Geoethics

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GeoethicsEthical Challenges

and Case Studies in Earth Sciences

AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO

Max WyssInternational Centre for Earth Simulation, Geneva, Switzerland

Silvia PeppoloniINGV – Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy; IAPG – International Association for Promoting Geoethics, Rome, Italy

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ISBN: 978-0-12-799935-7

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataGeoethics : ethical challenges and case studies in earth sciences / [edited by] Max Wyss, Silvia Peppoloni. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-12-799935-7 (hardback)1. Geology–Research–Moral and ethical aspects. 2. Geophysics–Research–Moral and ethical aspects. 3. Research–Moral and ethical aspects–Case studies. I. Wyss, Max, 1939- editor. II. Peppoloni, Silvia, editor. QE40.G375 2015 174′.955--dc23

2014035845

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Contents

Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiii

Section I Philosophical Reflections 1. The Meaning of Geoethics

Silvia Peppoloni and Giuseppe Di Capua

The Birth of Geoethics 3What Is Geoethics? 4Issues with the Development of Geoethics 5An Etymological Starting Point: Individual and Social Responsibility 6Responsibility of Geoscientists 8An Ethical Commitment: The Geoscientist’s Promise 8Outlook and Strategies for the Future 10Conclusions: Questions for a Public Debate on Geoethics 11References 13

2. Geoethics: Reenvisioning Applied Philosophy

Ingrid Leman Stefanovic

Part I: The Place of Ethics 16Part II: Geoethics, Risk Assessment, and Environmental Decision Making 19Part III: A New Role for Ethicists 21References 22

3. The Imperative of Sustainable Development: Elements of an Ethics of Using Georesources Responsibly

Armin Grunwald

Challenge 26Making the Vision of Sustainable Development Work 27

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Sustainability Principles Relevant to Geoethics 29Protection of Human Health 29Securing the Satisfaction of Basic Needs 30Sustainable Use of Renewable Resources 30Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Resources 31Sustainable Use of the Environment as a Sink 31Avoidance of Unacceptable Technical Risks 32Conservation of Nature’s Cultural Functions 32Participation in Societal Decision-making Processes 33Equal Opportunities 33Sustainability Assessments for Geotechnologies and Geosciences 34References 35

4. Ethics of Disaster Research

Ilan Kelman

Outline of the Problem 37Interference with Disaster-Related Activities 39Disaster Research Outcomes 41Discussion 43Conclusions 46References 47

5. Toward an Inclusive Geoethics—Commonalities of Ethics in Technology, Science, Business, and Environment

Thomas Potthast

Domain and Challenges of Geoethics 50Interdisciplinary Application-Oriented Ethics and the Tübingen Approach to Ethics in the Sciences 50Cases and Fields of Geoethics 51Professional Ethics of Scientific and Engineering Geosciences 51Ethical Evaluation Procedures for Specific Projects 52Respect for (Religions of) Nature and Dimensions of Land

Ethics 54Outlook: Geoethics and Sustainable Development 54References 55

6. Humans’ Place in Geophysics: Understanding the Vertigo of Deep Time

Telmo Pievani

Denialism in Science 57Discussion: Counterintuitive Science and Our Teleological Minds 60

Contents vii

How Can One Answer Denialism in Science? 63Conclusions 65References 66

Section II Geoscience Community 7. Research Integrity: The Bedrock of the Geosciences

Tony Mayer

Introduction 71Some Famous Geoscience Cases 74The World Conferences on RI and their Outcomes 75The Singapore Statement 76Conclusions 80References 80

8. Formulating the American Geophysical Union’s Scientific Integrity and Professional Ethics Policy: Challenges and Lessons Learned

Linda C. Gundersen and Randy Townsend

Introduction 84Building the AGU Scientific Integrity and Professional Ethics Policy 85Charge to the Task Force and Foundational Documents 85Structure of the Policy 86Challenges and Lessons Learned in Evaluating and Resolving Scientific Misconduct Allegations 88Importance of Education and a Positive Research Environment 90Conclusions 91References 92

9. Ethical Behavior in Relation to the Scholarly Community: A Discussion on Plagiarism

Stefano Solarino

Introduction 95Definition of Plagiarism 97The Legal Aspects of Plagiarism 98The Different Forms of Plagiarism 99Detecting Plagiarism 100Self-plagiarism 101The Roles of Ethics and the Scientific Community 103References 106

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Section III The Ethics Of Practice 10. When Scientific Evidence is not Welcome…

