Geoarchaeological study of the Phoenician cemetery of Tyre-Al Bass (Lebanon) and geomorphological...

Geoarchaeological Study of the

Phoenician Cemetery of Tyre-Al Bass

(Lebanon) and Geomorphological

Evolution of a Tombolo

Pilar Carmona,* and José Miguel Ruiz

Departament of Geography, University of Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez 28,

46010 Valencia, Spain

The geoarchaeological record of the Phoenician necropolis of Al Bass (Lebanon) providesinformation concerning the geomorphological evolution of a late Holocene tombolo. Physicaland chemical analysis of sediments indicates that the cemetery (9th century B.C.) was locatednear a littoral lagoon, between the dunes of a cuspate spit pointing toward the island of Tyre.From the sea apex of this spit, the moles mentioned in historical chronicles were constructed.Once mainland and island were connected, at the northern coast (where the port of Sidonwas located), a sediment trap was formed, which quickly filled with silt. Afterwards, an exten-sive field of sand dunes buried all the archaeological remains from Phoenician to Roman times.© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION

The cremation necropolis of Al Bass lies near the east of the ancient city of Tyre(southern Lebanon) and may have been the main necropolis of this city throughoutthe Iron Age (Aubet, 2003). The geoarchaeological record covers the chronologicalsequence dated between the 9th and 7th centuries B.C. (Phoenician necropolis) andthe 5th century A.D.; it was analyzed during the archaeological excavations of 1999and 2002, under the direction of Dr. Mª Eugenia Aubet and financed by the SpanishAgency for International Cooperation (AECI). Preliminary geoarchaeological resultswere presented in an interdisciplinary publication on the Phoenician Cemetery(Carmona & Ruiz, 2003).

The general geomorphological characteristics of the Lebanese coastline wereanalyzed by Sanlaville (1977, 1982), who provided extensive information onQuaternary geological surfaces, physical geography, and dynamics of the coastline.The littoral of Tyre (currently Sour) consists of Pleistocene and Holocene littoraldeposits, and the most characteristic geomorphic feature is the wide sandy tombolothat links the Island of Tyre with the mainland (Figure 1). The evolution of low gra-dient coasts after maximum flooding by the Flandrian transgression was analyzed

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 23, No. 3, 334–350 (2008)© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI:10.1002/gea.20202

*Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]

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GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE PHOENECIAN CEMETERY

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Figure 1. Geomorphological scheme of the tombolic littoral (Tyre, Lebanon).

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by Raban (1983, 1985, 1988). Nir (1996) studied the formation of the tombolo and his-torical sea level changes. New information on sedimentation in the Phoenician portsof the Lebanese coast has recently been published (Morhange & Saghieh-Beydoun,2005), including data from the northern coast or the Sidonian port of Tyre (Marrineret al., 2005). The aim of this study is to complete the preliminary research with newdata and to relate the information of the geoarchaeological record with the histori-cal chronicles and the geomorphological evolution of the tombolo.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

The work presented here is based on sedimentary analysis of two archaeologicalexcavations carried out in the Phoenician necropolis in 1999 and 2002 (Aubet, 2003)and a geomorphological study of the tombolo. In an ancient swamp near the necrop-olis, two bore holes made using an Eijkelkamp gouge auger were excavated to adepth of 4 m, and two samples of organic sediments were sent for radiocarbon dat-ing to Beta Analytic Laboratory. The sedimentary record of an urban excavation atthe base of the tombolo (dune environment) with abundant ceramic remains was alsoanalyzed. In addition, fieldwork at the northern and southern parts of the tombolowas conducted, including collection of sedimentary samples from several modernenvironments (beaches, dunes, and ridges). Particle-size, calcium carbonate, andorganic matter content were analyzed at the Laboratory of Geomorphology at theGeography Department, University of Valencia, Spain (see Carmona & Ruiz, 2003, fordetails). Archaeological remains (construction and ceramic fragments) provide achronology for many of the deposits.

