584f, 5:588karst landscapes 4:683, 5:583,

5:585stress effects 5:585

lithological cycle 5:581long-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:339flong-term effects 5:589

mechanisms 5:582toxidation 5:197tPeltier's zonal classification 5:584fprocesses 5:582t, 5:584frock-forming minerals 5:17, 5:582,

5:583frock properties

general discussion 1:543rock-mass strength l:544f, 5:581shales 1:548spheroidal weathering 1:543 fweathering grades 1:544fweathering profile 1:545f

sedimentary rocks 5:26sediment fluxes 5:17short-term carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f,

1:337 fsoils 5:588, 5:589weathering classifications 1:451weathering rates 5:582, 5:589

See also floods; geomorphologySuriname 1:311Surtsey volcano, Iceland 4:387tSurveyor 1 5:266t, 5:266-267Surveyor 2 5:266t, 5:266-267sutures 5:455Suvanyak Complex 2:88f, 2:88-89Suwannee terrane 3:133f, 4:79, 4:80Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f, 2:71f, 3:344Svecofennian domain 2:40, 2:42f, 2:43fSveconorwegian orogeny 2:44Sveconorwegian Province 3:155, 3:156fsveite(KAl7(NO3)4Cl2(OH)16-8H2O)

3:556£Sverdrup Basin 3:347Svesk-Ingulets-Kirovograd basin 2:45-46swaley cross-stratification 4:574/1, 4:576f9

4:599fSweden

beer brewing process 3:79Devonian 4:199Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGothian orogeny 2:41-44Grenville orogeny 3:155, 3:1 56fHolocene 2:150meteorites 5:235Ordovician4:176-177Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:98Silurian 4:187f, 4:191-192

Switzerland 2:125, 2:130f, 2:241, 2:504,3:79,3:352,3:361

Sydney Basin 1:242, 1:250syenite 3:220;, 3:550Sykes, Lynn 3:205Sylhet Traps 3:292sylvanite ((Au,Ag)Te2) 3:119;, 3:630tsylvite 1:552, 3:221*, 5:94-95symplectites 5:534symplesite 3:508tSynapsida 2:538synapsids

background information 2:479, 2:485Caseidae 2:485, 2:486fdefinition 3:351

Edaphosauridae 2:487Eothyrididae 2:485Mesozoic 2:527Ophiacodontidae 2:487phylogenetic relationships 2:528fphysical appearance 2:477-478Sphenacodontia 2:488Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487f

synchesite 3:221Synechococcus 2:435synthetic aperture radar systems 4:415;,

4:417, 4:418fszaibelyite (Mg2B2O5-H2O) 3:511, 3:512;,

3:512f, 3:514szenicsite (Cu3MoO4(OH)4) 3:552;szomolnokite (FeSO4-H20) 3:573

Taal, Philippines 4:387tTa'al volcano, Philippines 5:575Tabberabberan Orogeny 3:139Tabenbulakian land mammal age 5:473fTable Mountain Shelf 3:128-129, 3:134fTablets of Stone (Exodus) 1:256tabular jointing 3:328ftachyhydrite 5:94-95Taconic orogeny

Northern Appalachianstectonic evolution 4:89, 4:90ftectonostratigraphical zones 4:82f,

4:83-84, 4:85Southern/Central Appalachians 4:72,

4:74/i 4:77Tadzhikistan 1:168, l:518ftaenite 3:553;, 3:554tafoni 5:583-585, S:S87fTahiti 3:315f, 3:316tTaimyr 4:179Taimyr Orogeny 4:464, 4:464ftainakhite (Cu9Fe8S16) 3:575;, 3:577fTaiwan 3:7;talc

hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394;industrial minerals 3:496layer type 1:360, l:361tmetamorphic facies 3:396-397, 3:397f,

3:400fworld production rates l:438t

talmessite 3:508tTalobre,]. 3:192Taltson-Thelon Orogeny 4:17talus l:528t, 4:689Tamassee Superterrane 4:74fTambora, Indonesia 5:575;Tanami Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:213tangeite (CaCuVO4(OH)) 3:589;tantalum (Ta)

carbonatites 3:223;crustal composition 5:174tlava/lava flows 3:224flithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)

pegmatites 3:639mineral classification systems 3:501tpartitioning behaviour 3:639;

T

786 INDEX

Tanzania 3:12, 5:491t, 5:492ftanzanite 3:7tTapejara 2:512f, 2:514Tappania plana 4:358taranakite 5:126tarapacaite (K2CrO4) 3:533?Tarim craton 1:346, l:346ftarmac 1:4831tar mats 4:237?, 4:242-243TaseevoAngara-Lena Basin 4:461, 4:463fTasmania 3:129, 3:147, 5:451Tasmanides 1:208, 1:209 f, 1:239 fTasman Line

background information 1:238-239Cambrian 1:225 fgeological map l:239f, l:241fNeoproterozoic 1:225 fProterozoic 1:208, 1:209f, l:224ftectonic map 1:23If

Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251background information 1:237cross-sections l:224fdeformation processes 1:242, 1:245fDelamerian Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240,

l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248ffault traces 1:243f, 1:245f, 1:246fgeochronology l:244fgeological map l:238f, l:239f, 1:241 f,

l:244f, 1:245 fgranite intrusives 1:247f, 1:249fLachlan Orogeny 1:237-251

back-arc basin closure 1:247, 1:248f,1:249 f

background information 1:237, 1:240characteristics 1:239, l:240tdeformation processes 1:242evolution

Andean-type margin development1:250

back-arc basin closure 1:249back-arc basin formation 1:247

geological map 1:239f, 1:241 flithofacies 1:242magmatism 1:244, 1:247fmetamorphic complexes 1:244,

1:246 fsubduction events 1:250turbidites 1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:243f

lithofacies l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, 1:243fmafic rocks 1:243fmagmatism 1:244, l:247f, 1:249fmetamorphism 1:242, 1:246 fNew England Orogeny l:239f, l:240t,

1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247orogenic events l:240tpalaeogeographic reconstruction l:248f,

1:249 fProterozoic 1:223f, l:224f, 1:225-226Ross Orogeny 1:245subprovinces l:240ttectonic evolution

Andean-type mountain building 1:250arc-continent collisions 1:250

back-arc basin formation 1:247,1:248 f, 1:249

basin inversion 1:245general discussion 1:244orogenic events 1:245, 1:247, 1:248f,

1:249, 1:249 fRodinia breakup 1:245volcanism 1:250

Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,l:241f, 1:242

timetable of events 1:223 fturbidites l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,

1:243-244ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f

Tasman Sea 5:467f, 5:468Tasmantid Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316tTasman Traps 3:363?Tatarian stage 4:208f, 4:209fTauern window 2:128f, 2:129, 2:130-132,

2:132f, 2:133fTaupo, New Zealand 3:246, 4:387tTaurides 2:135-146, 4:155f, 4:155-156Tawuia 4:357, 4:358, 4:359fTaylor, Frank 2:247-248, 3:193Taylor, Ross 5:443-444tectonic processes

Andes Mountains 1:118Argentina l:156fArmorica 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:82f, 2:83fAtlantic Margin 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f, 4:102Australia, Phanerozoic l:231f, 1:236Avalonia 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:82f, 2:83fBaltica 2:73, 2:73fbanded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39Brazil l:306fcentral Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:102Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19fcratons 5:177Cretaceous 3:362crustal deformation 1:408, 1:408f,

1:409f, 3:647-648, 4:16, 5:425-428earthquakes 5:318-330

active tectonics 5:425archaeoseismology 3:16Biblical geology 1:256characteristics

epicentre 5:318, 5:318ffocus 5:318, 5:318fgeneral discussion 5:318generation process 1:500, l:500fmagnitude measurements 5:318,

5:319f,5:320fRichter scale 5:319-320, 5:320?seismic waves 5:318-319, 5:320f,

5:332, 5:332f, 5:333feighteenth century viewpoints 3:172engineering geology 1:456-463geological research (1900-1962)

3:194global distribution 4:341 f, 5:321,

5:322fhazard analysis

accelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,1:505 f, 1:509 f

bearing failure 1:531, l:531f

British Isles 5:32 7fdamage effects 1:500-501, 5:324f,

5:325f, 5:327fdisease 5:328environmental geology 2:31European Macroseismic Scale l:502texposure 5:328fire effects 5:325Fourier spectral data 1:512ffrequency 1:517tgeneral discussion 5:321ground motion characterizations

1:504ground motion prediction

techniques 1:506ground oscillation 1:530hazard assessment techniques 1:510,

l:513fhistoric earthquakes 5:326?intensity scales 1:501, 1:502tisoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503flandslides 3:93f, 5:327lateral spreading 1:530, l:530fliquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,

l:556f, 3:94, 5:325, 5:328flooting 5:328man-made earthquakes 5:329mitigation methods 1:533, 5:328modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity

scale 5:322, 5:323?mortality rates 1:517t, l:518tquantification analysis 1:516research programs 5:328residual shear strength 1:531,1:53Ifseismic hazards 1:499, 1:510settlement 1:530, l:531fshear anlysis 1:530fsite response analysis 1:511 fstarvation 5:328tectonic earthquakes 5:322, 5:324ftsunamis 5:325urban environments 5:322, 5:324f,

5:327fvelocity profiles 1:512fvolcanic earthquakes 5:329

Japan 3:298, 3:300fNorth American continental interior

4:32rock densities 5:32Ifseismological records 5:320Suess, Eduard 2:237, 2:237fsurface traces 5:321fTibetan Plateau 5:423-424volcanism 5:575

Europecentral Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,

2:102geological map legend 2:123fmain tectonic units 2:106f, 3:648,

3:648fpalaeogeography 2:107frift systems

Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117background information 2:105Cretaceous 2:113

INDEX 787

tectonic processes (continued)Eocene 2:117geological map legend 2:123fJurassic 2:108Miocene 2:120Oligocene 2:120, 2:121fPalaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119fpalaeogeography 2:107fPermian 2:105, 2:106fTriassic 2:105

sedimentary basin formation 2:102western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f,

2:102wrench tectonics 2:102

folding 5:339-351anticlines 4:298f, 5:339fbending 5:347box folds 5:345fbuckle folds

anisotropic materials 5:340/1, 5:344,5:345f

buckle folds 5:340general discussion 5:340interface buckling 5.-340/", S:341fmultilayer buckling 5:340f, 5:343,

5:343f, 5:344f, 5:346fsingle layer buckling 5:340f, 5:341,

5:342f, 5:343fwavelength/thickness ratio 5:341,

5:343fdefinitions 5:339experimental research 5:344, 5:346fforced folds 5:347, 5:347fgeometric features 5:339, 5:339ft

5:340fmechanisms 5:346fplains-type folding 4:32, 4:34?, 4:35fsalt domes 5:348, 5:349fstrike-slip faulting 5:347-348, 5:348fthree-dimensional (3D) geometry

5:346, 5:347ffossils 4:157fractures 5:352-361

definition 5:352fluid pressure effects

fluid-induced failure 5:356, 5:357ffracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f

folding 5:349, S:350f9 5:351fformation mechanisms

conjugate normal faults 5:354fgeneral discussion 5:352Griffith criterion of tensile fracture

5:354-355, 5:355fMohr stress circle 5:353/", 5:3 55f,

5:356, 5:357fNavier-Coulomb criterion 5:353occurrence criteria 5:356shear fractures 5:352,5:352f, 5:354ftensile fractures 5:354, 5:355f

fracture analysis 5:360fracture networks 5:359, 5:359ffracture sets 5:358plate margin faults 5:360plumose structures 5:361scale 5:360, 5:360f

shear fractures 5:352, 5:352f, 5:354fstrain analysis 5:334, 5:335/", 5:336/",

5:349, 5:351fstrength envelopes 5:335-336, 5:336fstress analysis 5:334, 5:334f, 5:335/",

5:338fsurface features 5:361, 5:361ftensile fractures

formation mechanisms 5:354,5:355f

fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357/",5:358f

general discussion 5:352polygonal arrays 5:358fschematic diagram 5:352f

GondwanaBrazil 1:3 06^Cambrian 3:132fmantle convection 3:142, 3:143fPhanerozoic 1:222, 1:306, l:308fwestern Europe 2:82f, 2:83f

granitic rocks 3:237?Grenville orogeny

anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG) suite 3:160

Appalachian inliers 3:163Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f,

3:159fFlinton Group 3.-159/", 3:160general discussion 3:157Grenville Province 3:158fOttawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162,

3:163 fplate tectonics 3:164, 3:164fpost-Elzevirian activity 3:160post-Ottawan activity 3:159f9 3:162

igneous processes 3:209Japan 3:300, 3:302fKyrgyzstan 1:167lakes 4:558, 4:560fLaurasia 4:214-215Laurentia 2:73, 2:73f, 3:155, 4:9, 4:19,

4:89Mediterranean region 2:135-146

central Mediterranean 2:144eastern Mediterranean 2:144lithospheric thinning 2:136lithospheric westward drift 2:136,

2:141fpalaeogeodynamics 2:138f, 2:139f,

2:140fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

2:135-136subduction zones 2:136, 2:137f,

2:141f, 2:142ftectonic evolution 2:141 fwestern Mediterranean 2:136, 2:140f9

2:141fmid-ocean ridges 5:372-387

axial neovolcanic zone 5:380background information 5:372eruption frequency 5:383faulting processes

abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386ffault scarps 5:3 84f, 5:385f

general discussion 5:383transform faults 5:375, 5:386fvolcanic growth faults 5:386f,

5:386-387global distribution 3:206fgranitic rocks 3:237?hydrothermal vents 5:373-375,

5:388-395background information 5:388biological habitats 5:388f, 5:392black smokers. See black smokerschimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393fdeposit size 5:390edifices 5:390, 5:390ffast-spreading ridges 5:389formation locations 5:389fossil record 5:394growth stages 5:391, 5:392/",

5:393fintermediate-spreading ridges 5:389mineralogy 5:391, 5:394?morphology 5:390, 5:393forigin of life 4:128slow-spreading ridges 5:389structure 5:390, 5:390fwhite smokers 5:365, 5:390/j

5:390-391mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339propagating rifts 5:396-405

bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398,5:404f

causal mechanisms 5:398, 5:399fcontinental propagators 5:402f9

5:403, 5:403f, 5:404fevolution 5:396implications 5:403microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401foceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396/",

5:397fpseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f

ridge segmentationaxial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:378f,

5:379faxial variations 5:381fcharacteristics 5:3 76?discontinuities 5:3 74f, 5:375,

5:376?, 5:377f, 5:378f, 5:379fgeneral discussion 5:375geochemical correlations 5:380fhierarchies 5:3 77fmagma supply 5:375, 5:378f9 5:382fmantle upwelling 5:376-377,5:378ftransform faults 5:375, 5:386f,

5:396fseawater chemistry 5:96seismic structure 5:405-417

axial magma chamber5:407, 5:413f

background information 5:405crustal thickness 5:415f, 5:416fmagma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity 5:412,

5:413fseismic layer 2A 5:406

7SS INDEX

tectonic processes (continued]seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:410,

5:411 fstructural variations 5:414, 5:415'f,

5:416fshaded relief map 5:373fspreading centres

Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:97faxial depth profiles 5:3 75faxial variations 5:381fcontinental drift theory 3:204-205Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203faulting processes 5:385fgravity measurements 1:101, l:101fmagnetic anomalies 1:83fmorphology 5:373overlapping spreading centres

5:374f, 5:375, 5:396-405propagating rifts 5:396-405sea floor spreading l:83f, 3:198,

3:203, 3:204-205, 3:362-363topography 5:374f, 5:384-386

thermal metamorphism 5:501volcanoes 5:566f

MioceneAfrica 5:481Central America 5:481continental positions 5:479, 5:480fEurasia

Himalayan Mountains 5:481Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25,

5:481Tibetan Plateau 5:481

North AmericaBasin and Range 4:60, 5:480Cascade Range 5:481Columbia River Flood Basalts 5:480East Pacific Rise 5:479general discussion 5:479Rocky Mountains 5:480Sierra Nevada Range 5:481

South AmericaAndes Mountains 5:481general discussion 5:481Isthmus of Panama 5:481

moonquakes 5:265, 5:329mountain-building processes 5:417-425

Alpine-type mountain building 5:420,5:421f

Alpscrystalline basement rocks 2:133fgeneral discussion 2:132Oligocene 5:477erogenic process 2:134fsubduction zones 2:133f

Andean-type mountain building1:137, 1:250, 5:419, 5:419f

Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183feighteenth century viewpoints 3:171general discussion 5:417geological research (1780-1835)

3:177geological research (1835-1900)

3:182, 3:183fHall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182

Himalayan-type mountain building3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422f

Mediterranean regionAppenines 3:654, 3:655fCentral Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655fcross-sections 3:648fgeneral discussion 3:654, 3:658Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654fWestern Alps 2:117

motive forces 2:251northern Cordillera 4:43oceanic island arc belts 5:418ophiolites 5:418Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:250Tibetan Plateau 5:423, 5:424fWegener, Alfred 2:249

neotectonics 5:425-428active tectonics 5:425definition 5:425glacial isostatic adjustment 2:15If,

5:427global perspective 5:428global tectonics 5:426Indian Sub-Continent 3:296

New Zealand 4:4f, 4:6North Africa

Alpine Orogeny 1:17general discussion 1:13Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, 1:16fInfracambrian tectonic processes 1:13Mesozoic extensional phase 1:16,