Paul G. Richards

11. Mmax: Ethics of the Maximum Credible Earthquake

Roger Bilham

Introduction 120Right and Wrong: Gut Decisions and Approaching Danger 121Earthquake Prediction and Forecast, and a Vulnerable Public 122A Hypothetical Case of Nuclear Power Involving Ethical Decisions 125Quantifying Future Earthquakes where Few Have Occurred Historically 127Societal Pressures and Moral Principles 128The Planned Jaitapur Nuclear Power Plant in India 130Is Mmax Appropriate for Public Consumption? 131Mmax in the New Madrid Seismic Zone 132Mmax for the Himalaya 134Discussion 136Conclusions 137Postscript 138References 138

12. Geoethics: Tenets and PraxisTwo Examples from India

Vinod K. Gaur

Perspective 141Tehri 142Jaitapur 147The Critique 150The Epilogue 151Appendix: The Context of Geoethics 152Notes 156References 159

13. Corporate Money Trumps Science

William Gawthrop (Retired)

Introduction 161Where the Trouble Began 162The Larger Study 164The Fallout from These Studies 167

Contents ix

Conclusions 167References 168

14. Shortcuts in Seismic Hazard Assessments for Nuclear Power Plants are Not Acceptable

Max Wyss

Introduction 169The Assignment 170A Compendium of Errors 171The Resolution 173Conclusions 173References 174

15. Geoethical and Social Aspects of Warning for Low-Frequency and Large-Impact Events like Tsunamis

Stefano Tinti, Alberto Armigliato, Gianluca Pagnoni and Filippo Zaniboni

Introduction 176Measurement Errors and Prediction Uncertainties 177Accurate, Successful, Useful Predictions 178Sources of Uncertainties in Tsunami Forecast Science 180Tsunami Warnings 182Tsunami Hazard 183Tsunami Predictions and Tsunami Warning 185The Optimal TWS 188Conclusions 190Acknowledgments 191References 191

16. What Foreign Rescue Teams Should Do and Must Not Do in Muslim Countries

Mohamad amin Skandari

Introduction 194What First Responders Should Do and Respect Generally 194Humanity 194Impartiality 194Neutrality 195Fair Allocation of Resources 195Making Decisions under Fire 195Meeting the Special Needs of Vulnerable Populations 195What Humanitarian Workers and First Responders Should Do and Respect, When They Are Working in an Affected Muslim Community 196Islam 196

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Note 197Conclusion 200References 201

Section IV Communication with The Public, Officials and The Media 17. Some Comments on the First Degree Sentence of the

“L’Aquila Trial”

Marco Mucciarelli

What Should Have Been “Predicted” 206The Role of Site Effects 207The Benefit of Hindsight 207Who Reassured Who 208Is Earthquake Engineering “Pointless”? 209Conclusions 209References 210

18. Risk Management: Roles and Responsibilities in the Decision-making Process

Mauro Dolce and Daniela Di Bucci

Introduction 212Scientists and Decision-makers 213Other Actors Influencing Decisions and Their Responsibilities 217Final Remarks 220References 220

19. Communicating to the General Public Earthquake Prediction Information: Lessons Learned in Greece

Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos

Introduction 223The VAN Predictions 227Two Prediction Episodes 227Prediction Episode 1: The September 7, 1999 Lethal Earthquake of

Athens 228Prediction Episode 2: The 2008 “Storm” of Earthquakes and

Predictions 230Concluding Remarks 235References 236

Contents xi

20. Do Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Maps Address the Need of the Population?

Max Wyss

Introduction 240The Need of the Population in Highly Seismic Regions to Know Their Risk 241The Assumption Underlying the Probabilistic Method to Estimate Seismic Hazard and Risk 242The Arbitrariness Governing the Probabilistic Method to Estimate Seismic Hazard and Risk 243Testing the Probabilistic Method to Estimate Seismic Hazard and Risk 244The Deterministic Approach to Assist the Population in Understanding Their Earthquake Risk 247Conclusions 248References 248

21. Reflections on Ethics in Mapping as an Instrument and Result of Disaster Research

Jessica Heesen, Daniel F. Lorenz, Martin Voss and Bettina Wenzel

Part I: The Concepts of Risk, Vulnerability, and Resilience 252Concepts of Risk 252Concepts of Vulnerability 252Concepts of Resilience 252Part II: Mapping as Selective Representations 253Forms of Selection 253Reduction from Qualitative Processes to Quantitative Data 254Selections as Origins of Interpretation 256Part III: Ethical Questions of Risk Management and Interpretation of Maps 257Conclusions 260References 260

22. Geoethics, Risk-Communication, and Scientific Issues in Earthquake Science

Robert J. Geller

Introduction 264L’Aquila-like Hypothetical Case 264Funding and Ethics 266Earthquake Prediction in Japan 266The Fukushima Nuclear Accident 268