The geomorphological study was conducted with the aid of historical maps, 1:20,000scale topographic maps with 5 m contour intervals (Rachîdîyé, Soûr, and Ez Zrârîyéof the National Ministry of Defence, Lebanon), and 1:18,000 scale aerial photogra-phy. All survey data were georeferenced on a digital vectorial CAD (Microstation V8)that enabled us to map with multiple digital layers of aerial photographic, topographic,geoarchaeological, and geomorphological information. This digital database was thenused to help reconstruct paleogeographic evolution at different spatial scales.

STUDY AREA

The coasts of the southeastern sector of the Mediterranean basin lie on the west-ern edge of the Arabic plate and run NNE-SSW parallel with the coastal chain of theLebanese mountains, which rise to 3083 m above sea level (asl) at the peak of Qornetes-Saouda, barely 30 km from the sea. Toward the south, the average altitude declinesand the topography is gentler, with peaks no higher than 2000 m asl. To the south, aftercrossing the Mount Carmel promontory, a stretch of wide coastal plain links up withthe Negev Desert. The southern Lebanese coast is relatively rugged, very open, andoffers no safe shelter. The contact between the mountains and the coast is not stepped,so transit along the coast is relatively easy (Sanlaville, 1977). General information onthe continental shelf and the distribution and sediments sources for this sector of the Mediterranean is provided by Boulos (1961), Beydoun (1976), Davie (1980),

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and El-Kareh (1981), among others. A series of dolomitic limestone headlands reachthe sea and protrude into shallow waters, creating natural barriers to littoral trans-port of sediment. As a result, the coast is characterized by several small, independ-ent segments that do not exchange much sediment (Nir, 1996). Consequently, animportant source of sediment is the series of local fluvial systems draining uplandsto the east (Sandler & Herut, 2000; Ribes et al., 2003). Sanlaville (1977) notes the exis-tence of two littoral currents: one predominantly from the S-WSW between Decemberand July, and another one from the NW in autumn. The tidal range is limited (20–40cm), and the bottom waves have a short period (5–7 sec) and wavelength (30–70 m).

TOMBOLIC LITTORAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

The island of Tyre (20 m asl) is composed in part of a Quaternary sandstone ridge5 km in length that protrudes only a few meters above sea level, parallel to the lit-toral. The approach angle of the swell is very different in the northern and southernparts of the tombolo. This is due, in part, to the greater extent of the sandstone ridgetoward the north, where littoral depth is lower than in the south (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Geomorphological scheme of the Tyre tombolo and the Phoenician necropolis of Al Bass.

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Furthermore, the arrangement of sandstone and coastline in the northern littoralforms a sheltered space from the dominant southwesterly swell.

The tombolo is formed of slightly lithified Holocene sands, although these may beunderlain by the Pleistocene sandstone ridge. The 5 m asl contour line shows thatthe tombolo is not symmetric. In the northern zone, there is a single curved ridge withwide continental depressions, whereas in the south, there are fewer curved ridgesseparated by a small and narrow depression (Figure 2).

Southern tombolo sediments are provided by the fan of the wadi El Izziyê that areeroded and reworked by littoral currents (Figure 1). In the more southerly section,erosion and transport of sediments dominate the littoral processes, preventing thedevelopment of wide beaches. Beach sediment is coarse textured (pebbles, gravel,and sand) and transported by littoral currents in a northerly direction. The ridges ofthe southern tombolo appear to the north of Er Rachîdîyé. In this sector, the beachis sandy and wide (Figure 3), with mobile dunes separated by narrow and shallowdepressions aligned NE-SW. Toward the north, the ridge progressively thickens andspreads out into two alignments separated by the narrow depression of EchChaouâkir. The interior alignment continues to the north approximately 500 m andcontains slightly lithified dunes (9 m asl) with a large amount of ceramic fragmentsfrom the late Roman era.

Sand dunes are common geomorphic features of the tombolo. Indeed, a vast fieldof slightly lithified dunes (10 m asl) completely covers the tombolo. The orientation

Figure 3. Southern littoral of the tombolo.