1:16fOligo-Miocene rifting 1:17post-Infracambrian/pre-Hercynian

tectonic processes 1:13tectonic map l:15f

North AmericaMiocene

Basin and Range 5:480Cascade Range 5:481Columbia River Flood Basalts 5:480East Pacific Rise 5:479general discussion 5:479Rocky Mountains 5:480Sierra Nevada Range 5:481

northern Cordillera 4:37/", 4:38Ouachita Mountains

accretionary wedges 4:70-71diachronous collision events 4:61,

4:70fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62^imbrication zones 4:65tectonic evolution 4:61, 4:62ftectonic map 4:23 ftectonic synthesis 4:70

Precambrian continental nucleus 4:9fsouthern Cordillera 4:51f, 4:58, 4:59/",

4:60ocean trenches 5:428-437Ordovician 4:182Pangaea

Carboniferous 4:225, 4:226fcomponents 4:225definition 4:225mantle convection 3:142, 3:143f

microplate terranes 4:228Permian 4:226/", 4:227Phanerozoic 1:222Precambrian basement 4:12Triassic 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f, 4:227

Permian 4:214Permo-Carboniferous basin formation

2:101f,2:96plate tectonics 4:340-349. See also

mountain-building processesbasic principles

asthenosphere 4:340, 4:343fdeformation mechanisms

4:340-341, 4:343fgeneral discussion 4:340global seismicity 4:341 flithosphere 4:340, 4:343fplate boundaries 4:340, 4:342f

Earth 1:424, 1:426 fgeological research (1900-1962) 3:192global tectonics 5:426Grenville orogeny 3:164, 3:164fmantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424, 4:348mechanisms

direct forces 4:349mantle convection 4:348plate velocities 4:349

morphologyconvergent plate boundaries 4:343f,

4:344divergent plate boundaries 4:342,

4:343f,4:344f,5:374f,5:429-430

transform plate boundaries 4:343,4:343f, 4:345f, 5:429-430

ocean trenches 5:428-437plate kinematics

absolute plate motions 4:348,4:348f

Euler rotation poles 4:344, 4:346frelative plate motion 4:346, 4-347f

terranes 5:455Wegener, Alfred 3:193

Pliocene 5:487, 5:487tradar techniques 4:418Rheic Ocean 2:79, 2:80f, 2:82fsedimentary basin formation 2:101 f, 2:96sediment fluxes 5:18sequence stratigraphy 5:171, 5:171 fSouth America 1:306, l:307f, l:308t,

1:308 fSouth-east Asia 1:177Suess, Eduard 2:233, 2:238, 2:239/",

2:240ftectonic erosion 5:317ttectonic terrains 3:93f, 3:94, 3:94fTriassic 3:346, 3:346f, 4:102Turkmenistan 1:166Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89fVariscides Orogeny 2:76f, 2:79, 2:80f,

2:81fVendian 4:371western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f, 2:102See also faulting processes; orogenic

events

INDEX 7S9

Teide, Tenerife 5:575Tejas sequence, North America 4:25-26,

4:26ftektites 5:443-455

Archaean 5:454australites 5:446, 5:448f, 5:449f,

5:450fbediasites 5:444, 5:446fChina 5:444fcomposition 5:449Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

5:453Darwin, Charles 5:443, 5:444fDevonian 5:454Eltanin glasses 5:451end-Permian extinctions 4:221Eocene 5:444, 5:452experimental data 5:449, 5:452f, 5:453ffuture research 5:454irghizites 5:451Libyan desert glass 5:450meteorites 5:235microspherules 5:452microtektites 5:444, 5:445t, 5:447-448,

5:451 f, 5:452-453Miocene 5:444moldavites 5:444-445, 5:446fmorphology 5:448f, 5:449f, 5:450f,

5:453fMount Darwin glass 5:451occurrence 5:443origin hypotheses 5:443, 5:449-450Pleistocene 5:444shock metamorphism 5:182strewn fields

Australasia 5:445?, 5:445/", 5:446central Europe 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445fgeneral discussion 5:444geographic distribution 5:445?, 5:445fIvory Coast 5:445, 5:445?, 5:445f,

5:447fNorth America 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f

urengoites 5:451zhamanshinites 5:451

Teleorhinus 2:504teleosteans 2:466f9 2:466-467tellurium (Te)

gold deposits 3:118-119mineral classification systems 3:501?,

3:502tnatural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

S:114tTelychian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f, 4:187f,

5:511f, 5:517ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:S20fBuettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:S19fCarboniferous 2:473 f, 2:474-475,

2:519-520, 2.-520/", 4:211Chigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519f

cladogram 2:473fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fJurassic 2:519f, 2:520Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517fMastodonsaurus 2:517fMesozoic 2:516-523Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPermian 2:476-477, 2:477f, 2:519-520,

2:S20fphysical appearance 2:474-475Plagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fradiation patterns 4:211Rhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fSiderops kehli 2:519fskeletal material 2:477fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518fTriassic 2:516-523, 2:517

tempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581, 4:585ftengchongite

(Ca(U02)6(Mo04)2(OH)10-7H20)3:552?

tennantite ((Cu,Zn)12(As,Sb)4S13) 3:630?,5:394t

Tennant,J. 3:476-477Tennessee, United States 4:199, 4:33-34,

4:72, 4:73ftensile fractures

formation mechanisms 5:354, 5:355ffracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f,

5:358fgeneral discussion 5:352polygonal arrays 5:358fschematic diagram 5:352f

tephracharacteristics 4:389-390classification 5:572?description 5:571liquefaction l:528tvolcanic processes 5:576fSee also pyroclastic deposits

tephroites 3:558terbium (Tb) 3:223?, 3:224f, 3:242fTerek-Caspian foredeep 4:471termites 2:297/", 2:300tterraces 3:90, 5:432terranes 5:455-459

accreted terranesEast European Craton 4:458f, 4:459fNew Zealand 4:5fpalaeoterranes 5:455southern Cordillera 4:53

Aegir Sea 5:455Annamia 5:455, 5:457fAppalachian superterranes 4:74f, 4:75fArabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:3f, l:4f,

l:5fArgentina 1:160>/", 1:161Armorica 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458fArmorican Terrane Assemblage 2:75-85,

5:455

Australia 1:208Australia, Phanerozoic 1:222, 1:223fAvalonia 5:455, 5:457fBaltica 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457fBeloretsk Terrane 2:51Boundary Mountain Terrane 4:83-84Caledonides

British IslesConnemara terrane 2:60Grampian terrane 2:59Hebridean terrane 2:59Lake District terrane 2:60Midlands terrane 2:61Midland Valley terrane 2:60Monian terrane 2:60Northern Highland terrane 2:59Southern Uplands terrane 2:60Welsh Basin terrane 2:60

China 5:455, 5:457fCimmeria 3:13Ofcrustal provinces 4:23/", 5:175, 5:176fdefinition 5:455East European Craton 2:44f, 4:458f,

4:459fGondwana 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458fHellenic Terrane 5:458f9 5:458-459Isaqueena Superterrane 4:74fJapan 3:302Kazakhstan 3:130fKola Peninsula 2:44fLaurentia 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457fLaurussia 1:222, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458fMoesia 5:458f, 5:458-459New Zealand

age ranges 4:5fbatholiths 4:4f, 4:6Eastern Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fgeological map 4:2 f, 4:4fmetamorphic overprints 4:4f, 4:6overlap sequences 4:5plutons 4:6Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,

4:5fNorth China terrane 1:234, 3:130f,

5:455, 5:457f, 5:458fnorthern Cordillera 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45Notre Dame subzone 4:85ophiolites4:84palaeoterranes

continuity 5:458evaporites 5:458faunal assemblages 5:457-458glaciogenic sediments 5:458mantle plumes (hotspots) 5:457ocean-floor magnetic stripes

5:456-457palaeoecology 5:457-458palaeogeographic reconstruction

5:458fpalaeomagnetism 5:457sediment distribution 5:458tectonic belts 5:458

Pangaea 3:130f, 4:228, 5:455Perunica 5:455, 5:458f

790 INDEX

terranes (continued)Pontides of Turkey 5:458f, 5:458-459Precambrian 4:352Precordillera terrane 4:83fregional metamorphism 4:407Rheic Ocean 5:455Rheno-Hercynian Terrane 5:455Rodinia 5:455Russia 4:456, 4:459f, 4:462f, 4:466fSiberia 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457/, 5:458fSiberian craton 4:462f, 4:463Sibumasu 5:455, 5:457fSouth China terrane 3.-130/J 5:455,

5:457f, 5:458fSouth-east Asia

amalgamation 1:176, 1:17 6tbackground information 1:171constraining factors 1:176t, 1:179tdistribution 1:170 f, l:172f, 1:173f,

l:182f, 1:184forigins 1:171, 1:17 6trifting and separation events

Carboniferous-Permian events1:175

constraining factors 1:176?, l:179tgeneral discussion 1:174Jurassic 1:175sutures 1:1791timeframes l:175fTriassic 1:175

sutures 5:455Tamassee Superterrane 4:74fTimanide Orogeny 2:5'OfTornquist Ocean 5:455

terranovaite 3:593?terroir 3:85, 3:88-89Tersk domain 2:44fTertiary

Alps 2:128f, 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:134famphibians 2:523Andes Mountains 1:125Antarctica 1:134fapparent polar wander paths 4:153 fArabia 1:142 f9 l:144fbedded cherts 5:54, 5:54fbirds (Aves) 2:499Krazi[l:317f, 1:318 fCaledonian Orogeny 2:64fcephalopods 2:389fchronostratigraphy 4:25fclay occurrences 1:364corals 2:325 fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:372-385amphibians 2:523background information 3:372causal mechanisms

bolide impact craters 3:383large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383multiple events 3:384sea-level changes 3:383

impact structures 3:277, 3:283Maastrichtian-Danian boundary

ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375fbackground information 3:372

biostratigraphy 3:374Elvis taxa 3:377-378fossil record 3:374, 3:377fhistorical background 3:373Lazarus taxa 3:377-378marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378, 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381fpseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376fSignor-Lipps effect 3:376-377,

3:377fstratigraphy 3:373fterrestrial invertebrates 3:381,

3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382fvegetation 3:382, 3:383f

Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501fstratigraphy 3:373ftektites 5:453

echinoderms 2:336f, 2:337echinoids 2:354Gondwana 1:170 f, 1:172finsects 2:296-298, 2:299finterior rifts 1:327Lyell, Charles 5:466New Zealand 4: l,4:3fNorth Africa 1:14 , 1:15fNorth American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26forogenic events l:238fostracods (Ostracoda) 3:461predation 4:145-146reef environments 4:568-569sea-level changes 4:25fSiberian craton 4:462terranes l:170f, 1:172fTsondab Sandstone, Namib Desert

4:546-547Tertiary Igneous Province, United Kingdom

3:237?, 3:239tertschite (Ca4B1oO19-20H2O) 3:513tteruggite (Ca4MgAs2B12O28-20H2O)

3:513tTerzaghi effective stress equation 5:185Terzaghi, Karl 1:445, 3:192, 3:39, 5:185Tessier, Alexandre 2:179testate amoeba 4:360testudines 2:481Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin 4:82f,

4:87, 4:87fTeterev Belt 2:46Tethys 5:287t, 5:288Tethys Ocean

Ceno-Tethys Ocean 1:17Of, 1:170-171,1:17 5 f

Cretaceous 3:362, 3:362fEocene 3:295geographic location 4:226fJurassic 2:108Mediterranean region 2:135-146, 3:648Meso-Tethys Ocean 1.-170/J 1:170-171,

1:175 fPalaeo-Tethys Ocean 1:148, 1:170f,

1:170-171, I:175f9 1:182, l:182f,1:184f

Pangaea 4:225Permian 4:215terranes 5:455Triassic 2:108, 3:344, 3:346

tethytheres 2:540Tetraceratops 2:489Tetragraptus (Etagraptus) approximatus

4:177-178tetrahedrite 3:58Sttetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:4 70^tetrapods

amniotesbackground information 2:479Carboniferous 2:468, 2:473f,

4:211-212eureptiles

captorhinids 2:481, 2:481fprotorothyridids 2:481

parareptilesmillerettids 2:479-481pareiasaurs 2:479-481procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480ftestudines 2:481

phylogenetic relationships 2:480fsynapsids 2:477-478, 2:479

background information 2:479biodiversity 1:263, l:263f, l:264fCarboniferous

adelogyrinids 2:475ai'stopods 2:473/", 2:475amniotes 2:468, 2:473f, 4:211-212anthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474/", 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcolosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476flepospondyls 2:475localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476f, 4:211nectrideans 2:473f, 2:475physical appearance 2:472Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473ftemnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211

China 1:352Cretaceous 1:273 fDevonian

limbs 2:471flobe-finned vertebrates 2:469, 2:470fphysical appearance 2:469skeletal material 2:47Iftetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:470f

evolutionary process 2:165, 2:165fJurassic 1:273 fnon-amniotes 2:468-478

adelogyrinids 2:475ai'stopods 2:473 f, 2:475

INDEX 791

tetrapods (continued)amniotes 2:473fanthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fgeneral description 2:476-477Permian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f, 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fgeneral description 2:476-477Permian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcapitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fcladogram 2:473fcolosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475diadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476f, 2:477fevolutionary process 2:165, 2:165ffish 2:469general discussion 2:476lepospondyls 2:475, 2:478limbs 2:471flobe-finned vertebrates 2:469, 2:470flocalities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473f, 2:47'6f, 4:211nectrideans

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:475, 2:478skeletal material 2:477f

non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478physical appearance 2:469, 2:472Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473fseymouriamorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478skeletal material 2:471 ftemnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fgeneral description 2:476-477Permian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211skeletal material 2:477f

tetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:470fPalaeocene 1:273 fPalaeozoic

adelogyrinids 2:475aistopods 2:473*; 2:475amniotes 2:473fanthracosaurs

cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f, 2:476f

baphetidscladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:474f

branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476fcladogram 2:473fcolosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476f, 2:477fevolutionary process 2:165, 2:165f

fish 2:469general discussion 2:476lepospondyls 2:475, 2:478localities 2:472, 2:475-476microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476fnectrideans

cladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:475, 2:478skeletal material 2:477f

non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478Permian 4:217Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473^synapsids 2:477-478temnospondyls

cladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:477f

tetrapodomorphs 2:469Permian

anthracosaurs 2:476-477baphetids 2:476-477capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477fdiadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478dissorophoids 2:477fend-Permian extinctions 4:220general discussion 2:476, 4:217lepospondyls 2:478nectrideans 2:477/", 2:478seymouriamorphs 2:477f,

2:477-478synapsids 2:477-478temnospondyls 2:476-477, 2:477f

Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473fspecies radiations 1:273ftemnospondyls

Carboniferouscladogram 2:473fphysical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211

non-amniotescladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475radiation patterns 4:211skeletal material 2:477f

Palaeozoiccladogram 2:473fPermian 2:476-477physical appearance 2:474-475skeletal material 2:477f

Permian 2:476-477Triassic 3:350

Texarkana Platform 4:62fTexas, United States

expansive clays 1:559fflying reptiles 2:509-510Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:511 fGondwana 3:147Grenville orogeny 3:157, 4:50marine reptiles 2:504-505Ouachita Mountains 4:61-71Permian 4:214, 4:215f, 4:216-217,

4:221

reptiles (Reptilia) 2:477-478tektites 5:443, 5:444, 5:445*, 5:446f

Tex igryphaea 4:161ftextulariana 3:45Iftextulariids 3:45OfThabanchuia oomie 2:520fThailand 3:7*, 3:8, 4:192-193, 5:445*,

5:446-447thailandites 5:446-447Thalassia 3:524f, 3:530, 4:506, 4:506f,

4:564Thalassinoides 3:357, 4:224, 5:44, 5:45f,

5:46f, 5:47fThalassiodracon 2:506Thalassodromeus 2:514Thalattosauria 2:504Thalattosuchia 2:504thallium (Tl) 2:22*, 5:114tThames Valley, England, United Kingdom

5:495Thanetian stage

background information 5:459-460biozones 5:460fKmzi\l:322f,l:325fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmarine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:370/j 3:383f

Thar Desert 3:296Tharp, Marie 3:198Tharsis uplift 5:278Theil Mountains 3:151fthelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462Thelodus 2:464fThelodus macintoski 2:459fThematic Mapper (TM) 4:432, 4:434*,

4:435, 4:436Theophrastus 3:168therapsids 2:489thermal baths 3:113 f, 3:116, 3:116fThermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner

(TIMS) 4:437thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:434*,

4:437, 4:438fthermal ionization mass spectrometry

(TIMS) 3:605thermal maturation 3:448thermal metamorphism 5:499-502

fluid-rock interactions 5:502geological settings 5:501flithospheric fragments 5:499, S:SOOfmagmatic intrusions 5:500, 5:502fmineral zones 5:501, 5:501fregional scale processes 5:499thermal structure 5:499, 5:500fvolcanism 5:501

thermal sensors 4:432thermocline 4:55If

792 INDEX

thermohaline circulation 4:224,4:514-515, 4:517f, 4:643-644, 5:464,5:470-471, 5:489

thermokarst 2:13Thermopylae, Greece 3:15fthermosphere 1:201 fTheron Mountains, Antarctica 1:136fTheropoda 2:494, 3:351fThetford Mines ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84fThiele, Johannes 2:383-384Thomson, Charles W. 5:70-71thomsonite 3:593tThomson, J.J. 3:604-605Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240*, 1:241 f,

1:242Thomson, William

See Kelvin, William Thomson, Lordthorium (Th)

carbonatites 3:222, 3:223*, 3:224*crustal composition 5:1 74tHelium Partial Retention Zone 1:50-51lava/lava flows 3:224fradiometric dating 1:88*, 3:20uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He

dating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127Venus 5:246*

Thornhill basin 2:96f, 2:98thrips 2:300*thulium (Tm) 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:242fthunderstorms 1:S171Thuringian forest 2:96f, 2:98Thurston Island l:133f, l:134f, 1:137Thylacosmilus 5:484thymine 2:161, 2:162fThyreophora 2:493Tia Metamorphic Complex 1:246fTianzhushania spinosa 4:361, 4:361 fTibet 3:344, 4:215-216, 4:221Tibetan Plateau 1:353, 2:100, 5:423,