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Conclusions 270References 271

23. Extreme Sea Level Events, Coastal Risks, and Climate Changes: Informing the Players

Eduardo Marone, Juliane C. Carneiro, Marcio M. Cintra, Andréa Ribeiro, Denis Cardoso and Carol Stellfeld

Introduction 274Coastline Changes in Response to Sea Level Rise 277The Area Studied 277The Local Dynamic 279Method 280IPCC Scenarios 282Scientific Results 283Discussion 297Conclusions 298Final Remarks 299Acknowledgments 301References 301

Section V Natural and Anthropogenic Hazards 24. Thoughts on Ethics in Volcanic Hazard Research

Jurgen Neuberg

Appropriate Method for Forecasting and Volcanic Risk Assessment 306Biases in Communicating Volcanic Hazard and Risk 308Volcanic Research Assets: Hoarding or Sharing 310Conclusions 311References 312Further Reading 312

25. Ethical Issues in the Decision-making for Earthquake Preparedness, Prediction, and Early Warning: A Discussion in the Perspective of Game Theory

Zhongliang Wu

Introduction 314The “Seismo-Illogical Cycle” 314The Ethical Paradox 316Policy Selection Related to Earthquake Prediction 317Concluding Remarks and Discussion 320

Contents xiii

Acknowledgments 320References 320

26. Geoethics and Risk-Communication Issues in Japan’s Disaster Management System Revealed by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami

Megumi Sugimoto

Japan’s Tsunami Countermeasures before the Tohoku Earthquake 324Official Warning Information in 2011 326Field Reports from Disaster Areas 329Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station Accident 331Japanese Research System 332Dissemination of Information on Radioactive Particle Dispersion 332Conclusions 332Acknowledgment 333References 333

27. “When Will Vesuvius Erupt?” Why Research Institutes Must Maintain a Dialogue with the Public in a High-Risk Volcanic Area: The Vesuvius Museum Observatory

Maddalena De Lucia

Introduction 336Previous Studies and Analysis on Public Communication of Volcanic Hazard 338The Case Study of the Museum of Vesuvius Observatory 342Analysis by/of the Public of the Museum of Vesuvius Observatory 343Categories 344Temporal Distribution 345Origin of Visitors 346Conclusions 347References 349

28. Voluntarism, Public Engagement, and the Role of Geosciences in Radioactive Waste Management Policy-Making

Nic Bilham

Failure of the Technocratic Approach to Radioactive Waste Management 352Developing a New RWM Framework for the UK 353Discussion and Conclusions 356References 358

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29. Nuclear Waste Repositories and Ethical Challenges

Peter Hocke

Introduction 360The Specific Complexity 360Normative Ethics and Spaemann’s Contradiction 362Responsibility in Late-Modern Societies 364Conclusions 365References 367

Section VI Low Income and Indigenous Communities 30. Mining in Indigenous Regions: The Case of Tampakan,

Philippines

Daniel Hostettler

Increasing Demand for Natural Resources 372Indigenous Peoples’ Right to Determine Their Own Development 373Diverging Interests between Investors and Affected Communities in Mining Projects 375The Case of the Tampakan Copper–Gold Project in the Philippines 376Free 377Prior 378Informed 378Consent 379Conclusions 379References 380

31. On the Vulnerability of the Indigenous and Low-Income Population of Mexico to Natural Hazards. A Case Study: The Guerrero Region

F. Ramón Zúñiga, Janette Merlo and Max Wyss

Introduction 382Some Basic Demographics of the State of Guerrero, Mexico 384The SOVI from Ethnic Factors 384Discussion 385Estimating the Relative Impact of Earthquakes on Large and Small Communities 387Conclusions 389Acknowledgments 390References 390

Contents xv

32. Ethics and Mining—Moving beyond the Evident: A Case Study of Manganese Mining from Keonjhar District, India

Madhumita Das

Introduction 394The Missing Ethics of Mining 394Mining and Health 395Living in the Midst of Manganese Dust and Contaminated Sewage 396Mining in Odisha 397A Case Study of Manganese Mines 397Manganese Toxicity 399Air and Noise Quality 400Chemical Quality of Water 401Results and Discussion 401Mining Laws and Regulations: Are They Implemented? 402Conclusions 404References 405

33. Geoethics and Geohazards: A Perspective from Low-Income Countries, an Indian Experience

Shrikant Daji Limaye

Introduction 410Historical Background of Geoethics 410Geohazards and Application of Geoethics 412Creating Preparedness or Awareness in the Society 412Mitigating Geohazards 415Discussion and Conclusions 416References 417

Index 419