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of cross-bed sets within the dunes indicates predominantly SW to NE and S to Nwinds, and deposits commonly contain large quantities of potsherds of the 3rd and4th centuries A.D. Prior to archaeological excavations, these eolian sands coveredmonumental remains of Roman times (2nd century A.D.), including a hippodrome,a road, a triumphal arch, and a funeral tumulus. At the northern littoral of the tombolo,where there is a wide beach with dunes between 5 and 7 m in height (Figure 4),eolian sands are associated with earlier archaeological features. Toward the inte-rior, a 100–120-m-wide ridge is covered in partially fossilized dunes containing theremains of Phoenician constructions and a large amount of Hellenistic ceramics.Between this ridge and the continent are two isolated depressions, the largest con-taining a marsh as mapped by Renan (1864) and reproduced in Aubet (2003). ThePhoenician necropolis is located at the southern edge of this depression, in the sec-tor of Al Bass.

SEDIMENTARY RECORD

Holocene sedimentary deposits were exposed during two archaeological exca-vations in 1999 and 2002 around the Phoenician necropolis of Al Bass. This was sup-plemented by two manual drillings (cores 1 and 2) at the ancient marsh close to thenecropolis. Sediment samples from several modern sedimentary environments on thetombolo (beaches, dunes, and ridges) were also collected and analyzed (see locationin Figure 1). Grain size analysis with descriptive statistics (Folk & Ward, 1957) andcalcium carbonate and organic matter content are presented in Table I.

Figure 4. Northern littoral of the tombolo.

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Geoarchaeological Record of the Necropolis of Al Bass.

Archaeological excavations are located 4–4.5 m asl, and the stratigraphic sectionsare situated at the edge of the wide depression (an ancient swamp) marked by the5 m asl contour on Figure 2. The stratigraphic sections of the necropolis of Al Bass(1999 and 2002) are a few meters apart and contain similar sequences. The 2002 section

Table I. Mean size, sorting, carbonates, and organic matter content of sedimentary samples.

Sample Graphic mean particle size (Mz) Sorting Ca CO3 % Organic matter %

N1 3.8 2.4 70.7 0.6N2 3.8 2.4 73.5 0.5N3 4.5 3.3 69.3 0.9N4 4.5 3.4 66.7 0.9N5 4.2 3.4 67 0.6N6 4.2 3.6 63.7 0.6N7 4.1 3 64.2 0.2N8 3.4 2.4 69.5 0.4N9 2.3 0.8 69.8 0.2N10 1.8 1 68.9 0.3N11 7 2.9 16.2 11 dune 2 0.6 84.6 —2 beach 2.2 0.5 87.8 —3 beach 1.9 0.5 92.7 —4 dune 2.2 1.1 71.2 —5 beach 2 0.7 71.7 —6 dune 2.4 0.4 86.6 —7 depression 4.6 3.1 63.7 1.18 beach 2.4 0.6 89.1 —9 dune 1.9 0.9 85 —10 depression 7.3 2.4 46.1 1.411 ridge 2.1 1.2 79.8 0.412 ridge 2.1 1.1 82.2 0.4DS1 dune 2.5 0.4 86.9 —-DS2 dune 2.2 0.6 86 —-DS3 dune 1.8 0.7 70.3 —-C1-1 8.1 1.5 48 0.7C1-2 8.3 1.3 32.2 0.5C1-3 7 2.8 19.2 0.2C1-4 4.4 3.5 28.8 0.4C1-5 7.4 2.4 8 0.9C1-6 7.5 2.2 6 1.4C2-1 8.1 1.5 57.6 0.7C2-2 8.1 1.5 42 0.4C2-3 8.5 1.3 30 0.5C2-4 8.5 1.3 38 0.6C2-5 8 1.7 29.2 0.7C2-6 7.9 1.7 26.8 0.7C2-7 7 2 43.2 0.8

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is deeper, reaching levels contemporary with the Phoenician cemetery. Stratigraphicage control was obtained from archaeological materials (Aubet, 2003), and the fol-lowing sedimentary units are presented from top to bottom (Figure 5).

Unit A. (Samples N1 and N2)

This unit corresponds to a massive sandy level (80%), between 4.1 and 3.6 m asl,brown color, slightly organic (0.5%), with some aggregates.

Unit B. (Samples N3, N4, N5, and N6)

The sediments of Unit B are massive silty sands, between 3.6 and 2.1 m asl, witha high percentage of organic matter (0.9%) and brownish gray color. This layer con-tains some fragments of continental snails and charcoal. Ceramics and coins date thelayer around the 5th century A.D., and Hellenistic (3rd–2nd centuries B.C.) and Persian(5th–3rd centuries B.C.) in the lower part.