5:424f, 5:481, 5:488, 5:539tidal flats 4:236f, 4:57IfTien Shan Mountains 1:164-169Tighe, William 3:60tilasite 3:508*till

characteristics 3:94kimberlite indicator minerals 3:23liquefaction 1:5 28tmineral dispersion 3:21-22, 3:22f, 3:23physical properties l:483tproblematic soils 1:562rudaceous rocks 5:139terminology 4:675

tillites 1:139-140, 2:59-60, 3:140f, 4:137,4:180, 4:216, 4:675-676, 5:458

Timan Basin 4:214-215Timanide Orogeny 2:49-56

background information 2:49Barents Shelf 2:50/j 2:53Caledonian Orogeny 2:72-73Cambrian 4:62East European Craton 2:34, 2:49-50,

2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464foreland thrust-and-fold belt

2:50/", 2:51

geographic location 2:35fNovaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f, 2:53Ouachita Mountains 4:62Pechora Basin 2:50/i 2:51, 2:52/i 2:53/i

2:S4fPolar Ural Mountains 2:50/", 2:52Precambrian 4:352Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53, 2:54ftectonic relationships 2:5Ofterranes 2:5Of

Timan Range 2:49, 2:50f, 2:86-88, 2:87fTiman Zone 2:5 2f, 2:53ftime, geological 5:503time, human 5:503Timor 3:344tincal 3:510Tincalayu mining district, Argentina

See ore bodies, boratestincalconite (Na2B4O7-5H2O) 3:512*,

3:513*tin (Sn)

economic deposits 1:439fnatural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsoil concentrations 2:22*South-east Asian deposits 1:194toxicity 2:22*world production rates 1:43 8t

Tippecanoe sequence, North America 4:25,4:26f7 4:27f, 4:28

Tissfinian stage 4:169fTitan 5:286, 5:287*Titania 5:290-291, 5:291*titanium (Ti)

carbonatites 3:221*, 3:223*crustal composition 1:406*, 5:174*glauconite 3:542*ilmenite (FeTiO3)

carbonatites 3:221*granites 3:234-235kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256*magmatic ores 3:641physical properties 4:149fplacer deposits 3:489-490

ilmenorutile (FeTi2O5) 4:149fkimberlites 3:248*lava/lava flows 3:224fmagmatic ores 3:641mineral analysis 1:108*obsidian 3:269*oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*partitioning behaviour 3:639*pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5) 4:149frutile (TiO2) 3:254, 3:256*, 4:149*,

4:149 fulvospinel (Fe2TiO4) 4:149fVenus 5:247*

Tithonian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil 1:325 fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

magnetostratigraphy 4:99fvegetation 3:363-364

Toarcian stage 3:352*, 3:354/", 3:355,5:506f,5:517f

Tocantins erogenic system 1.-307/", l:314f,1:319

Togiak terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46Tokelau Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*Tombaugh, Clyde 5:293Tommotian stage 4:73-74, 4:167ftonalites 3:237*, 3:238/", 3:242fTonga 4:53-54, 4:109, 4:120Tonga Trench 4:109, 4:120, 5:430*,

5:430^Tonian System 5:511 fTonle Sap, Cambodia 5:448Tookoonooka, Australia 3:363*topaz 3:7*, 3:235*Topfer Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150ftopples 4:689torbernite 5:122-123tornadoes 1:516, 1:517*Tornquist Ocean

Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63East European Craton 4:458-459Ordovician 2:78, 4:181-182palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77f,

4:15'5~t",4:156terranes 5:455

Tornquist-Teisseyre Line 2:97, 2:101 f,2:102, 5:455

Torrey, John 2:195Torrubia, Antonio 3:172Tortonian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517ftourmaline 3:7*, 3:512f, 3:563Tournaisan stage 2:96f, 2:472, 4:201f,

4:202, 4:202f, 4:208f, 5:511/",5:517f

tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683fToxopneustes 2:354Toyonian stage 4:167ftrace elements

abundance 2:22*bioavailability 2:21occurrence 2:21speciation 2:21, 2:22*toxicity 2:22*

trace fossils 5:520-532arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:279brachiopods 4:158, 4:158fburrowing structures 5:520-521, 5:521ft

5:522fchalk 5:44, 5:47fchronostratigraphy 4:164Cnidarians 2:324death mask hypothesis 4:374definition 5:520-521environmental indicators

endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f9

5:530fichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531fichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528f

INDEX 793

trace fossils (continued)infaunal ecospace 5:529palaeo-oxygenation 5:531

ethologyagrichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fbehaviour variations 5:526fcubichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fdomichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526felectron acceptors 5:527fethological classification 5:525ffodinichnia 5:524, 5:525ffugichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fgeneral discussion 5:524pascichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526fpraedichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526frepichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f

exogenic trace fossils 5:523, 5:523fichnofabric 5:520-532

definition 5:520-521environmental indicators

endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f,5:530f

ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531fichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528finfaunal ecospace 5:529palaeo-oxygenation 5:531

ichnotaxons 5:521, 5:522fmicrobial structures 5:521fpredepositional/postdepositional trace

fossils 5:523f, 5:524preservation 5:523, 5:523fprimary trace fossils 5:524producer identification 5:521, 5:522fpseudofossils 4:382secondary trace fossils 5:523f, 5:524shelly fossils 4:373, 4:373ftaxonomy 5:521, 5:522fTreptichnus pedum 4:164, 5:303-304trilobites (Trilobita) 2:279, 2:288Vendian 4:373, 4:374, 4:377-378

trachyandesites 2:98Trachyhystrichosphaera polaris 4:359ftrachyte 3:571, 4:387t, 5:567-569, 5:571fTrachyteuthis 2:394, 2:395fTRANSALP project 2:129Trans-Altai Mountains

See Tien Shan MountainsTransamazonian thermotectonic event

l:308tTransantarctic Mountains, Antarctica

Beason Supergrooup 1:135general discussion 1:135geological map l:134fGondwana 3:128Jurassic 3:15Ifmafic sills l:136fRoss Orogeny 1:135Theron Mountains 1:136ftopography 1:132, l:133fTriassic 3:344

Transbaikalia 4:456Trans-Eurasian fault system 4:458f, 4:464f,

4:467fTrans-European Fault Zone 3:651, 3:652fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

East European Craton 2:39f, 2:40 f^2:41f, 2:42f, 2:43f

extent 3:648, 3:648f, 3:649fgeneral discussion 3:651geographic location 2:35fMohorovicic discontinuity 2:36plate tectonics 5:455Variscides Orogeny 3:652f

transformism 2:182transform plate boundaries 4:343, 4:343/",

4:345f, 5:429-430Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16, 4:19f,

4:352translational slides 4:689Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, l:10fTranssaharan Seaway 1:23Transscandinavian Igneous Belt 2:41-44,

2:43fTrans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,

2:91f, 2:92f, 4:468Transverse Ranges, United States

5:476-477Traquairia williamsonii 2:439fTrask, Parker 3:190travertine 3:116-117, 3:117ftravertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f, 3:628Trechnotheria 2:528ftree ferns 4:206f, 4:209f, 4:218ftree of life 1:202, 1:203 f, 1:279, l:280f,

4:124, 4:125f, 4:365ftree-ring studies

See dendrochronologyTremadocian stage 2:78, 4:175, 4:176,

4:177, 4:179-180, 4:184, S:511f,5:517f

Tremadocian subdivision 4:84f, 4:87fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518ftremolite 3:396-397, 3:397f, 3:400f,

3:503, 3:505, 3:50SfTreptichnus pedum 4:164, 5:303-304Triadobatrachus 2:468Triadobatrachus massinoti 2:521fTriassic 3:344-351

acritarchs 3:418-428Adamanian faunachron 3:345fAegean stage 3:345fAfghanistan 3:344Alaunian stage 3:345fMps2:131f,2:132famphibians

Chroniosuchians 2:520fossil assemblages 2:516frogs 2:521f, 2:521-522Rhytidosteroidea 2:517ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:52 O/"Buettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fLyrocephdiscus euri 2:517f

Mastodonsaurus 2:517fMicropholis 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,

2:518fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Andes Mountains 1:128angiosperms 2:422/", 2:423Anisian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221f, 5:506f,5:517 f

Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136, 3:344Apachean faunachron 3:345fArabia l:142f, l:144fAraucarioxylon 2:448fAtlantic Margin evolution 4:102, 4:95Australia 3:344

Triassic, early 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, early-middle 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, late 1:228f, 1:235Triassic, middle l:228f, 1:235

Azerbaijan 3:344Berdyankian faunachron 3:345fbiodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 f, l:264fBithynian stage 3:345fboundary stratotypes 5:505brachiopods 2:306fBrazil l:317f, I:318f9 l:320fBunter formation, Germany 3:344calcareous algae 2:428f9 2:431, 2:435fCanada 3:344carbon cycle 1:206carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206fCarnian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517fcephalopods 2:389fChina 1:347f, 3:344chronostratigraphy 3:345, 3:345f, 4:25fclimate 3:347, 3:347fconodonts 3:345, 3:441, 3:447corals 2:325fCordevolian stage 3:345fCordillera 3:344crinoids 2:346, 2:347fDienerian stage 3:345, 3:345fdinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:492, 2:493f,

3:350, 3:351fEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38f9

4:460-461echinoderms 2:336f, 2:337echinoids 2:354end-Permian extinctions

amphibians 2:516Permian-Triassic boundary

biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,4:221f

bivalves 2:377brachiopods 2:309bryozoans 2:317causes 3:348crinoids 4:220

794 INDEX

Triassic (continued)extinction estimates 4:220fossil record 4:221, 4:221 fgastropods 2:387general discussion 4:219Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221 fmarine extinctions 4:220marine invertebrates 3:348fpalaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 4:219stratigraphy 4:219fterrestrial extinctions 4:220trilobites (Trilobita) 4:220vegetation 4:220

post-extinction recovery 4:223reef environments 4:566-567Siberian Traps 4:222

Europe 2:105, 3:344Fassanian stage 3:34Sffish 2:463f, 3:350flora 3:348, 3:349fflying reptiles 2:508Franz Josef Land 3:344gastropods 2:386f, 2:387glacial/interglacial periods 3:347fglobal distribution 3:345fglobal eustasy 3:347Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, S:Sllfglossary information 3:351Gondwana

flora 3:349fgeological evolution 1:18It, 1:184Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?palaeogeographic reconstruction

l:184f, 3:148f, 3:149f, 3:150f,3:346

terranes 1:170f, 1:172 f, 1:17 Sf,3:131f

Triassic, early 3:147Triassic, late l:184f, 3:147Triassic, middle 3:147

Greenland 3:344Griesbachian stage 3:345, 3:345fgymnosperms

Bennettitales 2:453, 2:4S3fbiodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCaytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450Corystospermales 2:452general discussion 2:446Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451fGnetales 2:453Peltaspermales 2:452

Helsby Sandstone, England 4:546,4:547f

historical background 3:344Ichthyosauria 2:503Illyrian stage 3:34SfIndonesia 3:344Induan stage

chronostratigraphy 3:34Sfextinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f,

4:224

Global Standard Stratotype Sectionsand Points (GSSPs) 3:345, 5.-506/",5:511 f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:S17f

sea-level variations 3:347fvegetation 3:349f

insects 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,2:300t, 3:350

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

invertebratesammonoids 3:348f, 3:349bivalves (Bivalvia) 3:348f, 3:350brachiopods 3:349f, 3:350bryozoans 3:349f, 3:350corals 3:348f, 3:350crinoids 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:348f,

3:350molluscs 3:349, 3:349f

Iran 3:344Israel 3:344Japan 3:344jawless fish 2:460fJulian stage 3:345fJunggur Basin, China 3:344Kashmir 3:344Kazakhstan 1:164, l:184f, 3:344Keuper formation, Germany 3:344Lacian stage 3:345fLadinian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221 f, 5:506f,5:517f

Lagerstatten 3:310tLandscape Marble, Bristol District,

England 4:382, 4:383fLaurasia 3:346, 3:348Laurentia l:184fLongobardian stage 3:345fLootsbergian faunachron 3:34SfLystrosaurus 4:227, 4:227fmammalian diversification 2:532mammals 2:538Mangyshlak Peninsula, Kazakhstan

3:344Mediterranean region 3:344Meishan, China 3:344, 3:345Muschelkalk formation, Germany 3:344Nanpanjiang Basin, China 3:345Newark, New Jersey, United States 3:344New Zealand 3:344Nonesian faunachron 3:345fNorian stage 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517fNorth Africa l:14f, I:15f9 l:19f, 1:21North American chronostratigraphy

4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32fOlenekian stage

chronostratigraphy 3:34Sfextinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f, 4:224Global Standard Stratotype Sections

and Points (GSSPs) 3:345,5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

sea-level variations 3:347fvegetation 3:349f

Ordos Basin, China 3:344ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460fOtischalkian faunachron 3:345foxygen concentrations 1:206fPakistan 3:344palaeoclimate models

biome zones 4:138f, 4:138-139facies 4:137flora 4:137-138general discussion 4:135modelled temperatures 4:135, 4:136fmodel-proxy correlation 4:135precipitation 4:136, 4:13 7ftemperature-limited facies 4:136

palaeogeography 3:346, 3:346fpalaeosols 5:203fPangaea 3:131f, 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f,

4:227Panthalassic Ocean 3:346Parana basin l:320fPelsonian stage 3:345fPermian-Triassic boundary

general discussion 4:219palaeogeographic reconstruction

4:219 fradiometric dating 3:345, 4:219stratigraphy 4:219f

Perovkan faunachron 3:345fpolarity-bias superchrons 3:33Ifporifera (Porifera) 2:408-417predation 4:145-146radiometric dating 3:345reef environments 3:350, 4:566f,

4:566-567Revueltian faunachron 3:345fRhaetian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,

3:349f,5:506f,5:517frock occurrences 3:344sea-level 3:347, 3:347fsea-level changes 4:26fsedimentary basin formation 3:347Sevatian stage 3:345fSiberia 1:184f, 3:344Siberian craton 4:462Smithian stage 3:345, 3:345fSouth-east Asia

geological evolution 1:18It, 1:184,1:184f

Stratigraphic correlation l:183f,1:185 f

southern Cordillera 4:52Spathian stage 3:345, 3:345fsuperanoxic event 4:499Svalbard 3:344Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251tectonic processes 3:346, 3:346f, 4:102Tethys Ocean 2:108, 3:344, 3:346tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f, 3:350Tibet 3:344time-scale scaling concepts 5:516fTimor 3:344Transantarctic Mountains 3:344Triassic-Jurassic boundary 3:345-346

INDEX 795

Triassic (continued)Turkmenistan 1:166Tuvalian stage 3:345fUralide orogeny 2:86, 2:87f, 2:89fUzbekistan 1:167volcanism 3:345See also Mesozoic

Tribrachidium 4:376, 4:378fTriCa arsenate 3:509?Trichophycus pedum 4:378tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f, 3:571Trigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449ftrilobites (Trilobita) 2:279f, 2:281-295

activitiesdigging 2:288feeding strategies 2:278, 2:288swimming 2:288, 2:290fwalking 2:288

anatomical features 2:286, 2:287/",2:290f

background information 2:281biostratigraphy 2:294, 2:294fCambrian

biogeographical distribution 4:173ffirst appearance 4:164, 4:171stratigraphic correlation 4:167'f, 4:169fXystridura templetonensis 4:174f

cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f,2:284f

classificationAgnostida 2:291?Asaphida 2:291tCorynexochida 2:29Itgeneral discussion 2:276, 2:291Lichida 2:291?major orders 2:292fPhacopida 2:291?Proetida 2:291?Ptychopariida 2:291?Redlichiida 2:291?

