At its height, the Mongolian Empire was so vast and continuous, that none

has rivaled it in all of world history. Temujin, a starving horse thief, rose to

become Genghis Khan, the formidable Mongol warlord. Ultimately, by instituting

legislative reforms and carefully restructuring his army, Genghis Khan

established intercontinental communication, building the foundation for a 'world

system.' Similarly, the Mongol empire rose from a scraggly confederation of

warring tribes to become an organized, cultured state, renowned all over the

world. Unfortunately, the immensity of this empire also brought about its

downfall, as the increased efficiency of communication also hastened along the

spread of the bubonic plague throughout Central Eurasia.

Before the rule of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were chaotic, known only as

a people constantly at war with one another. According to the Iranian historian,

Ata Malik Juvaini, they dressed in the "skins of dogs and mice," eating a diet

consisting only of whatever meat they could forage. Poverty abounded, and even

minute luxuries, like iron stirrups, were prized. The Mongol people were in

desperate need of a strong ruler to unite them. The Jin dynasty of China took

what they pleased from these disorganized Mongols, who were not united

enough to defend themselves as a people. When Genghis Khan was born,

struggles with the Tatars were increasing, leading to more fighting within the

Mongolian population. 

Legend has it that Genghis Khan was born clutching a blood clot in his

right hand, symbolizing the mighty things to come. A descendent of the

legendary Alan Qo'a, he was named Temujin in honor of a martyred Tatar foe.

Due to his family's high social standing, Temujin was engaged to his bride at a

young age and left in the care of his in-laws. Borte, Temujin's bride to be, came

from the Qonggirad, and according to the Secret History, he remained in their

care for many years.

In 1175, vengeful Tatars poisoned Temujin’s father, Yisugei, and

Temujin's clan was abandoned by the others. Temujin returned home to help

provide for his widowed mother, his family subsisting on whatever they could

forage. In The Secret Story, Mother Ujin digs up roots and wild onions, caring for

her sons so they will grow up to be fine young men. When the Tayichigud came

looking for him, he hid in the woods for nine nights to escape them, but was

eventually apprehended. Even then he escaped, assaulting a guard with the

wooden collar they had imprisoned him in. As he fled his captors, Temujin

gained followers, and returned home to marry his betrothed, Borte. With his

beautiful wife by his side, he began the task of uniting his “scattered” people.

As a warlord, Temujin was victorious and many men flocked to join him,

surrendering their tribal loyalties in the process. Known as nokurs, these men

were his loyal companions, living and dying for their leader. They formed the

nucleus of his military operations as his generals, a practice similar to that of the

comitatus, found in the Bactrian-Margian Archaeological Complex only a few

centuries earlier. After his wife, Borte, was imprisoned by the Merkits, Temujin

led his army to save her, an important victory in his rise to power and

recognition. The hunger of his childhood made Temujin resilient and resourceful

as a military leader. He craved victory over the enemies that plagued his family

throughout his childhood, and more.

By 1189, some clans in Mongolia even went as far as to recognize Temujin

as their rightful Khan. This inert population was in desperate need of a strong

and charismatic leader, a role he expertly filled. After forming more key alliances,

Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, a longtime enemy of the Mongols. Soon, his

anda (blood brothers), Jamuqa and To'oril, stood in his path to power, and he

killed them in cold blood. Though Genghis Khan prized loyalty, he was

determined to eliminate anyone who blocked his path to power. He was elected

Chinggis Khan, or "universal emperor," by the quriltai assembly in 1206,

beginning the line of the Golden Khan.

Genghis Khan sought to unify the Mongol peoples in the aftermath of Jin

exploitation of Mongol politics. This became particularly vital, due to increasing

contact with foreign lands as the possibility of further manipulations loomed. As

he conquered more territory, the term "Mongol" spread throughout the globe as

a unified cultural entity. In order to solidify this newly established unity, Genghis

Khan eradicated tribal associations. Claiming that the only true loyalty should lie

in him alone, he held this above even the ties of family. Thus, he built a small

standing army loyal only to him and his household, to guard him day and night.

Reforming the government completely, Genghis Khan instituted a codified

law in place of the prevalent and unstructured nomadic practices. He established

mandates about a myriad of topics, including theft, women’s rights, hunting

during animal breeding seasons, and private property. Certain family members

were appointed as judges throughout the land, both to record events and to

enforce the new laws. In addition, he reorganized the army, dividing it into

decimal subsections of tens, hundreds, and thousands.

Continuous military achievement was necessary to gain new followers

and preserve old recruits. A steady supply of plunder and spoils of war kept

armies happy and participating, and expansion was the only way to continue this

inclination. When the Uighurs voluntarily surrendered to Genghis Khan's regime,

they provided a strategic connection beyond their borders. As Mongols

conquered more of the continent, the empire gained possession of almost all of

the horses in Central Asia. This administration sent out scouts, searching for

talented people of all cultures. These emissaries were then sent around the

empire as needed to solve various problems. Multilingual subjects also calmed

the destructive nature of the Mongols, often demonstrating that ultimately intact

cities and states were more profitable than destroyed ones. As the empire grew,

more information could be shared throughout its vast borders, eventually

leading to more pacified cultural interactions.

As larger portions of Asia came under Mongol control, travel and trade

between ulus became exponentially more feasible. This increased not only the

number of places to trade, but also widened the empire’s sphere of influence.

Due to talented people moving freely through empire, more constant flow of info

bringing ideas from many cultures and backgrounds. Knowledge about

pharmacology came from Iran and China, as did other essential medical

information.

This search for talent also prompted increased religious tolerance, as well

as the acceptance of learning from all over the globe. Since the Khan enlisted

people of all backgrounds into his service, he had Muslim merchants as advisors,

because of their legendary business acumen. According to Foltz, Mongolian

religion consisted mostly of shamanism, with a particular reverence for Tangri,

the sky god. Spirituality consisted of realistic requests for food, heath, and

success in war. As any religion could be valid until proven otherwise, Mongol

khans asked leaders of many religions to pray for them, hoping at least one route

would prove successful. Religious tolerance became prevalent, and freedom of

religion was only compromised when unfamiliar traditions clashed with their

own. Genghis Khan even passed an edict exempting religious leaders or scholars

of all religions from taxes.

As the Silk Road shifted towards the more Northern grasslands, convoys

encountered rodents who were susceptible to the plague. McNeill found through

a study of later person-to-person borne illnesses, their underground burrows

were perfect for incubating disease, perpetuating it in their warm habitat even

through long, freezing winters. Though Nomadic tribesmen knew not to eat the

animals, traveling merchants were not so knowledgeable in local traditions and

often hunted them as extra food along the route. These wild rodents harbored

disease in their burrows, spreading the bubonic plague everywhere the

merchants traveled. Thus, establishing lines of communication throughout

Eurasia also increased the spread of illness, traveling as quickly as its cargo and

ideas. Suddenly, the massive population growth was curtailed, halting the

caravans traveling across the steppe. Genghis Khan’s enormous empire, though

well structured and protected, was not truly sustainable. However, his sons and

grandsons continued on to conquer even after his death. The impact of the

improved cultural interconnectivity remained, providing the foundation for the

world system we know today.