Unit C. (Samples N7 and N8).

Unit C is a layer of massive sand, between 2.1 and 1.85 m asl, slightly organic, verypale brown in color. It contains a great amount of calcareous nodules in the 2002 sec-tion. In this sedimentary unit, bony remains related to the Phoenician necropolis appear.

Unit D. (Samples N9, N10, and N11)

Unit D is located at the base of the 2002 section and corresponds to the matrix offunerary urns of the Phoenician cemetery, dated between the 9th and 7th centuriesB.C. This is a massive sandy level (occasionally with sandstone layers), between 1.85and 0.9 m asl, very pale brown in color, and scarce organic matter content. In the lowerpart of the 2002 section, interlayered in the sandy level, decimeter-sized pockets ofmassive sandy clays appear (sample N11). These clays have a very low content of cal-cium carbonate (16.2%), a high percentage of organic matter (1.0%), and are verydark grayish brown in color.

Sedimentary Record of the Dunes Section

The section located in the dune environment (Figure 6) corresponds to a 6-m-thick urban excavation that is approximately 8–9 m asl at the top and 2.5 m aslat the bottom. The complete sedimentary record consists of massive or planar cross-bedded sands (99%), highly calcareous (between 70 and 87%), with very little organicmatter content. This section has the greatest thickness and least extensive chronol-ogy; abundant ceramics retrieved from the sandy sediments date exclusively fromthe 3rd to 4th centuries A.D., indicating rapid sedimentation.

Sedimentary Record of the Cores

In order to characterize sedimentation in the depression located near the ceme-tery, two manual auger cores were excavated. In both cores, the following sedi-mentary units are presented, from top to bottom (Figures 7 and 8).

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8-9 m. asl

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DUNE SECTION

Sedimentaryunits

Labor.code colour

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sand % carbonate chronologyenvironmental

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Figure 6. Sedimentary units of the dunes section.

5 m. asl

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CORE 1Sedimentary

units

Lab.code colour

texture organ.matter

%% carbonate chronology

environmentalfaciessand silt clay

0.5 50

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Silty clay pale brownHistoric

BronzeAge?

continental

fill

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brown

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dark greyishbrown

Sandy clay

Sandy clay

clayed sandy

C1-1

C1-2

C1-3

C1-4C1-5C1-6

sand nodules samples carved silex ceramic ums subaquaticvegetal remains

cerastodermsilt clay terrestrialsnails

Figure 7. Sedimentary record of core 1.

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Unit A. (Samples C1-1, C1-2, C2-1, and C2-2)

Unit A corresponds to a level of silty clay, brownish gray to brown in color. Thisunit is lightly oxidized and contains low amounts of calcium carbonate and organicmatter as well as the remains of terrestrial snails, anthropic pebble fragments, andceramics.

Unit B. (Sample C1-3)

This unit appears only in core 1 and is a brown sandy clay containing nodulesand remains of carved sílex (Figure 7). The percentage of calcium carbonate andorganic matter is low.

Unit C. (Samples C1-4, C1-5, C1-6, and C2-3 to C2-7)

Unit C is characterized by pale brown and dark grayish brown clayey sand andsandy clay sediments. This layer contains fragmented shells of Cerastoderma glau-

cum (mean size less than 1 cm) and carbonized and noncarbonized remains of subaquatic vegetation. The content in organic matter is high (0.9 and 1.4%). Organicsediments from this unit at 0.6 m and 1.1 m asl are dated at 6370 � 40 14C yr B.P.(Tyre Bass 2) and 5170 � 40 14C yr B.P. (Tyre Bass 1), respectively (Table II).

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unitsLabo.code

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%% carbonate chronology environmental

faciessand silt clay

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Organic

Silty clay

lightbrownish grey continental

5170+/-40 BP14C Tyre Bass 1

6370+/-40 BP14C Tyre Bass 2

fill

Brackish

lagoon

brown

light grey

browngreyish brown

OrganicSandy and silty clay

Acuatic plants

cerastoderm

C2-1

C2-2

C2-3C2-4C2-5C2-6

C2-7

sand nodules samples carved silex ceramic ums subaquaticvegetal remains

cerastodermsilt clay terrestrialsnails

Figure 8. Sedimentary record of core 2.