Deiphon 2:291, 2:291fecdysis 2:286-287ecological structures 1:262?end-Permian extinctions 4:220enrolled trilobite 2:282fenvironmental settings 2:291exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f, 2:282f,

2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292fextinction 2:281,2:293geographic distribution 2:291growth stages 2:286, 2:288f, 2:289flimbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288morphology 2:281Mucronaspis 4:180-181Ordovician 2:164, 4:176-177, 4:179,

4:181fpalaeoautecology 4:142pygidium 2:282/, 2:283, 2:284frelevance 2:279, 2:288Rochester Shale, New York 4:189Silurian 4:185thorax 2:282f, 2:283Triassic 3:348fvisual systems 2:279, 2:283, 2:285/",

2:286f, 2:290f

Trinacromerum 2:506-507Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus 5:486Tristan da Cunha hotspot

3:335-336, 5:457Triton 5:292, 5:292?troilite (FeS) 3:575?, 3:577f, 3:580ftrona 1:30Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

(TRMM) satellite 4:439tropopause 1:201 ftroposphere 1:201 f, 5:217ftroy ounce 3:118Tsangiangpuian stage 4:167ftschermakite 3:505, 3:505ftschernichite 3:593?tschortnerite 3:593?Tsondab Sandstone, Namib Desert

4:546-547tsumcorite 3:508ttsunamis

earthquake effects 1:500, 5:325earthquake mitigation methods

1:458-459hazard analysis

frequency 1:517?mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?quantification analysis 1:516

Red Sea crossing (Exodus) 1:255volcanism 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f

Tuamotu Archipelago 3:315f, 3:316?Tuberculaspis elyensis 2:458ftube worms 4:512f, 4:512-513Tubiphytes 3:350tufa 3:116-117, 3:523ftuff 1:546-547, 2:98, 3:218?, 4:388f,

4:390, 5:572?, 5:572^Tugaloo terrane 4:78Tulerpeton

global distribution 2:472flimbs 2:471fphysical appearance 2:469

Tuloma domain 2:44 ftungstenite (WS2) 3:575?, 3:582ftungsten (W)

carbonatites 3:223?mineral classification systems 3:501?,

3:502?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114?soil concentrations 2:22?South-east Asian deposits 1:190toxicity 2:22?tungstate minerals 3:586-588

tungstibite (Sb2WO6) 3:587?Tunguska basin 4:461, 4:463f, 5:448Tunisia 1:12-25, 2:129, 3:361, 3:372-373,

5:460, 5:506ftunnelling 3:481, 3:482f, 4:482tunnellite (SrB6Oi0-4H2O) 3:512?, 3:513?tunnel valleys 4:670-671turanite (Cu5(VO4)2(OH)4) 3:589?turbidites

accretionary wedges 5:310f, 5:31 IfChina 1:350contourites 4:526, 4:645-646

deep-water sediments 4:514, 4:514/",4:645-646

lakes 4:552f, 4:554-556, 4:555focean trenches 5:432sediment deposition processes 5:6, 5:10,

5:11/",5:13soft-sediment deformation structures

convolute lamination 4:604-606dish and pillar structures 4:607fload casts 4:605f

storm deposits 4:580, 4:582f, 4:586fTasman Orogenic Belt 1:240?, l:241f,

1:242, 1:243-244Timanide Orogeny 2:51

turbidity currents 4:644, 5:3, 5:3fturbulence 5:548-549Turgai Straits 5:466-468, 5:471, 5:476turjaites 5:569-571Turkey l:532f, 3:129, 3:596, 4:215-216,

4:471, 5:506fTurkey, borate deposits 3:513?Turkmenistan 1:166Turolian mammalian age 5:479fTuronian-Maastrichtian boundary 3:383Turonian stage

anoxic events 3:363Brazil l:322f,l:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363?marine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368/", 3:38Ifoceanic anoxic events 4:497-499protist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382fvegetation 3:37'Of, 3:383f

turquoise 3:7?, 3:13, 5:122turtles 5:469turtles, sea 2:505, 2:S05fTuscany 3:655f, 3:656Tuttle, Orville 3:187Tuvalian stage 3:345fTuvalu Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?Tuva-Mongol arc 4:466Twenhofel, William Henry 2:245Tydemania 2:432Tylor, Edward Burnet 3:97Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505Tympanicysta 4:220typological species 1:267Tyrannosaurus rex 4:162Tyrrhenian Sea 2:135-146tyuyamunite (Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2-8H2O)

3:589?, 3:589-590

uUatuma thermotectonic event 1:308?Udden,Johann 3:188

796 INDEX

Udotea 2:432Ukraine 4:190, 4:197, 4:199Ukraine Craton 5:39Ukrainian Shield 2:35f, 2:36, 2:42fUlawan volcano, Papua New Guinea

5:575ulexite (NaCaB5O9-8H2O)

Argentine borate deposits 3:S13tcommercial production 3:511-512,

3:512tcomposition 3:512tgeochemical cycle 3:512fgeology 3:511mineralogy 3:511mineral processing 3:519Turkish borate deposits 3:513tuses 3:514

Ulianovsk-Saratov Basin 4:456ultisols5:;/96*ultracataclasite 3:388tultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:533-540background information 5:533coesite 5:533, 5:533f, 5:534fexsolution effects 5:535f, 5:535-536formation mechanisms 5:538, 5:539fglobal distribution

Alps 5:536f, 5:537Bohemian Massif 5:535-536, 5:536f,

5:538,5:539continent-continent collisions 5:539Dabie Shan, China 5:533, 5:535-536,

5:536/j 5:537general discussion 5:536Himalayan Mountains 5:536f, 5:538,

5:539Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan 5:533,

5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:537, 5:539Norwegian Caledonides 5:536/", 5:537occurrences 5:536fpolyphase aggregates 5:538fVariscides Orogeny 5:538

identification process 5:533metamorphic facies 3:405, 3:406fmineral assemblages 5:533Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:646-647pressure-temperature diagram 5:533f,

5:539fultramafic rocks

See metamorphic rocks; olivineultramylonite 3:388tulvospinel (Fe2TiO4) 4:149fUmba granulite domain 2:44fUmbriel 5:290-291, 5:291tumohoite (UO2MoO4-4H2O) 3:552*uncomprahgrites 5:569-571unconformities 5:541-547

angular unconformity 5:541/", 5:544tdefinitions 5:541, 5:546-547diastem 5:541disconformity 5:541feustatic cycles 5:546f, S:547fheterolithic unconformity 5:541f,

5:542-543, 5:544*historical background 5:542

Hutton, James 2:203, 2:203f, 3:175,3:175f, 5:542, 5:543f

Isle of Arran 5:542, 5:543flateral variations 5:543marine-flooding surfaces 5:546, 5:546fnomenclature 5:544*nonconformity 5:542-543, 5:544*non-sequence 5:541North American continental interior

4:30offlap 5:542onlap 5:541f, 5:542overlap 5:541f, 5:542overstep 5:541f, 5:541-542seismic reflection 5:156fseismic stratigraphy 5:545sequence stratigraphy 5:545, 5:545,

5:545*, 5:546/i 5:547fstratigraphic record 5:544type 1 unconformity 5:546, 5:546ftype 2 unconformity 5:546, 5:547f

ungemachite(K3Na8Fe(N03)2(S04)6-6H20)3:556*

ungulates 2:539, 5:485unidirectional aqueous flow 5:548-556

background information 5:548bedform type 5:554, 5:554fboundary layer structure 5:549, 5:550fboundary shear stress estimation 5:550coherent flow structure 5:548, 5:551flow separation 5:552, 5:552/", 5:554ffree shear layers 5:553Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552/",

5:552-553laminar flows 5:548, 5:549particle roughness 5:553f, 5:554porous beds 5:556, 5:556fstress-strain relationships 5:549, 5:549fsubcritical flows 5:548-549, 5:549fsuspended sediment characteristics

5:554, 5:554f, 5:555fturbulent flows

boundary layer structure 5:549clay concentrations 5:555flaminar-turbulent transition 5:552fprocesses 5:548turbulent boundary layers 5:551,

5:551fvortices 5:551, 5:552f

velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f, 5:554f,5:555f

viscous sublayer 5:550, 5:550funiformitarianism

Hutton, James 1:430, 2:205, 5:296-297Lyell, Charles 2:207, 3:177, 5:297-298

Union Fran^ais des Geologues 3:75United Kingdom

batholiths 3:238fbeer brewing process 3:78-81Carboniferous 4:202fCornwall, United Kingdom 3:238fDevonshire, United Kingdom 4:194East Kirkton, Scotland, United Kingdom

4:210-211

Faroe-Shetland Basin, United Kingdoml:103f, 1:103-104, l:104f

geological surveys 3:173, 3:476, 3:69Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland, United

Kingdom 2:455-456, 3:308, 3:441,3:442f

Isle of Wight, United Kingdom 5:468fOxford Clay, United Kingdom 3:310-311petroleum reserves 4:335fPleistocene 5:493Shropshire, United Kingdom 4:176,

4:177-178,4:185,4:188-189Tertiary Igneous Province, United

Kingdom 3:237*, 3:239Thames Valley, England, United

Kingdom 5:495Yorkshire, United Kingdom 4:201See also Australia; Canada; England;

Europe; Ireland; New Zealand;Scotland; Wales

United States 3:7*, 3:363*, 4:219fSee also specific states

United States Geological Survey (USGS)3:67,3:69,4:332

Unzen, Japan 5:575, 5:575*upwelling zones 4:495, 4:496fUralide orogeny 2:86-95

aeromagnetic map 2:87f, 2:93fBouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94, 2:93/Central Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fcross-sections 3:653fcrustal structure 2:90, 2:91fEast European Craton 2:34-35, 3:648East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,

2:91f, 2:92fgeological map 2:88fheat flow density 2:91-92, 2:93fMagnitogorsk-Tagil zone 2:86, 2:87f,

2:90-91, 4:467Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:652, 3:653fPre-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fseismic profile 2:91f, 2:92ftectonic evolution

foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:90general discussion 2:86island arcs 2:88strike-slip fault systems 2:90subduction zones 2:89tectonic processes 2:89f

topography 2:94, 2:94fTrans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,

2:91f, 2:92f, 4:468velocity profiles 2:91, 2:92fWest Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fzone classifications 2:86, 2:87f

Ural MountainsCarboniferous 4:201cross-sections 3:653fEast European Craton 2:41 fgemstones 3:12geological map 2:88fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511fKazakhstan-Khingan domain 4:467,

4:467f

INDEX 797

Ural Mountains (continued)Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:652, 3:653fPermian 4:214-215, 5:511 fSilurian 4:192-193tectonic map 4:467fTimanide Orogeny

background information 2:49foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:50f,

2:51Polar Ural Mountains 2:50f, 2:52Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52tectonic evolution 2:53

topography 2:94, 2:94fzone classifications 2:86, 2:87f

Urals Seismic Experiment and IntetgratedStudies (USEIS) experiment 2:88f,2:90, 2:91f, 2:92f

Urals Wide-Angle Reflection Seismics(UWARS) experiment 2:90

uraninite (UO2) 3:585?, 3:630turanium (U)

Australia 1:218/, 1:221carbonatites 3:222, 3:223?, 3:224tcrustal composition 5:174teconomic deposits 1:437, 1:438tenvironmental geochemical mapping

3:28ffission track analysis

Helium Partial Retention Zone1:50-51

spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f,1:45 f

uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/Hedating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127

lava/lava flows 3:224fradiometric dating 1:88?, 3:20, 3:604,

4:202f, 5:518soil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?Venus 5:246?world production rates 1:43 8tzircon crystals 3:604

Urannah Complex 1:247furanospinite 3:508furanotungstite ((Fe,Ba,Pb)(UO2)2(WO4)

(OH)4-12H2O) 3:587tUranus

hydrogen concentrations 1:200forbital frequencies 1:41 Itphysical characteristics 5:289, 5:290?ring system 5:290, 5:290?satellite image 5:2 89fsatellite system 5:290-291

Ariel 5:290-291, 5:291?characteristics 5:291?Miranda 5:290-291, 5:291?Oberon 5:290-291, 5:291?Titania 5:290-291, 5:291?Umbriel 5:290-291, 5:291?

urban geology 5:557-563cities 5:557Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559?discontinuities 5:558, 5:563fengineering contributions 5:560?engineering geology 2:30, 3:39

environmental geologybuilt environment 2:29, 2:29fgeomaterials 2:29, 2:29furban environments 2:25, 2:26f

foundation materials 5:558fgeologist's role 5:559geotechnical constraints 5:560?groundwater 5:558importance 5:557site characterization 5:558, 5:558f,

5:561?, 5:562, 5:562?, 5:563fsocietal issues 5:562?soils 5:558urban construction constraints 5:558,

5:561?, 5:562?urban development 5:558, 5:558furbanization effects 1:522f

ureilites 5:231?urengoites 5:445f, 5:451Urey, Harold 3:187-188urtite3:219/"Ussher, James 1:257, 3:170Utah, United States 3:123, 4:177, 4:216,

5:476-477uvanite ((UO2)2(V6O17)-15H2O(?)) 3:589?uvarovite (Ca3Cr2Si3Oi2) 3:561uytenbogaardtite 3:119?Uzbekistan 1:167, 5:51 If

Vaalbara 4:14fVacqueros benthic foraminiferal stage

5:473fvadose canyons 4:684f, 4:685fvadose zone 4:684fVaigach Island 2:53Vail, Peter 5:159Vaiont Landslide 4:632, 4:688, 4:692Valais basin 2:125-126, 2:126f, 2:127,

2:127f, 2:133f, 2:133-135Valanginian stage

Atlantic Margin 4:104fBrazil l:322f,l:325fchronostratigraphy 3:361fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:506fInternational Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363?magnetostratigraphy 4:99fmarine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380fmarine microfossils 3:378fmarine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381fprotist families 3:366fsea-level variations 3:364fterrestrial invertebrates 3:369f, 3:381fterrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382fvegetation 3:370f, 3:383f

Valdotriton gracilis 2:522fValentian subdivision 4:185Valeria lophostriata 4:358valeriite 5:394?Vallesian mammalian age 5:479fValles Marineris 5:279

Val Verde Basin 4:67Vampyroteuthis 2:395vanadinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl) 3:589?vanadium bronzes 3:588, 3:589?vanadium (V)

anoxic environments 4:496-497carbonatites 3:223?crustal composition 5:174?magmatic ores 3:641mineral classification systems 3:501?,

3:502?oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114?oil content 4:257, 4:257fpartitioning behaviour 3:639?soil concentrations 2:22?toxicity 2:22?vanadate minerals 3:588-590vanadium bronzes 3:588, 3:590

vanalite (ca NaAl9(V12O44)(OH)4-33H2O)3:589?

Van Allen radiation belts 5:217Vancouver Island, British Columbia,

Canada 4:38VanuaLevu4:118, 4:119fVanuatu

background information 4:109economic geology 4:116geology 4:115, 4:115fobsidian 3:274-275volcanoes 5:567f

Vanuatu Trench 4.-115/", 4:115-116vanuralite(Al(UO2)2(VO4)2(OH)-HH2O)

3:589?vanuranylite ((H3O,Ba,Ca-K)2

(U02)2(V04)2-4H20(?)) 3:589?Vanuxem, Lardner 2:195Varanger Peninsula 2:50Varanodon 2:486-487Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487fVaranops 2:486-487variograms 4:323, 4:327fVariscides Orogeny 2:75-85

Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466fangular unconformity 2:75, 2:77fcentral Europe 2:79, 2.-80/", 2:81/, 3:651characteristics 2:84crustal thickness 3:658Devonian 2:78, 2:79East European Craton 3:648Europe 2:95geographic location 2:35fgravitational collapse 2:100Iberia 2:80, 2:82/i 2:83fMediterranean region 2:135Ordovician, early 2:78Ordovician, late 2:78palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:75,

2:76f, 2:77fpalaeomagnetism 2:75Permo-Carboniferous basins

Central Armorican Basin 2:96evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,

3:653foreland 2:97

V

798 INDEX

Variscides Orogeny (continued)Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100magmatism 2:96f, 2:97North German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,

2:101fOslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,

2:101fVariscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 fwestern/central Europe 2:102

Silurian 2:78Suess, Eduard 2:238tectonic processes 2:76f, 2:79, 2:80f,

2:81fTrans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)

3:652f, 5:455ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks

5:538western Europe 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f9 3:651See also Hercynian Orogeny

variscite 3.-50S/", 5:122varved clays 1:562, l:S63fvarves 4:554, 4:555fVatulele4:118Vaughn, Arthur 3:62vauquelinite(Pb2Cu(CrO4)(PO4)(OH))

3:533*Vauquelin, Nicholas 3:178veatchite-A (Sr4B22O37-7H2O) 3:513*vector data representation 4:421, 4:422fVeen,J. der 3:192vegetation

angiospermsAcer trilobatum 2:419fArchaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,

2:423-424background information 2:418cell structure 2:420fcharacteristics 2:418, 2:419fclassification 2:419, 2:421fCretaceous 3:370diversification 2:424, 2:426ffloral diversity 2:419fmagnoliids 2:418, 2:419forigins 2:420, 2:422/palaeolatitudes 2:426fPalmoxylon 2:420fpollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424f,

2:426fpollen-feeding insects 2:426, 2:427fParana oeningensis 2:420fQuercus 2:420fwater lily 2:425f

Antarctica 1:136, 1:139biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fC4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482,

5:483, 5:484, 5:491Carboniferous 4:206f, 4:209, 4:209fcatastrophic floods 4:629China 1:353conifers 4:206f9 4:209fCordaites 4:206f, 4:209fCretaceous 3:370, 3:370f

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:382, 3:383f

Devonian 4:194, 4:195fEocene 5:469, 5:471fossil plants 2:436-443

fungiAscomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,

2:440-441Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f9

2:439ffossil fungi 2:437general discussion 2:436Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439fsporocarps 2:440-441Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442glossary information 2:442lichens

fossil lichens 2:441hyphae 2:441-442Nematophytes 2:441Rhynie chert 2:441-442symbiotic relationships 2:441

palaeopathology 4:160geochemical analysis 3:618tGondwana 3:348, 3:349fgymnosperms 2:443-454

Araucaria mirabilis 2:45'OfAraucarioxylon 2:448fArchaeopteris hibernica 2:445, 2:445fbiodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 fCarboniferous 1:262-263, 1:263 fcharacteristics 2:444classification 2:444, 2:444tconifer phylogeny 2:448fCretaceous 1:262-263, 1:263 f9 3:370Cycadeoidea microphylla 2:453fdefinition 3:351Elkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446fgeneral discussion 2:443Ginkgo gardneri 2:452fGlossopteris 2:451fJurassic 1:262-263, I:263f9 3:359major groups

Bennettitales 2:453, 2:453fCalamopityales 2:447Callistophytales 2:449Caytoniales 2:452, 2:452fConiferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451fCordaitales 2:449Corystospermales 2:452Cycadales 2:448, 2:449fCzekanowskiales 2:451Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452fGlossopteridales 2:450, 2:451 fGnetales 2:453Hydraspermales 2:447Lyginopteridales 2:448Medullosales 2:448, 2:449fPeltaspermales 2:452Pentoxylales 2:452Voltziales 2:449

Metasequoia 2:451 fNeuropteris heterophylla 2:447f

origins 2:445Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45IfPermian 1:262-263, 1:263 fphylogenetic relationships 2:445'fSagenopteris phillipsi 2:452fTriassic 1:262-263, 1:263 fTrigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449fWalchia piniformis 2:447fXenotheca devonica 2:446fZamites gigas 2:453f

Holocene 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f, 2:153f,2:155 f

Jurassic 3:359karst landscapes 4:683Kyrgyzstan 1:167, l:168fLycopods 4:206f9 4:209fMiocene 5:483Oligocene 5:475Palaeocene 5:463, 5:464palynology

background information 3:464biostratigraphy 3:465climate variability 3:465interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467fKnoxisporites stephanephorus 3:464fpalynological zonations 3:468fpre-Quaternary palynology 3:468Quaternary 3:464vegetation reconstructions 3:466f

Permian I:186f9 4:217, 4:218fPermian-Triassic boundary 3:348,

3:349f, 4:220Pleistocene 5:495Pliocene 5:489, 5:491Pteridosperms 4:206f9 4:209fslope stability studies 4:688South-east Asia 1:178-182, l:186fSphenopsids 4:206f, 4:209ftree ferns 4:206f, 4:209fTriassic 1:167, I:168f9 3:348, 3:349f

Velfreyan substage 4:183fVendian 4:371-381

background information 4:371bioturbation 4:378Caledonian Orogeny 2:73, 2:73fCambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380carbon isotopic ratios 4:379chronostratigraphy 4:17OfEast European Craton 2:36, 2:38f9 2:54fextinction events 4:379fossil lichens 2:441general discussion 4:350geological events

banded iron formations (BIFs) 4:372carbonates 4:372continent formation 4:371glaciation 4:372marine transgressions 4:372

glossary information 4:380palaeobiological events

death mask hypothesis 4:374Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378feukaryotes 4:372-373general discussion 4:372metacellularity 4:373, 4:376*

INDEX 799

Vendian (continued]shelly fossils 4:373, 4:373fstromatolites 4:373, 4:377

palaeogeography 4:353fPan-African orogeny 4:378predators 4:379Russia 4:456, 4:458f, 4:458-459, 4:461sedimentary structures 4:376, 4:379fSiberian craton 4:461strontium isotopic ratios 4:378Timanide Orogeny 2:49-50, 2:51, 2:53,

2:54fVendoconularia triradiata 4:374-375Venera 15/16 orbiters 5:244-245Venezuela 1:311Venezuelan Andes 1:121, l:121fVentastega 2:472, 2:472fventifacts 4:615, 4:615fVenus 5:244-264

Atalanta Planitia 5:257fatmosphere 1:200atmospheric composition 1:197?, 5:246tcharacteristics 5:244future research 5:263general discussion 1:421geological history models 5:262heat loss mechanisms 5:260impact craters 5:246, 5:247f, 5:248flava/lava flows 3:232fLavinia Planitia 5:253fmantle convection 5:258, 5:260orbital frequencies 1:41 Itphysical characteristics 5:245planetary comparisons 1:426, 1:427fplate tectonics 3:206properties l:422tradar mapping 4:416regional plains

general discussion 5:252lobate plains 5:249?, 5:256, 5:260fshield plains 5:249?, 5:252, 5:256f,

5:257f, 5:258fvolcanoes 5:249*, 5:256, 5:260fwrinkle-ridged plains 5:249?, 5:255,

5:259f, S:260fSapas Mons 5:260fspacecraft missions

Magellan orbiter 5:244-245,5:260-261, 5:262-263

Pioneer Venus 5:244Venera 15/16 5:244-245

surface rock composition 5:246?, 5:247?tectonic features

dense fractures 5:248, 5:249?, 5:251f,5:252f

groove belts 5:249?, 5:250, 5:253f,5:254f, 5:255f

ridge belts 5:248, 5:249?, 5:252f,5:253f, 5:254f, 5:255f

ridged and grooved plains 5:248,5:249?, 5:252f, 5:253f, 5:254f

rift zones 5:249?, 5:251, 5:255f,5:256f

tessera terrain 5:245/", 5:247, 5:249?,5:250f

topographic characteristics 5:245f,5:249?, 5:258

volcanoes 5:565, 5:578, 5:578fvolcano-tectonic features

arachnoids 5:249?, 5:257, 5:2 61 f,5:262f

coronae 5:249?, 5:255f, 5:257, 5:261f,5:262f

Lakshmi Planum 5:249?, 5:257,5:261 f

novae 5:249?, 5:257, 5:262fverdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545f, 3:547,

5:101Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic collage

4:468, 4:469fVerkhoyansk Mountains 4:456vermiculite

carbonatites 3:221tcation exchange capacity 1:3 60?formation processes 1:363, l:363flayer type 1:361,1:361?structure l:360fworld production rates 1:43 8t

Vermiforma 4:377-378Vernadsky, Vladimir 3:2, 3:187-188Verneuil, Eduard de 2:195vertebrates

amniotesbackground information 2:479Carboniferous 4:211-212cladogram 2:473feureptiles

captorhinids 2:481, 2:481fprotorothyridids 2:481

parareptilesmillerettids 2:479-481pareiasaurs 2:479-481procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480ftestudines 2:481

Permian 2:478phylogenetic relationships 2:480freptiles (Reptilia)

flying reptiles 2:508pterosaurs 2:508

synapsids 2:479tetrapods 2:468

amphibiansCenozoic 2:523-526

Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526falbanerpetontids 2:525Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,

2:525fassemblages 2:523caecilians 2:525frogs 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525fPalaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,

2:524fPiceoerpeton 2:524-525Pleistocene glaciations 2:526Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525fsalamanders 2:524, 2:525f

Cretaceous 2:523, 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

2:523Latonia gigantea 2:524

Lissamphibiaalbanerpetontids 2:52 If, 2:523caecilians 2:521/", 2:522Celtedens ibericus 2:521 fEocaecilia micropodia 2:521ffrogs 2:521, 2:521fgeneral discussion 2:516, 2:521Karaurus sharovi 2:521fsalamanders 2:521/", 2:522Shomronella jordanica 2:521 fTriadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 fValdotriton gradlis 2:522f

Mesozoic 2:516-523albanerpetontids 2:52 If, 2:523background information 2:516Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fcaecilians 2:52If, 2:522Capitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fChroniosuchians 2:520end-Permian extinctions 2:516fossil assemblages 2:516frogs 2:521fJurassic 2:520Lissamphibia 2:521Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517fsalamanders 2:52If, 2:522Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:52 7f,

2:518 ftemnospondyls 2:517Trematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Rhytidosteroidea 2:517ftemnospondyls

Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517fBatrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520fBenthosuchus sushkini 2:518fBrachyopidae 2:519, 2:520fBuettneria perfecta 2:518fCapitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519fChigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519fCyclotosaurus robustus 2:517fGerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519fJurassic 2:520Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517fMastodonsaurus 2:517fMicropholis 2:519-520, 2:520fParacyclotosaurus davidi 2:519fPeltostega erici 2:517fPlagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519fRhytidosteroidea 2:517Sideropskehli2:519fStereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,

2:518fThabanchuia oomie 2:520fTrematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f

Tertiary 2:523birds (Aves) 2:497-502

Archaeopteryx 2:497Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172Confuciusornis 2:498fCretaceous 3:368, 3:369fdinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:508,

3:358-359

SOO INDEX

vertebrates (continued)Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f,

2:500tEocene 5:469evolutionary history 2:497Jeholornis 2:497Jurassic 3:358-359Mesozoic relationships 2:498fNeornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501forigins 2:495Ornithuromorpha 2:498 f, 2:499,

2:501fPalaeocene 5:463radiation patterns 2:499, 2:501 fRahonavis 2:497Sphenisciformes 2:507Zhenzhoraptor 2:497

Carboniferous 4:211chordates 3:441, 3:445, 3:445fconodonts 3:440-448

anatomy 3:441, 3:441f, 3:442fapparatus functions 3:446, 3:447farchitecture 3:443/", 3:446biological affinity 3:445, 3:445fbiostratigraphy 3:447Carboniferous 4:212characteristics 2:455cladogram 3:445fclassification

Belodellida 3:446Ozarkodinida 3:442-443, 3:446Panderodontida 3:443, 3:446Paraconodonta 3:447Prioniodinida 3:446Prioniodontida 3:442-443, 3:446Proconodontida 3:446Protopanderodontida 3:446

Clydagnathus 3:442fevolution 3:447extraction methods 3:472Hindeodus parvus 4:219internal structure 3:443, 3:443fmorphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,

3:444fOrdovician index fossils 4:175-184preservation 3:441Promissum 3:44IfSilurian 4:185-186, 4:191soft tissue preservation 3:308South-east Asia l:184fas thermal maturation index 3:448

Cretaceous 1:273f, 2:523, 3:368, 3:368f,3:369f

Devonian 2:468, 2:470f, 4:192f, 4:194,4:196

diapsidsAraeoscelis 2:482-483general discussion 2:482Lepidosauromorpha 2:483mosasaurs 2:483Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482fsnakes 2:483Sphenodon 2:483Spinoaequalis 2:482-483Squamata 2:483

Younginiforms 2:483dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496

Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,

3:358-359Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiagnostic characteristics 2:490,

2:491f, 2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495Jurassic 3:358, 3:359forigins 2:492Ornithischia

diagnostic characteristics 2:492fgeneral discussion 2:492Neornithischia 2:493Thyreophora 2:493

palaeopathology 4:162, 4:162fphysiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Reptilia 2:490Saurischia

general discussion 2:492/", 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:3Slf

Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350, 3:3Slfearly chordates 2:455ecological structures 1:262tembranchements 2:180Eocene 5:469fish 2:462-468

acanthodians 2:465actinopterygians 2:466agnathan diversity 2:462anaspids 2:458, 2:462biodiversity 2:464fblack shales 4:497, 4:498fCarboniferous 4:212coelacanth fishes 1:274 f, 1:276-278,

2:466Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368f, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fDevonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196early development 2:462Eocene 5:469freshwater fish 3:368, 3:369fHaikouichthys 1:351jawed fish 2:462jawless fish 2:454-461

agnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462Astraspis 2:457f, 2:457background information 2:454Cephalaspis utahensis 2:458fconodonts 2:455, 3:440-448Devonian 2:457, 2:458fEriptychius 2:457Errivaspis waynensis 2:458fevolutionary relationships 2:460f

galeaspids 2:458heterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459Ordovician 2:457origins 2:455ostracoderms 2:457, 2:459phylogenetic relationships 2:455,

2:459reconstruction drawings 2:456fSilurian 2:457thelodonts 2:459, 2:459fThelodus macintosbi 2:459fTuberculaspis elyensis 2:458f

Jurassic 3:358lungfishes 2:467Onychodontiformes 2:467osteichthyans 2:466osteolepiforms 2:467osteostracans 2:462Palaeocene 5:463placoderms 2:465, 2:465fradiation patterns 2:463fsarcopterygians 2:467seamounts 4:482sharks 2:229/~, 2:463Silurian 4:191teeth 2:462teleosteans 2:466/", 2:466-467tetrapodomorphs 2:469thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462Triassic 3:350

hominids 2:541-545background information 2:541early hominids 2:541, 2:542fEast African Rift 1:31Homo erectus 2:542, 2:543fHomo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543fHomo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544fHomo sapiens 2:543Pliocene 5:487t, 5:491, 5:491*, 5:492f

Jurassic l:273f, 3:358, 3:359fmammals

Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fEutheria 2:535-540Mammalian Dispersal Event (MDE)

5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471Mesozoic 2:527-534

background information 2:527brain size 2:530diphyodont dental replacement 2:531diversifications 2:532evolutionary features 2:527, 2:528finner ear cochlea 2:530jaw hinges 2:528marsupials 2:528f, 2:533middle ear 2:528monotremes 2:528f, 2:533phylogenetic relationships 2:528fplacentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f

Oligocene 5:475Palaeocene 5:463, 5:465placental mammals 2:535-540

anatomy 2:535artiodactyls 2:536-537, 2:539

INDEX S01

vertebrates (continued)bats 2:539Carnivora 2:539classification 2:535, 2:537fedentates 2:537f, 2:538epitheres 2:538evolutionary relationships 2:537f,

2:538Glires 2:539hominids 2:541-545marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538mesonychids 2:539-540molecular evolution 2:536Palaeocene 5:463, 5:465Perissodactyla 2:540physiology 2:535primates 2:538-539reproduction 2:535Rodentia 2:539taxonomy 2:535tethytheres 2:540ungulates 2:539whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,

2:539-540Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f

Mesozoicbirds (Aves)

Archaeopteryx 2:497Confuciusornis 2:498fEnantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f,

2:500tevolutionary relationships 2:498fJeholornis 2:497Ornithuromorpha 2:498f, 2:499,

2:501fRahonavis 2:497Zhenzhoraptor 2:497

conodonts 3:441dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496

Archosauria 2:495birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502,

2:508diagnostic characteristics 2:490,

2:491f, 2:492fDiapsida 2:495ectothermy 2:495endothermy 2:495evolutionary relationships 2:490growth 2:496homeothermy 2:495Neornithischia 2:493origins 2:492Ornithischia 2:492, 2:492fphysiology 2:495reproduction 2:496Reptilia 2:490Saurischia 2:492f, 2:494Sauropodomorpha 2:494Theropoda 2:494, 3:351fThyreophora 2:493Triassic 2:492,2:493f, 3:350,3:3Slf

flying reptiles 2:508mammals 2:527-534

background information 2:527brain size 2:530

diphyodont dental replacement2:531

diversifications 2:532evolutionary features 2:527, 2:528finner ear cochlea 2:530jaw hinges 2:528marsupials 2:528f, 2:533middle ear 2:528monotremes 2:528f, 2:533phylogenetic relationships 2:528fplacentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f

tetrapods 3:350Miocene 5:483Ordovician 3:441Palaeocene 5:463, 5:465palaeopathology 4:161Palaeozoic

conodonts 3:441flying reptiles 2:508tetrapods

non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478Permian 4:217radiation patterns 4:211tetrapodomorphs 2:469

Permian 4:217placental mammals 5:469-470Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498freptiles (Reptilia) 2:479-490

amniotes 2:479, 2:480farchosauromorphs

crocodiles 2:485general discussion 2:484rhynchosaurs 2:484-485Sphenosuchidae 2:485

background information 2:479Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:381, 3:382fdiapsids

Araeoscelis 2:482-483general discussion 2:482Lepidosauromorpha 2:483mosasaurs 2:483Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482fsnakes 2:483Sphenodon 2:483Spinoaequalis 2:482-483Squamata 2:483Younginiforms 2:483

eureptilescaptorhinids 2:481, 2:481fprotorothyridids 2:481

flying reptiles 2:508, 2:508-516marine reptiles 2:502-508

Askeptosaurus 2:504Augustasaurus 2:506axial swimmers 2:503Clarazia 2:504Coniasaurus 2:504-505Corosaurus 2:506Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368fCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:380,3:35^Crocodylus porosus 2:504Cyamodus 2:506

Dakosaurus 2:504Dermochelys 2:505fDolichosaurus 2:504-505Dyrosaurus 2:504general discussion 2:483, 2:502Geosaurus 2:504Globidens 2:505Henodus 2:506Heschelaria 2:504Hyposaurus 2:504Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f,

3:358,3:380Jurassic 3:358, 3:358fKeichousaurus 2:506Lariosaurus 2:506locomotion mechanisms

2:502-503mesosaurs 2:249, 2:479Mesosaurus 2:503fMetriorhynchus 2:504Mosasauroidea 2:5 04 f, 2:504-505Mosasaurus 2:504-505Neusticosaurus 2:506nothosaurs 2:484Nothosaurus 2:506occurrences 2:502Ophthalmosaurus 2:503-504Paraplacodus 2:506paraxial swimmers 2:505, 2:505fPistosaurus 2:506Placodontia 2:484, 2:506Placodus 2:506Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f,

3:358Plesiosaurus 2:506Pliosaurus 2:506Psephoderma 2:506Rhomaleosaurus 2:507fSauropterygia 2:484, 2:506Simosaurus 2:506Sphenisciformes 2:507Steneosaurus 2:504Stenopterygius 2:503f, 2:503-504Styxosaurus 2:506Teleorhinus 2:504Thalassiodracon 2:506Thalattosauria 2:504Thalattosuchia 2:504Trinacromerum 2:506-507Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505

mesosaurs 2:479parareptiles

millerettids 2:479-481pareiasaurs 2:479-481procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480ftestudines 2:481

pterosaurs 2:508synapsids

background information 2:479,2:485

Caseidae 2:485, 2:486fEdaphosauridae 2:487Eothyrididae 2:485Mesozoic 2:527Ophiacodontidae 2:487

802 INDEX

vertebrates (continued)phylogenetic relationships 2:528fphysical appearance 2:477-478Sphenacodontia 2:488Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487f

therapsids 2:489Tertiary 2:499, 2:523tetrapods

amniotesbackground information 2:479Carboniferous 2:468, 2:473 f,

4:211-212synapsids 2:477-478, 2:479

background information 2:479China 1:352Cretaceous 1:273 fJurassic 1:273 fPalaeocene l:273fPalaeozoic

non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478Permian 4:217radiation patterns 4:211tetrapodomorphs 2:469

species radiations 1:273fTriassic 3:350

Triassic 3:350vertisols 1:557-558, 4:134, 5:196*, 5:199,

5:200vertization 5:199, 5:200fvesignieite (BaCu3(VO4)2(OH)2) 3:589tVesta 5:221*, 5:222fVesuvian volcanoes 5:S68tVesuvius, Italy 4:387t, 5:575Viaudechinus 2:352fVicksburgian stage 5:473fVictoria arc 4:82fVictoria, Australia 4:177-178, 4:191-192Victoria Land 3:151fVietnam 3:12Vilyui Basin 4:461, 4:463fVimy Ridge, France 3:482fVinci, Leonardo da 3:169, 5:295Vine, Frederick 3:200-201Vine-Matthews anomalies 4:346violarite (FeNi2S4) 3:575?, 3:585tVirgilian stage 4:209fVirginia, United States 3:147, 4:72, 4:73/Visean stage

chronostratigraphy 4:202fgeneral discussion 4:202glaciation 4:208fGlobal Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:511 fGondwana 3:139International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)