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Samples from Modern Environments

The samples from modern environments correspond to beach (samples 2, 3, 5, and8), dune (samples 1, 4, 6, and 9), ridge (samples 11 and 12), and depressions (sam-ples 7 and 10) (Table I). All samples outside the depression are sandy, well sorted,with mean particle sizes within the range of medium sand (2 to 3 phi or 0.23 to 0.125 mm); depression sediments are dominated by silt (4 to 7 phi or .0625 to .0078 mm). The percentage of calcium carbonate for all samples outside the depres-sion is between 70 and 93%, whereas depression sediments are less calcareous(46–64%) but have high organic matter content (1.1–1.4 %).

GEOARCHAEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF

TOMBOLIC LITTORAL

Historical chronicles describe the old city of Tyre, built on an island. Several clas-sical texts comment on the presence of moles connecting the island to the main-land. However, it was around 332 B.C. (Fleming, 1915, in Nir, 1996) when theMacedonians succeeded in extending the causeway to the city, thus connecting themainland with the islet. Soon afterwards, this causeway was broadened to a widthof 60 m (Nir, 1996). There is no doubt that this anthropogenic structure must haveinterfered with littoral transport and natural processes of tombolo formation, accel-erating the accumulation of sediments on both sides of the man-made isthmus.However, it appears that by the time that Alexander’s dike and its predecessors werebuilt, there was already an embryonic, natural tombolo, as suggested by the geo-archaeological record.

Environmental Facies of Stratigraphic Records

From the sedimentary deposits, it can be deduced that during the Flandrian marinetransgression a salty lagoon environment was formed in the depression near the AlBass, between 6400 and 5200 14C yr B.P. In this zone, organic silts and clays withintrusions of marine sands, remains of subaquatic plants, and small saltwater molluscs(Cerastoderma glaucum) were deposited (unit C from cores; Figures 7 and 8). This

Table II. Radiocarbon dating results corresponding to samples from organic sediments associated withthe lagoonal deposits near the Phoenician cemetery of Al Bass.

Calibration to Sample no. Lithostrata Depth C14 age (yr BP) calendar years Source

BETA Core 2 1.1 m asl 5170 � 40 2�: Cal. B.C. 4040 to 3940 Aubet, 2003173337 Tyre Bass 1 (Cal. B.P. 5990 to 5890)

Organic sediment

BETA Core 2 0.6 m asl 6370 � 40 2�: Cal. B.C. 5460 to Aubet, 2003173338 Tyre Bass 2 5290 (Cal. B.P. 7410

Organic sediment to 7240)

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suggests that the lagoon was quite sheltered and salty. Subsequent sedimentationwithin this lagoon corresponds to units A and B of the cores.

According to the stratigraphic record at Al Bass (Figure 5), toward the 9th and7th centuries B.C. the Phoenician necropolis was installed on the inner shore ofthis lagoon (sands of unit D, samples N9 and N10). These sands are interlayered withgray clays (sample N11) derived from the nearby lagoon (unit C of the cores). Bycomparison with the mean size and sorting values of modern beach and dune sam-ples, the massive sands of the necropolis (samples N9 and N10) are from a coastaldune or beach environment (Figure 9). This interpretation is concordant with thepaleoecological analysis of sedimentary remains from the funerary urns that indi-cate sedimentation in a marine environment with terrestrial inputs from alluvialfloods (Millán, Villate, & Bernuz, 2003). Furthermore, according to Nir (1996), theLitani River outlet beaches located to the north have low calcium carbonate con-tent, which may explain the lower carbonate content in sandy sediments of thenecropolis (Table I).

Mean grain size and sorting of sediments from units C and B at Al Bass (samplesN3 to N8) that date to Persian (5th–3rd centuries B.C.), Hellenistic (3rd–2nd cen-turies B.C.), and post-Roman (5th century A.D.) times, are very similar to sample 7(modern depression Ech Chaouâkir, Figure 9). The progressive continentalization ofthe area of Al Bass through time is notable, with a sequence of massive coastal sandlayers interfingered with organic clays and silts that is capped by Unit A (samplesN1 and N2), a massive sand associated with modern coastal dunes.