5:517fmagmatism 2:96fnomenclature 4:201fnon-amniote tetrapods 2:472Uralide orogeny 4:468Variscides Orogeny 2:84vegetation 4:209f

Vitaliano, Dorothy 3:96, 3:97Vitiaz Trench 4:116Viti Levu 4:118, 4:119f

Vitoria-Trindade Ridge 3:315f, 3:316tVittatina 4:220viverrids 5:485vivianite 3:508f, 5:99, 5:122Vjalovognathus l:184fVogt,J.H.L. 3:268volborthite(Cu3(V2O7)(OH)2-2H2O)

3:589tvolcanic cones

See seamountsvolcanism

Andes Mountains 1:118, 1:157Antarctica 1:139Appalachians 4:73, 4:75fArabia 1:151Argentina 1:161bedded cherts 5:54chert 5:53continental flood basalts

Columbia River Flood Basalts 5:480end-Permian extinctions 4:222large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315,

3:318,3:322Cretaceous 3:360, 3:657Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383deep water sedimentation 4:642-643,

4:644Devonian 4:198earthquakes 5:329East African Rift 1:28, I:29f9 1:30fEast European Craton 2:40, 2:48fexplosive eruption characteristics 4:386,

4:387t, 4:388f, 4:389Fiji 4:118, 4:120geological research (1780-1835) 3:178geomythology 3:97-98geothermal systems 3:105Grenville orogeny 3:157, 3:159f, 3:160,

3:161fground subsidence 2:13hazard analysis

environmental geology 2:31, 2:32ffrequency 1:51 ItGeographical Information Systems

(CIS) 4:426mortality rates 1:517t, l:S18tquantification analysis 1:516

Holocene 3:657hydrothermal vents 5:388-395

background information 5:388biological habitats 5:388f, 5:392black smokers

chlorinity 5:37ItEast Pacific Rise 5:366/", 5:388,

5:388fecology 3:105growth stages 5:392f, 5:393fmineral deposits 3:491, 3:628,

5:388occurrence 3:115, 5:365structure 5:39Of

chimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393fdeposit size 5:390edifices 5:390, 5:390f

formation locationsfast-spreading ridges 5:389general discussion 5:389intermediate-spreading ridges 5:389slow-spreading ridges 5:389

fossil record 5:394growth stages 5:391, 5:392f, 5:393fmineralogy 5:391, 5:394tmorphology 5:390, S:393forigin of life 4:128structure 5:390, 5:390fwhite smokers 5:365, 5:390f9

5:390-391igneous processes

differentiation processesassimilation 3:216fractional crystallization 3:215,

3:215fgeneral discussion 3:215glossary information 3:216magma mixing 3:216

magma transportdiapirism3:213/; 3:214dike injection 3:213f, 3:214eruptions 3:214general discussion 3:212porous flow 3:213f, 3:214

melting processesconduction heating 3:212decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:209pressure-temperature diagram

3:211 fJapan 3:297, 3:299 f, 3:300fkomatiites 3:260-267

Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266cerium content 3:264fcomposition 3:264, 3:265fdefinition 3:260eruption characteristics 3:262flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264fgeochemical types 3:261, 3:262fgreenstone belts 3:261, 3:264magma formation 3:261, 3:263fmagnesium content 3:260, 3:261,

3:262f, 3:263fmelting behavior 3:264nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-Cu-

PGE) mineralization 3:266occurrence 3:261spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261 f, 3:264fwater content 3:266zirconium content 3:264f

lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,5:576t, 5:576f, 5:577f

Laki, Iceland 3:322large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315-323

age dating 3:318composition 3:317continental flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,

3:322Cretaceous 3:363tCretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary

3:383

INDEX 803

volcanism (continued)crustal structure 3:317environmental effects 3:320, 3:320fgeneral discussion 3:317global distribution 3:315f, 3:317mantle dynamics 3:319mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:318,

3:318fmantle roots 3:317mass extinctions 3:321f, 3:322, 3:383occurrence 3:315, 3:316tocean-basin flood basalts 3:315,

3:318, 3:322origins 3:320seamounts 3:316*, 3:318, 3:322subduction zones 3:318f, 3:319,

3:319fsubmarine ridges 3:318, 3:320, 3:322tectonic setting 3:317, 3:317ftime distribution 3:318-319, 3:319ftypes 3:317volcanic passive margins 3:318, 3:320,

3:322volcanism 3:317

lava/lava flows 3:323-330a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f,

5:567-569, 5:571fbackground information 3:323block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, S:571fcharacteristics 5:567clays 1:545-546clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326feffusion rate 3:324eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324fflood basalts 3:328flow speed 3:324flow volume 3:324geotechnical properties 1:544-545,

l:546fnatural hazards

general discussion 3:328, 5:573Heimaey, Iceland 3:330Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328,

3:329fmitigation methods 5:576*Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329

pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326,3:326f, 5:567-569, S:571f

pillow lavas 3:327,3:327*; 5:567-569,S:571f

structurecooling joints 3:327, 3:328fcrazing 1:546flava tubes 3:327pipes l:546fsubaerial lava 3:325, 3:325f, 3:326funderwater flows 3:326, 3:327f

temperature 3:323viscosity 3:323

long-term carbon cycle 1:339fmantle plumes (hotspots) 3:335-343

Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary3:383

definition 3:335

geochemical analysis 3:339global distribution 3:206fIndian Sub-Continent 3:292, 3:293flarge igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:318,

3:318fmelting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211 fPalaeocene 5:461-462palaeoterranes 5:457petrological analysis 3:339plate tectonics 1:424, 4:348plume formation dynamics 3:341,

3:341fpropagating rifts 5:398, 5:399fseamounts 4:477seismic images

D" layer 3:338lower mantle 3:338, 3:339fsuperplumes 3:338transition zone 3:338, 3:338fupper mantle 3:337, 3:337f

superplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461surface expression 3:335, 3:336fvolcanoes 5:566f

Mercury 5:241mid-ocean ridges 5:372-387

axial neovolcanic zone 5:380background information 5:372divergent plate boundaries 4:342,

4:343f, 4:344feruption frequency 5:383faulting processes

abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386ffault scarps 5:3 84f, 5:385fgeneral discussion 5:383transform faults 5:375, 5:386fvolcanic growth faults 5:386f,

5:386-387fractional crystallization 3:215-216granitic rocks 3:237*hydrothermal vents 5:373-375mantle convection 4:348mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339melting processes

decompression melting 3:210flux melting 3:212general discussion 3:210pressure-temperature diagram

3:211fpropagating rifts 5:396-405

bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398,5:404f

causal mechanisms 5:398, S:399fcontinental propagators 5:402f,

5:403, 5:403 f, 5:404fevolution 5:396implications 5:403microplates 5:398, 5:400f, S:401foceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396f,

5:397fpseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f

ridge segmentationaxial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:378f,

5:379faxial variations 5:381fcharacteristics 5:376*discontinuities 5:374f, 5:375,

5:376*, 5:377/i 5:378f, 5:379fgeneral discussion 5:375geochemical correlations 5:380fhierarchies 5:377fmagma supply 5:375,5:378f, 5:382fmantle upwelling 5:376-377, 5:378ftransform faults 5:375, 5:386f,

5:396frift valleys 5:438seamounts 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479seawater chemistry 5:96seismic structure 5:405-417

axial magma chamber5:407, 5:413f

background information 5:405crustal thickness 5:415f9 S:416fmagma chamber depths 5:415magma-lens reflections 5:416fMohorovicic discontinuity 5:412,

5:413fseismic layer 2A 5:406seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:410,

S:411fstructural variations 5:414, 5:415f9

5:416fshaded relief map 5:373fspreading centres

Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:97faxial depth profiles 5:375faxial variations 5:381ffaulting processes 5:385fgravity measurements 1:101,

lilOlfmorphology 5:373overlapping spreading centres

5:374/", 5:375, 5:396-405propagating rifts 5:396-405topography 5:374f9 5:384-386

thermal metamorphism 5:501volcanoes 5:566f

North Africa 1:14-16, 1:17obsidian 3:267-277

artefactsoccurrences 3:272tracing methods 3:272trade routes 3:276ftransport paths 3:276f

background information 3:267composition 3:268, 3:269*historical background 3:267occurrences

California 3:270, 3:272/", 3:273f,3:274f

Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269/f,3:270*^

Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270,3:271f

Newberry Caldera, Oregon, UnitedStates 3:270, 3:271f

804 INDEX

volcanism (continued]Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone

National Park, Wyoming,United States 3:268, 3:269?

as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:27SfOceania 4:109oceanic anoxic events 4:497-499Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220?, 3:220-221,

3:224f, 3:225, 3:230fOligocene 5:474Ordovician 4:182palaeosols 5:206-207Papua New Guinea 4:110, 4:113Permo-Carboniferous basins

age distribution 2:96fforeland 2:97general discussion 2:97Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 fpetrogenesis 2:99Variscan internides 2:98volcanic centres 2:101 f

Pyrenees 2:99pyroclastic deposits 4:386-397

background information 4:386characteristics

block and ash flows 4:394, 4:394ffall deposits 4:390, 4:391f9 4:392tgeneral discussion 4:389ignimbrites 2:98, 4:202f, 4:388f,

4:391-393, 4:393f, 4:395,4:397f

particle size 4:39Otpyroclastic density currents 4:391,

4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396fpyroclastic types 4:390ttransport mechanisms 4:394,

4:396f, 4:397feruption plumes 4:388, 4:388/", 4:389fexplosive eruption characteristics

4:386, 4:387?, 4:388/", 4:389generation mechanisms 4:386geotechnical properties 1:546natural hazards 5:573, 5:576?, S:576fPermo-Carboniferous basins 2:98zeolites 3:597, 3:S97f

radar techniques 4:419, 4:419frift valleys 5:438-439Samoa 4:121seamounts 4:475-484

aseismic ridges 4:476-477, 4:482Cretaceous 4:480development process

deep-water stage 4:480emergent stage 4:481flat top formation 4:481growth stages 4:48Ifguyot stage 4:481ocean island stage 4:481shoaling stage 4:480

faulting 5:435f, S:436fgeneral discussion 4:475geochemical composition 4:475geophysical characteristics 4:475global distribution4:476,4:476f, 4:4771

habitat importance 4:482hydrothermal activity 4:482intraplate seamounts 4:477, 4:479fisland arcs 4:479mid-ocean ridges 4:475, 4:477?, 4:479morphology 4:480mud volcanoes 4:480nomenclature 4:484oceanic circulation 4:482ocean islands 4:475-476palaeomagnetism 4:479seamount chains 4:476-477, 4:479fspatial arrangement 4:476-477,

4:479fsubduction effects 4:482, 4:483f

site classification 2:4?, 2:6?Solomon Islands 4:113southern Cordillera 4:58, 4:S9fsulphide minerals 3:585sulphur occurrences 3:554Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:250tephra

characteristics 4:389-390classification 5:572?description 5:571liquefaction 1:5 28tvolcanic processes 5:576f

terrestrial volcanic-gas compositionsl:200t

thermal metamorphism 5:501Tonga 4:120Triassic 3:345tsunamis 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576fVanuatu 4:115volcanic passive margins 3:322volcanoes 5:565-579

ash clouds 5:571, 5:574fcalderas 1:123f, 1:126, 5:566, 5:567fcentral eruptions 5:566classification 5:566, 5:568tcomposite volcano 5:567fdebris amounts 5:575?decade volcanoes 5:575destructive effects 5:573, 5:576fearthquakes 5:575explosivity index 5:570?extraterrestrial planets 5:565, 5:577f,

5:578, 5:578ffissure eruptions 5:566global distribution 5:565, 5:566fHawaiian-type volcanoes 5:568?,

5:570?Icelandic-type volcanoes 5:568?laboratory volcanoes 5:575lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574/",

5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577fmantle processes 5:565mitigation methods 5:576?, 5:577fnatural hazards 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?nuees ardentes 5:568?, 5:572, 5:574fPelean volcanoes 5:568?, 5:569fphreatic eruptions 5:571Plinian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:568/",

5:570?run-out distances 5:575?

seamounts 5:566Strombolian volcanoes 5:568?,

5:570?tephra 5:576ftuff 2:98, 5:572?, 5:572/Vesuvian volcanoes 5:568?volcanic disasters 5:575?volcanic gases 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?,

5:576^Vulcanian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:570?

Wegener, Alfred 2:249zeolites 3:597, 3:597fSee also carbonatites; igneous rocks;

magmaVolga River 5:19tVolgo-Uralia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f, 2:46,

2:47/i 2:48/i 4:456Volta Basin 3:129Voltziales 2:449vonsenite ((Fe, Mg)2FeBO5) 3:512?Voronezh Massif 2:35f, 2:37/j 2:41fVosges 2:75, 2:81f, 2:126fVostok Station l:133f, 1:140Vredefort impact structure, South Africa

3:283Vulcan 5:238Vulcanian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:570?Vulcanism 3:174

wwackestone 3:527f, 5:109f, 5:110, 5:lllfWaco Uplift 4:67-69, 4:68fWadati-Benioff zone 4:344, 4:345/", 5:418wadsleyite 5:183?Wagga-Omeo Metamorphic belt

1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246f,1:247f, 1:248 f

waif dispersal 5:485wairakite 3:593?Wakaleo 5:484wakefieldite-(Ce)

((Ce,La,Nd, Y,Pr,Sm) [(V, As)O4])3:589?

wakefieldite-(Y) (YVO4) 3:588-589,3:589?

Walchia piniformis 2:447fWalcott, Charles D. 2:196, 3:68,

5:443_444

Walden Creek Group, Appalachians4:73-74

WalesCambrian 4:163, 4:164Global Standard Stratotype Sections and

Points (GSSPs) 5:51 Ifjawless fish 2:458-459Ordovician 4:177f, 4:177-178,

4:178-179, 4:179f, 4:182Silurian 4:185-186, 4:188f, 5:511f

Wallaby Plateau 3:315f, 3:316?Wallace, Alfred Russell: 169Wallace's Line 1:169, l:171f, l:172fwalpurgite 3:508?Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von

3:184

INDEX SOS

Walther, Johannes 2:242-245background information 2:242biogeology 2:243fades analysis 2:243, 3:188influence 2:245photograph 2:242fresearch interests

deserts 2:244national education 2:244reef environments 2:244shallow marine environments 2:243

Solnhofen Limestone 2:244Walther's Law of the Correlation of Facies

4:487, 4:487f, 5:160Walvis Ridge 1:323f, 3:315 f, 3:316*,

3:335-336, 4:477-479Wandilla-Gwydir belt 1:242, 1:250Wasatch line 4:50Washington, Henry 3:186-187Washington, United States 4:38,

5:476-477, 5:480-481wasps 2:297f, 2:300twaste management

clays 1:368contaminated ground 2:30nuclear waste repositories 2:31, 2:31fsanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30/r

strategies 2:30, 2:30fWaterford Basin 3:146fwater (H2O)

atmospheric concentrations 1:197*,5:246t

beer brewing process 3:79, 3:80tcarbonatites 3:223tenvironmental geology 2:28fgeochemical analysis 3:618tgeothermal systems 3:105kimberlites 3:24£*meteoric water 3:107obsidian 3:269*oilfield water 2:17physical properties l:483tpore water analysis 5:148fresource management 2:28, 2:28fshock metamorphic effects 5:180tterrestrial volcanic-gas compositions

1:200*Venus 5:246*weathering processes 5:582, 5:588whisky distilling process 3:82, 3:83fSee also groundwater; permeability;

porosity; seawaterwater lily 2:425fWaterschoot van der Gracht, Willem van

2:191Watson, Jane Vida 3:61wattersite (Hg5O2CrO4) 3:533*wavellite 5:122, S:122fwave processes 4:570, 4:571f, 4:572fwavy bedding 4:599Wax River delta 4:531, 4:532fweathering 5:581-590

atmospheric effects 5:589biological processes 5:589building materials 5:588

chemical reactions 5:197*clay formation 1:362cracks and joints 5:581, 5:584fdefinition 5:581dehydration 5:197*Devonian 4:195dissolution 5:197*duricrusts 5:588early Earth 1:200-201economic geology 5:588engineering geology 1:451, 5:588gemstone deposits 3:7Goldich weathering system 5:583fhydrolysis 5:197*igneous rocks l:546flandscape development

chemical weathering 5:5S2*, 5:583,5:584f, 5:587-588

climatic effects 5:585, 5:586fequifinality 5:587feedback mechanisms 5:586, 5:587fgeneral discussion 5:583inheritance effects 5:5 84f, 5:588karst landscapes 4:683, 5:583, 5:585stress effects 5:585

lithological cycle 5:581long-term carbon cycle I:336f9 1:339flong-term effects 5:589mechanisms 5:582*mineral deposits 3:488-489, 3:489foxidation 5:197*Peltier's zonal classification 5:584fprocesses 5:582t, S:584frock-forming minerals 5:17, 5:582,

5:583^rock properties

general discussion 1:543rock-mass strength l:544f, 5:581shales 1:548spheroidal weathering 1:543fweathering grades 1:544fweathering profile 1:545f

sedimentary rocks 5:26sediment fluxes 5:17short-term carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f,

1:337fsoils 1:560,5:588,5:589weathering classifications 1:451weathering rates 5:582, 5:589