Figure 9. Comparison of statistical parameters, mean size, and sorting of present, cores, and necropolissedimentary samples.

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Tombolo Evolution and Paleogeography

Classic geomorphological models of tombolo formation indicate that the processesthat create them are similar to those associated with the growth of spits and bars(Guilcher, 1958; Bird, 1984). In an initial stage, sandy sediments accumulate at themeeting point of converging littoral drift, forming a cuspate spit or double tombolo.This sandy accumulation usually isolates a lagoon in contact with the continent(Farquhar, 1972). In our case, around the 9th century B.C., a cuspate spit alreadyexisted that isolated a lagoon from the sea in the zone of Al Bass. Due to the differ-ent angle of approach of the swell on the two shores, this cuspate spit was not sym-metrical. In the northern sector, it described a strong inward curve towards theisland of Tyre and was fed by material supplied by NW currents whose swell refractedon the shallow coasts behind the northern islets. The contemporary southern spit maycorrespond to the interior ridge identified in the geomorphological survey.

The cuspate spit would constitute the embryo of the tombolo that pointed towardthe island of Tyre (Figure 10a), and from its apex were constructed successive molesmentioned in historical texts as the dike of Hiram (Sanlaville, 1977), destroyed dur-ing the siege of Nebuchadnezzar (between 585 and 572 B.C.) (Nir, 1996). A causewaywas later built by Alexander the Great, at a time when the apex was very close to theisland of Tyre. Natural sedimentation augmented materials used to build the dikes,making the accretion of sediments on both the northern and southern flanks possi-ble and reducing the depth of submarine sandbars.

After the connection of the island and the continent, the northern strand becamefossilized, and the adjacent marine basin, very sheltered by the great extension of thesandy submarine ridge, was filled with sediment. The southern ridge, situated in amore open coast, underwent a different evolution. New accumulations of sandextended the root of the tombolo at the southern margin until the present-day widthwas attained (Figure 10b). The chronology of these southern sandbars extends fromafter the Hellenistic period to prior to the 2nd century A.D., as the Roman construc-tions were raised on top of them. In the final phase of tombolo evolution, a vast layerof sand dunes was formed, covering the tombolo and burying the Roman archaeo-logical remains of the 2nd century (Figure 10c). Ceramics found in this accumula-tion, dating between 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., enable us to deduce that this was avery rapid phase of deposition.

CONCLUSIONS

Geomorphological changes along a segment of the Lebanese coast have beenrecorded in geoarchaeological deposits associated with the necropolis of Tyre. A cus-pate spit or embryonic tombolo was already formed in the 9th century B.C., whenthe Phoenician necropolis of Al Bass was established. The low percentage of CaCO3

in the sediments of the necropolis suggests that littoral drift from the NW was moreeffective in Phoenician times than present. The greater sand accumulation on thenorthern side of the tombolo, which results in shallower bathymetry, may have beenthe direct result of greater transport of sands coming from the north, as suggested by



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Nir (1996). Nevertheless, we think that the different approach angle of the swell onthe two flanks of the island, due to the greater extent of the northern sandstone ridge,was a crucial factor in the construction of the tombolo. Once island and continent wereconnected definitively, a sedimentary trap was formed in the northern sector thatmay possibly have accelerated the rate of sedimentation and fossilized this nearshorezone by the Hellenistic period. This process may be related to the rapid silting processidentified by Marriner and Morhange (2005) and Marriner et al. (2005) in the Romanand Byzantine era in the northern or Sidonian port of Tyre. The evolutionary sequenceends with the formation of a vast field of dunes beginning in the 3rd and 4th centuriesA.D. that can be related with a post-Roman aridification phase.

We should like to express our gratitude to Dr. Mª Eugenia Aubet for her support and friendship and forall the archaeological and historical information. Sincere thanks are due to Dr. Adolfo Calvo for revisingthe manuscript and León Navarro for the sedimentological analysis. English text version translated andrevised by N. Macowan.

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Received 20 October 2006Accepted for publication 15 August 2007

Scientific editing by Rolfe Mandel

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