Weaver sharpness ratio 5:65web-spinners 2:300*websterite 3:253-254Weddell Sea

glaciation 1:138-139large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f,

3:316*Palaeocene 5:460tektites 5:444, 5:445*, S:4Slftopography 1:132, l:133f

Wegener, Alfred 2:246-253continental drift theory 2:246, 2:247,

2:247/i 2:251fGondwana 3:128meteorology 2:246motive forces 2:251

mountain-building theory 2:249palaeoclimate 2:247-248, 2:251palaeontological research 2:249Pangaea 2:249, 2:250fphotograph 2:246fplate tectonics 2:241, 2:246, 3:193polar research 2:246, 2:252frift valleys 2:249Sima (silica/magnesia-rich) layer 2:248fvolcanism 2:249

weinebeneite 3:593*Weipa, Australia 1:434Weiss, C. S. 3:500-501Welbertopora mutabilis l:274fWelsh Basin terrane 2:60Wengania globosa 4:3 61 fWenlock Series 4:87f, 4:185, 4:186f,

4:187f, 4:188, 5:511f, S:517fWentworth, Chester 3:188Wernecke Supergroup, northern Cordillera

4:39-42Werner, Abraham

mineral species classification 3:178,3:500

Neptunism 2:184, 3:167, 3:171, 3:174portrait 3:167funconformities 5:542

West African Craton 3:128, 3:132f, 5:39West Antarctica

See AntarcticaWest Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209f,

1:21 OfWest Congo Belt 1:2/", 1:9Western Boundary Undercurrent

4:643-644Western Gneiss Region 5:537Western Interior Basin 4:55Westlothiana lizziae 2:473fWest Ny Friesland Terrane 2:71-72Westphalian stage 2:95, 2:96f, 4:202f,

4:208f, 4:209fWest Siberian Basin 4:457f, 4:468West Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87fWetzeliella 5:468Weylandites 4:220whales (Cetacea) 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,

2:539-540, 5:469, 5:482-483Whatcheeria deltae 2:472, 2:473fWhewell, William 2:217, 3:176, 3:178Whin Sill 2:96/i 2:97-98whisky 3:82-85

distilleries 3:82, 3:83fOld Red Sandstone 3:84production process

malting 3:82water chemistry 3:82

water chemistry 3:82water sources 3:82, 3:83f

Whiston, William 3:170Whitcliffe Formation 4:186f, 4:189Whitcomb, John C. 1:384White, Charles A. 2:196White Earth conditions 4:372White, Ellen G. 1:384White, Gilbert 4:158-159

S06 INDEX

White Mountains, New Hampshire, UnitedStates 4:95

whiteschist 3:388twhite smokers 5:365, 5:390f, 5:390-391Whitfield, Robert P. 2:196Whitlandian stage 4:183 fwhitlockite 5:124-125Whitneyan land mammal age 5:472,

5:473fWhitney, JosiahD. 2:196Whittlesey, Charles 2:196Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma, United

States 4:21, 4:62fWichita Uplift 4:32fWickham Orogeny l:215fWickramasinghe, Chandra 2:171Wien's law 4:432Wilberforce, Samuel 1:257Wilkes Land Margin 3:315f9 3:316twillhendersonite 3:593tWilliamsoniella 2:453Willis, Bailey 3:189, 3:195, 5:543Williston Basin 4:33 fWilson Cycle 4:72, 4:74fWilson, J. Tuzo 3:62, 3:196, 3:199, 3:202,

3:205, 5:417, 5:458-459Windermere Supergroup, northern

Cordillera 4:39-42, 4:50wind ripples 4:618, 4:618fWind River Ranges, Wyoming, United

States 4:12wine geology 3:85-89

frost 3:85-87soils 3:87, 3:87fsolar radiation 3:85, 3:86fthermal belts 3:85-87vine nourishment 3:88vineyard temperature 3:85water supply 3:87

Winfrenatia 2:438f, 2:441-442winonaites 5:23ItWisconsin, United States 4:21, 4:33-34Witwatersrand, South Africa 3:121,

3:121f, 3:123-124, 3:490-491, 3:494,3:494f, 3:585-586

Wolfcampian stage 4:2 09fwolframite ((Fe,Mn)WO4) 3.-5S5*, 3:587,

3:630*wollastonite 3:400f, 3:401f, 3:569Wollaston, William 3:178, 3:62Wolman, Markley 3:189Wongawibinda Metamorphic Complex

1:242-243, l:246fWood, Harry 3:195Woodward, Arthur Smith 2:170Woodward, John 3:170Woolstonian substage 4:183 fWorden, A. 5:266*Wordian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 4:221 f,

5:511 f95:517fWorld Glacier Monitoring Service

4:663-664World War I

geological maps 3:185-186military geology 3:475-487

World War IImilitary geology 3:475-487mineral investigations 3:185-186

Wormwood Formation 4:186f9 4:186-188Worthen, Amos H. 2:196Wrangel Island 4:469, 5:498Wrangellia 3:315f, 3:316*, 5:175Wrangellia terrane 4:42Wuchiapingian stage 4:215*, 4:219f,

4:221f,5:511f,5:517fwulfenite (PbMoO4) 3:551-552, 3:552*Wurm stage 5:493wurtzite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:575*, 3:576f9 3:580f,

5:394*wustite (FeO) 4:149fWyattia 4:373Wyoming craton 4:12, 4:16Wyoming, United States 4:12, 4:48-50,

4:216, 5:470f9 5:471

xenon (Xe)atmospheric concentrations 1:197*,

1:198, l:199fmantle sources 3:228natural occurrences 3:553*

Xenotheca devonica 2:446fxenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f9 5:120-128X-ray densitometry 1:390-391X-ray diffraction 3:545Xylacanthus grandis 2:465

Yakutat terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47Yalin, M. S. 5:8Yalin's number 5:8, 5:9fYamato Mountains, Antarctica 5:236Yangtze craton 1:346, 1:346fyanomamite 3:508fYanuca (Serua) 4:118Yap Trench 5:430*, 5:430fYapungku Orogeny I:211f9 1:214-215yardangs 4:615, 4:615fYarrol-Tamworth belt 1:242, 1:250Yasawa Group 4:118Yeadonian subdivision 4:202fyedlinite (Pb6Cl6O2CrO4-2H2O) 3:533*Yellowstone hotspot 4:59f, 4:60Yemen

See ArabiaYemen Plateau Basalts 3:315f, 3:316*Yenisei Ridge 4:464, 4:464fYenisei River 5:19*Yermak Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*Yilgarn complex, Australia 1:208, l:209f,

1:21 Of, 1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39Yoldia Sea 2:150, 2:152fYorgia waggoneri 4:375-376Yorkshire, United Kingdom 4:201Younger Dryas event 2:147, 2:152, 2:159*Younginiforms 2:483Young, J. 5:266*Young,]. Z. 3:2

Young's modulus 1:545*, 1:549*, 1:552*,1:570, 1:571

Ypresian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:466,5:467/i 5:468f9 5:469, 5:470, 5:506f

International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)5:517f

ytterbium (Yb)carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224fcrustal composition 5:174*granitic rocks 3:242flava/lava flows 3:224fmineral analysis 1:1 OS*oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*yttrium (Y)

carbonatites 3:223*crustal composition 5:174*mineral analysis l:108tniobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)

pegmatites 3:639, 3:640foceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*partitioning behaviour 3:639*zircon 3:601

yttrotungstite-(Y) (YW2O6(OH)3) 3:587*Yudomian stage 4:461yugawaralite 3:593*Yugoslavia 5:462Yukon, Canada 4:37-38Yukon Plateau 4:45Yukon River 5:19*Yukon-Tanana Uplands 4:40f, 4:42,

4:45-46

Zagros Mountains 1:26, 1:27f, 5:420,5:424-425

Zaire 3:7*Zambezi Basin 3:142-147, 3:146fZambezi Belt I:2f9 1:7, l:8fZambezi River 5:19*Zambia 3:7*, 3:12Zamites gigas 2:453fZanclean stage (lower Pliocene) 5:486,

5:4S7*, 5:506f,5:517fZatheria 2:528fZealandia

See New ZealandZechstein Sea 2:95-96, 4:215 f9 4:216Zemorrian benthic foraminiferal stage

5:473fzeolites 3:591-600

Appalachians 4:74fapplications 3:599chabazite 3:593, 3:593*, 3:594fchemical composition 3:593*, 3:595,

3:595fclinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593*, 3:593-594,

3:594fcrystal structure 3:591, 3:593*general discussion 3:591glossary information 3:600heulandite 3:593*, 3:593-594,

3:594f

X

Yz

INDEX S07

zeolites (continued)metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404,

3:405f, 3:412fnatrolite 3:591-593, 3:593*, 3:594foccurrence

alkaline lakes 3:596, 3:596fdeep-sea sediments 3:597fault zone alteration 3:599general discussion 3:595geothermal systems 3:599granitic gneiss 3:599hydrothermal alteration 3:591,3:591f,hydrothermal alteration 3:591,3:59 If,

3:599, 3:631-632lava flows 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598fmetamorphic rocks 3:598pegmatitic crystallization 3:599pressure-temperature diagram

3:596fsandstones 3:597sedimentary rocks 3:596terrestrial pyroclastic deposits 3:597,

3:597fZERMOS mapping programme, France

1:469zhamanshinites 5:451Zhenzhoraptor 2:497zibars 4:542, 4:618-620, 4:619fziesite (Cu2(V2O7)) 3:589tZijderveld diagrams 4:149-151, 4:150fZilair formation 2:88-89Zimbabwe 3:12Zimbabwe craton 1:132-135zincroselite 3:508fzinc (Zn)

carbonatites 3:223*hydrothermal fluids 3:629*hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*mineral analysis l:108t

natural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554oceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114tsoil concentrations 2:22*toxicity 2:22*world production rates 1:43 8t

zinwaldite 3:549-550zirconium (Zr)

carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*crustal composition 5:174*komatiites 3:264foceanic manganese nodular deposits

5:114*partitioning behaviour 3:639*zircon 3:601-608

analysesradiometric geochronology 3:604samples 3:605sensitive high-resolution ion

microprobe technique(SHRIMP) 3:606

thermal ionization massspectrometry (TIMS) 3:605

zircon crystals 3:604Carboniferous stratigraphy 4:202fchemical composition 3:601,

3:602*economic aspects

aeolian placers 3:603*, 3:604beach placers 3:602, 3:603*, 3:604f,

3:605fmining 3:604, 3:607fplacer classification 3:603*placer deposits 3:489-490processing 3:604, 3:607fuses 3:604world production 3:604, 3:606*,

3:606f

fission track analysis 1:45, 1:47gem-quality stones 3:602, 3:603fhafnium (Hf) 3:601igneous rocks 3:602metamorphic rocks 3:602Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia

3:607f, 3:607-608occurrence

aeolian placers 3:603*, 3:604beach placers 3:602, 3:603*, 3:604f,

3:60Sfgeneral discussion 3:602

optical properties 3:602, 3:602*overgrowths 3:608, 3:608fproperties 3:601, 3:601*sedimentary rocks 3:602South-east Asia 1:196structure 3:601, 3:601fxenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608fzircon crystals

Appalachians 4:76-77, 4:78geographic distribution 3:7*kimberlites 3:256*magmatism time-scales 3:245,

3:245fnorthern Cordillera 4:42placer deposits 3:489-490provenance studies 1:47, 1:52-53radiometric geochronology 3:604

Zirkel, Ferdinand 3:184Zodiacal Light 5:227, 5:227fzoisite 3:401fZoophycos 5:44, 5:45f, 5:46f, 5:47fzuenerite 3:508fZuni sequence, North America 4:25-26,

4:26f, 4:27/i 4:28Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,

2:441-442

Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

© 2005 Elsevier Ltd.

The following articles are © 2005, The Natural History Museum, London, UK:

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/HominidsPalaeontology

PALAEOZOIC/SilurianPRECAMBRIAN/Overview

Terranes, OverviewConservation of Geological Specimens

MINERALS/OlivinesMINERALS/Sulphates

TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pleistocene and The Ice AgeEnvironmental Geochemistry

Biological Radiations and SpeciationPALAEOZOIC/Ordovician

TERTIARY TO PRESENT/EoceneTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Paleocene

FOSSIL PLANTS/AngiospermsFOSSIL PLANTS/Gymnosperms

BiozonesMESOZOIC/Cretaceous

MESOZOIC/End Cretaceous ExtinctionsStratigraphical Principles

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Molluscs OverviewFOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Trilobites

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/EchinoidsTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pliocene

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/BryozoansMINERALS/Feldspathoids

Russia

The following article is a US Government work in the public domain and not subject to copyright:

NORTH AMERICA/Atlantic Margin

"Earth from Space" endpaper figure reproduced with permission from Reto Stockli, Nazmi El Saleous,and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen and NASA GSFC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and

retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Rights Department in Oxford, UK:phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mailpermissions@elsevier.com.

Requests may also be completed on-line via the homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions).

First edition 2005

Library of Congress Control Number: 2004104445

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-12-636380-3 (set)

This book is printed on acid-free paperPrinted and bound in Spain

EDITORS v

EDITORS

Richard C. SelleyImperial College

London, UK

L. Robin M. CocksNatural History Museum

London, UK

Ian R. PlimerUniversity of Melbourne

Melbourne, VAAustralia

CONSULTANT EDITOR

Joe McCallCirencester

Gloucestershire, UK

Editors

Editorial Advisory Board

Jaroslav AichlerCzech Geological Survey

Jesenık, Czech Republic

Andrew R ArmourRevus Energy A/S

Norway

John CollinsonDelos, Beech

Staffordshire, UK

Alexander M DavisInfoscape Solutions Ltd.

Guildford, UK

Peter DoyleUniversity College London

London, UK

Wolfgang FrankeInstitut fur Geowissenschaften

Giessen, Germany

Yves FuchsUniversite Marne la Valle

France

Paul GarrardFormerly Imperial College

London, UK

R O GreilingUniversitat Heidelberg

Heidelberg, Germany

Gwendy HallNatural Resources Canada

Ottawa, ON, Canada

Robert D Hatcher, Jr.University of Tennessee

Knoxville, TN, USA

Georg HoinkesUniversitat Graz

Universitatplatz 2

Graz, Austria

R A HowieRoyal Holloway, London University

London, UK

Shunsho IshiharaGeological Survey of Japan

Tsukuba, Japan

Gilbert KellingKeele University

Keele, UK

Ken MacdonaldUniversity of California Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara, CA, USA

Norman MacLeodThe Natural History Museum

London, UK

Stuart MarshBritish Geological Survey

Nottingham, UK

Joe McCallCirencester, Gloucestershire, UK

David R OldroydUniversity of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW, Australia

Rong Jia-yuNanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology

Nanjing, China

Mike RosenbaumTwickenham, UK

Peter StylesKeele University

Keele, UK

vi EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Hans D SuesCarnegie Museum of Natural History

Pittsburgh, PA, USA

John VeeversMacquarie University

Sydney, NSW, Australia

S H WhiteUniversiteit Utrecht

Utrecht, The Netherlands

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD vii

Foreword

Few areas of science can have changed as fast as geology has in the past forty years. In the first half of the lastcentury geologists were divided, often bitterly, between the drifters and those who believed that the Earth andits continents were static. Neither side of this debate foresaw that the application of methods from physics,chemistry and mathematics to these speculations would revolutionize the study of all aspects of the EarthSciences, and would lead to accurate and detailed reconstructions of world geography at former times, as wellas to an understanding of the origin of the forces that maintain the continental movements. This change inworld-view is no longer controversial, and is now embedded in every aspect of the Earth Sciences. It is a realpleasure to see this change, which has revitalized so many classic areas of research, reflected in the articlesof this encyclopedia. Particularly affected are the articles on large-scale Earth processes, which discuss manyof the new geological ideas that have come from geophysics and geochemistry. Forty years ago we had nounderstanding of these topics, which are fundamental to so many aspects of the Earth Sciences. The editorshave decided, and in my view quite rightly, not to include detailed discussion of the present technology that isused to make geophysical and geochemical measurements. Such instrumental aspects are changing rapidly andbecome dated very quickly. They can easily be found in more technical publications. Instead the editors haveconcentrated on the influence such studies have had on our understanding of the Earth and its evolution, and inso doing have produced an excellent and accessible account of what is now known.

Any encyclopedia has to satisfy a wide variety of users, and in particular those who know that some subjectlike sedimentation or mineral exploration is part of geology, and go to an encyclopedia of geology to find outmore. The editors have made a very thorough attempt to satisfy such users, and have included sections on suchunexpected geological topics as the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, the geology of Jupiter, Saturn, andtheir moons, aggregates, and creationism. I congratulate the editors and authors for producing such a finesummary of our present knowledge, and am particularly pleased that they intend to produce an online versionof the encyclopedia. Though I have become addicted to using the Internet as my general encyclopedia, I will bedelighted to be able to access something concerned with my own field that is as organized and scholarly as arethese volumes.

Dan McKenzieRoyal Society Professor of Earth Sciences

Cambridge University, UK

FOREWORD ix

Introduction

Civilization occurs by geological consent subject to change without notice....Will Durant (1885 1981)

Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham from 1333 to 1345, divided all knowledge into ‘Geologia’, earthlyknowledge, and ‘Theologia’, heavenly knowledge. By the beginning of the last century, however, Geologywas generally understood to be restricted to the study of rocks: according to the old dictum of the GeologicalSurvey of Great Britain ‘If you can hit it with a hammer, then it’s geology.’ Subsequently geology has beensubsumed into Earth Science. This includes not only the study of rocks (the lithosphere), but also theatmosphere and hydrosphere and their relationship with the biosphere. Presently these relationships nowform a nexus in Earth System Science.

The ‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ is what it says on the cover. What appealed to us when first approached toedit this work by Academic Press was a request that the encyclopedia should be rock-based. Readers arereferred to the companion volumes, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Encyclopedia of the Solar System,Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment and Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences for knowledge on the otherbranches of Earth Science. Nonetheless we have extended our brief to include articles on the other planets androcky detritus of our solar system, leaving others to argue, as no doubt Bishop Richard would have done,where the boundaries of earthly and heavenly knowledge might be. (His Grace would probably have chargedthe editors of the Encyclopedia of the Solar System with heresy.)

One of the first, and most difficult, tasks of editing this encyclopedia was to decide, not only which topicsmerited articles, but also how these articles should be grouped to facilitate the reader. This is easy for somebranches of geology, but difficult for others. It is relatively easy to logically arrange articles on mineralogy andpalaeontology, since they are defined by their chemistry and evolutionary biology. Articles that describe Earthhistory may be conveniently arranged in a chronological order, and articles on regional geology may bepresented geographically. Other topics present problems, particularly in the area of sedimentology. There is,for example, a range of inter-related topics associated with deserts. This area could be described geomorpho-logically, and in terms of the aeolian and aqueous processes of deserts, aeolian sedimentary structures, andaeolian deposits. All of these aspects of deserts deserve mention, but there is no obvious logical way ofarranging the discrete topics into articles. To help us in this task we relied heavily on our editorial board,whose individual members had more specialized knowledge of their field than we. To the Editorial BoardMembers, authors and anonymous referees of each article we give heartfelt thanks. We were also, of course,constrained by the willingness of expert authorities to contribute articles. To some degree therefore, the shapeof the encylopedia owes as much to the enthusiasm of experts to write for us, as for our ‘wish list’ of articles. Tofacilitate readers finding their way around the Encyclopedia of Geology great care has been taken in cross-referencing within and between articles, in providing ‘See Also’ lists at the end of articles, and in the index. Nodoubt it will be easier for readers to navigate around the online version of the work, than to manipulate theseveral hard copy volumes.

As geological knowledge expands there is always more to learn and understand. While preparing the‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ we have ourselves learned a great deal about geology, both within and beyondour own specialties. We invite you to read this encyclopedia and join us in the field trip of a lifetime.

Richard C. SelleyL. Robin M. Cocks

Ian R. Plimer1 August 2004

References to related encyclopedia published by Elsevier, Academic Press:

Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 1998Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2002Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005

INTRODUCTION xi

GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xiii

Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia

Structure of the EncyclopediaThe material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order. Most entries consist ofseveral articles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry.Some entries comprise a single article.

To help you realize the full potential of the material in the Encyclopedia we have provided three features tohelp you find the topic of your choice: a Contents List, Cross-References and an Index.

1. Contents ListYour first point of reference will probably be the contents list. The complete contents lists, which appears at thefront of each volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry. On theopening page of an entry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry areimmediately available.

Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as yourguide. To assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates thecurrent entry and the current article within that entry.

You will find 'dummy entries' where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped togetherrelated topics. Dummy entries appear in both the contents lists and the body of the text.

Example

If you were attempting to locate material on erosional sedimentary structures via the contents list:

EROSION see SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Fluxes and Budgets; Aeolian Processes; ErosionalSedimentary Structures.

The dummy entry directs you to the Erosional Sedimentary Structures article, in the SEDIMENTARYPROCESSES entry. At the appropriate location in the contents list, the page numbers for articles underSedimentary Processes are given.

If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Erosion then thefollowing information would be provided in the dummy entry:

EROSION

See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian Processes; Fluxes andBudgets

xiv GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alternatively, if you were looking up Sedimentary Processes the following information would be provided:

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES

Contents

Erosional Sedimentary StructuresDepositional Sedimentary StructuresPost-Depositional Sedimentary StructuresAeolian ProcessesCatastrophic FloodsDeep Water Processes and DepositsFluvial GeomorphologyGlaciersKarst and PalaeokarstLandslidesParticle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity ProcessesDeposition from SuspensionFluxes and Budgets

2. Cross-ReferencesAll of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced.

The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions. For example, atthe end of the PRECAM BRIAN: Overview article, cross-references are used:

i. To indicate if a topic is discussed in greater detail elsewhere.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic Biosediments andBiofilms Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science.Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America:Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran, Russia, SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science. Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacdran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.

ii. To draw the reader's attention to parrallel discussions in other articles.

GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xv

iii. To indicate material that broadens the discussion.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Europe: East European Graton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields.

3. IndexThe index will provide you with the page number where the material is located, and the index entriesdifferentiate between material that is a whole article, is part of an article or is data presented in a figure ortable. Detailed notes are provided on the opening page of the index.

4. ContributorsA full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume.

Earth Syatem Science.Gondwantand and Gendwana.

Terranes, Overview.

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Contributors

Abart, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Aldridge, R JUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Al-Jallal, I ASandroses Est. for Geological, GeophysicalPetroleum Engineering Consultancy and PetroleumServices, Khobar, Saudi Arabia

Alkmim, F FUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil

Allen, P MBingham, Nottingham, UK

Allwood, A CMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Al-Sharhan, A SUnited Arab Emirates University, AI-Ain,United Arab Emirates

Anderson, L INational Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK

Arndt, N TLCEA, Grenoble, France

Arnott, ROxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford, UK

Asimow, P DCalifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Atkinson, JCity University, London, UK

Bacon, MPetro-Canada, London, UK

Bailey, JAnglo-Australian Observatory and Australian Centre forAstrobiology, Sydney, Australia

Bani, PInstitut de la Recherche pour le Développement,Noumea, New Caledonia

Bell, F GBritish Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK

Bell, KCarleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Best, JUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Birch, W DMuseum Victoria, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Bird, J FImperial College London, London, UK

Black, PAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand

Bleeker, WGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Bogdanova, S VLund University, Lund, Sweden

Bommer, J JImperial College London, London, UK

Boore, D MUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Bosence, D W JRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Boulanger, R WUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA

Braga, J CUniversity of Granada, Granada, Spain

Branagan, D FUniversity of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Brasier, M DUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Brewer, P AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Bridge, MUniversity College London, London, UK

Brown, DInstitute de Ciencias de la Tierra 'Jaume Almera'CSIC, Barcelona, Spain

Brown, A JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Brown, R JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Bucher, KUniversity of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Burns, S FPortland State University, Portland, OR, USA

Byford, EBroken Hill, NSW, Australia

Calder, E SOpen University, Milton Keynes, UK

Cameron, E MEion Cameron Geochemical Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada

Carbotte, S MColumbia University, New York, NY, USA

Carminati, EUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy

Chamberlain, S AMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Charles, J AFormerly Building Research EstablishmentHertfordshire, UK

Chiappe, L MNatural History Museum of Los Angeles CountyLos Angeles, CA, USA

Clack, J AUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Clayton, CEardiston, Tenbury Wells, UK

Clayton, GTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland

Cocks, L R MThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Coffin, M FUniversity of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Collinson, JJohn Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK

Comerford, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Condie, K CNew Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, USA

Cornford, CIntegrated Geochemical Interpretation Ltd, Bideford, UK

Cornish, LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Cosgrove, J WImperial College London, London, UK

Coxon, PTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland

Cressey, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Cribb, S JCarraig Associates, Inverness, UK

Cronan, D SImperial College London, London, UK

Currant, AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Davies, HUniversity of Papua New Guinea, Port MoresbyPapua New Guinea

Davis, G RImperial College London, London, UK

DeCarli, P SSRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Dewey, J FUniversity of California DavisDavis, CA, USA, and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Doglioni, CUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy

Doming, K JUniversity of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Dott, Jr R HUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl, USA

Doyle, PUniversity College London, London, UK

Dubbin, W EThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Dyke, G JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Echtler, HGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Eden, M AGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK

Eide, E AGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Eldholm, OUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Elliott, D KNorthern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Elliott, TUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Eriksen, A SZetica, Witney, UK

Payers, S RUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Feenstra, AGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Felix, MUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Figueras, DBFI, Houston, TX, USA

Fookes, P GWinchester, UK

Forey, P LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Fortey, R AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Foster, D AUniversity of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Frýda, JCzech Geological Survey, Prague, Czech Republic

Franke, WJohann Wolfgang Goethe-UniversitatFrankfurt am Main, Germany

Franz, GTechnische Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany

French, W JGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK

Fritscher, BMunich University, Munich, Germany

Frostick, LUniversity of Hull, Hull, UK

Fuchs, YUniversité Marne la Vallée, Marne la Vallée, France

Gabbott, S EUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Garaebiti, EDepartment of Geology and Mines, Port Vila, Vanuatu

Garetsky, R GInstitute of Geological Sciences, Minsk, Belarus

Garrard, PImperial College London, London, UK

Gascoyne, J KZetica, Witney, UK

Gee, D GUniversity of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden

Geshi, NGeological Survey of Japan, Ibaraki, Japan

Giese, PFreie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Giles, D PUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Glasser, N FUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Gluyas, JAcorn Oil and Gas Ltd., Staines, UK

Gorbatschev, RLund University, Lund, Sweden

Gordon, J EScottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh, UK

Gradstein, F MUniversity of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Gray, D RUniversity of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Greenwood, J RNottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Grieve, RAFNatural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Griffiths, J SUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Hambrey, M JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Hancock, J M†

Formerly Imperial College London, London, UK

Hansen, J MDanish Research Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark

Harff, JBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemunde, Rostock,Germany†Deceased

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Harper, DATGeologisk Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark

Harper, E MUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Harrison, JPImperial College London, London, UK

Hatcher, Jr RDUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA

Hatheway, A WRolla, MO and Big Arm, MT, USA

Hauzenberger, C AUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria

Hawkins, A BCharlotte House, Bristol, UK

Haymon, R MUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

He GuoqiPeking University, Beijing, China

Head, J WBrown University, Providence, Rl, USA

Heim, N AUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

Helvaci, CDokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Izmir, Turkey

Hendriks, B W HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Henk, AUniversität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Herries Davies, G LUniversity of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Hey, R NUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

Hoinkes, GUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria

Hooker, J JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Home, D JUniversity of London, London, UK

Hovland, MStatoil, Stavanger, Norway

Howell, JUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Howie, R ARoyal Holloway, University of London, London, UK

Hudson-Edwards, KUniversity of London, London, UK

Huggett, J MPetroclays, Ashtead, UK and The Natural HistoryMuseum, London, UK

Hughes, N CUniversity of California, Riverside, CA, USA

Hutchinson, D RUS Geological Survey, Woods Hole, MA, USA

Idriss, I MUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA

Ineson, J RGeological Survey of Denmark and GreenlandGeocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Ivanov, M ARussian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Jäger, K DMartin Luther University, Halle, Germany

Jarzembowski, E AUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK and MaidstoneMuseum and Bentlif Art Gallery, Maidstone, UK

Jones, BUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Jones, G LConodate Geology, Dublin, Ireland

Joyner, LCardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Kaminski, M AUniversity College London, London, UK

Kay, S MCornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Kemp, A I SUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Kendall, A CUniversity of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

Kenrick, PThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Kogiso, TJapan Marine Science and Technology Center,Yokosuka, Japan

Krings, MBayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie undGeologic, Geo-Bio Center, Munich, Germany

Lancaster, NDesert Research Institute, Reno, NV, and United StatesGeological Survey, Reston, VA, USA

Lang,K RTufts University, Medford, MA, USA

Laurent, GBrest, France

Lee, E MYork, UK

Lemke, WBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemünde, RostockGermany

Lesher, C MLaurentian University, ON, Canada

Lewin, JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Liu, J GImperial College London, London, UK

Long,J AThe Western Australian Museum, PerthWA, Australia

Loock, J CUniversity of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa

Lowell, R PGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Lucas, S GNew Mexico Museum of Natural HistoryAlbuquerque, NM, USA

Liming, SUniversity of Bremen, Bremen, Germany

Luo, Z-XCarnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA, USA

Macdonald, K CUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

Machel, H GUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

MacLeod, NThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Maltman, AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Martill, D MUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Martins-Neto, M AUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil

Marvin, U BHarvard-Smithsonian Center for AstrophysicsCambridge, MA, USA

Mason, P JHME Partnership, Romford, UK

Massonne, H-JUniversität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Matte, PUniversity of Montpellier II, Montpellier, France

Mayor, APrinceton, USA

McCaffrey, WUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

McCall, G J HCirencester, Gloucester, UK

McCave, I NUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

McGhee, G RRutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

McKibben, M AUniversity of California, CA, USA

McLaughlin, Jr P PDelaware Geological Society, Newark, DE, USA

McManus, JUniversity of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK

McMenamin, MASMount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USA

Merriam, D FUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Metcalfe, IUniversity of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

Milke, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Milner, A RBirkbeck College, London, UK

Mojzsis, S JUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

Monger, J W HGeological Survey of Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canadaand Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada

Moore, PSelsey, UK

Morris, N JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Mortimer, NInstitute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, DunedinNew Zealand

Mountney, N PKeele University, Keele, UK

Mpodozis, CSIPETROL SA, Santiago, Chile

Mungall, J EUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Myrow, PColorado College, Colorado Springs, CO, USA

Naish, DUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Nickel, E HCSIRO Exploration and Mining, Wembley, WA, Australia

Nielsen, K CThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Nikishin, A MLomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

Nokleberg, W JUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Norbury, DCL Associates, Wokingham, UK

O'Brien, P JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Ogg, J GPurdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Oldershaw, CSt. Albans, UK

Oldroyd, D RUniversity of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Oneacre, J WBFI, Houston, TX, USA

Orchard, M JGeological Survey of CanadaVancouver, BC, Canada

Orr, P JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Owen, A WUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

Pälike, HStockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Page, K NUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Paris, FUniversity of Rennes 1, Rennes, France

Parker, J RFormerly Shell EP International, London, UK

Pfiffner, O AUniversity of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

Piper, D J WGeological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, NS, Canada

Price, R AQueens University Kingston, ON, Canada

Prothero, D ROccidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Puche-Riart, OPolytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Pye, KRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Rahn, P HSouth Dakota School of Mines and TechnologyRapid City, SD, USA

Ramos, V AUniversidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Rankin, A HKingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, UK

Rebesco, MIstituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di GeofisicaSperimentale (OGS), Italy

Reedman, A JMapperley, UK

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Reisz, R RUniversity of Toronto at MississaugaMississauga, ON, Canada

Retallack, G JUniversity of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Rickards, R BUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Riding, RCardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Rigby, J KBrigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

Rigby, SUniversity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Rodda, PMineral Resources Department, Suva, Fiji

Rona, P ARutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

Rose, E P FRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Rosenbaum, M STwickenham, UK

Rothwell, R GSouthampton Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK

Roy, A BPresidency College, Kolkata, India

Rushton, A W AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Russell, A JUniversity of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle uponTyne, UK

Schmid, RETH-centre, Zurich, Switzerland

Scott, ENational Center for Science EducationBerkeley, CA, USA

Scon, A CRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Scrutton, C TFormerly University of Durham, Durham, UK

Searle, MUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Searle, R CUniversity of Durham, Durham, UK

Seibold, IUniversity Library, Freiburg, Germany

Selley, R CImperial College London, London, UK

Sellwood, B WUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK

Shields, G AJames Cook University, Townsville, OLD, Australia

Simms, M JUlster Museum, Belfast, UK

Slipper, I JUniversity of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK

Smallwood, J RAmerada Hess pic, London, UK

Smith, A BThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Smith, IAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand

Snoke, A WUniversity of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA

Soligo, CThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Stein, SNorthwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

Steinberger, BJapan Marine Science and Technology CenterYokosuka, Japan

Stemmerik, LGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland,Geocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Stern, R JThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Stewart, IUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Storey, B CUniversity of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Storrs, G WCincinnati Museum Center, Museum of Natural Historyand Science, Cincinnati, OH, USA

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Strachan, R AUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Suetsugu, DJapan Marine Science and Technology Center, YokosukaJapan

Surlyk, FUniversity of Copenhagen, Geocenter Copenhagen,Copenhagen, Denmark

Tait, JLudwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany

Talbot, M RUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Taylor, P DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Taylor, T NUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Taylor, W E GUniversity of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK

Tazawa, JNiigata University, Niigata, Japan

Theodor, J MIllinois State Museum, Springfield, IL, USA

Timmerman, M JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Tollo, R PGeorge Washington University, Washington, DC, USA

Torsvik, T HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Trendall, ACurtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia

Trewin, N HUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Turner, A KColorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA

Twitchett, R JUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Tyler, I MGeological Survey of Western AustraliaEast Perth, WA, Australia

Valdes, P JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

van Geuns, L CClingendael International Energy ProgrammeThe Hague, The Netherlands

van Staal, C RGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Vanecek, MCharles University Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Vaughan,D JUniversity of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Veevers, J JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Verniers, JUniversity of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium

Wadge, GUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK

Walter, M RMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Wang, HChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

Ware, N GAustralian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Warke, P AQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK

Weber, K JTechnical University, Delft, The Netherlands

Welch, M DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Westbrook, G KUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Westermann, G E GMcMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Whalley, W BQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK

White, N CBrisbane, OLD, Australia

White, S MUniversity of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Wignall, P BUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Williams, P AUniversity of Western Sydney, Parramata, Australia

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Wise, W SUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

Worden, R HUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Wyatt, A RSidmouth, UK

Xiao, SVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, VA, USA

Yakubchuk, A SThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Yates, A MUniversity of the Witwatersrand, JohannesburgSouth Africa

Zhang ShihongChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

Ziegler, P AUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland