General Introduction and Review of Literature...
Transcript of General Introduction and Review of Literature...
CChhaapptteerr 11
GGeenneerraall IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn aanndd RReevviieeww ooff LLiitteerraattuurree
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
1
General Introduction and Review of Literature
Aquatic ecosystems are generally vulnerable to pollution as they receive the waste
materials and sewage/effluents from the nearby sources. Estuaries, the transitional zone
between sea and rivers are no exception (McCain et al., 1998; Lipp et al., 2001; Keser et al.,
2005 and Kessarkar et al., 2009. They are dynamic and complex ecological systems that
are the sites of unique ecological features possessing characteristic biological make up.
Being an interface between freshwater and marine environments, estuaries give abode to
several specific and valuable biota. Estuarine forms when exposed to pollutants will be
under stress consequent to changes in the physico-chemical factors of the aquatic systems.
Estuaries with freshwater inflow and tidal variations provide highly fluctuating
environmental conditions and the organisms exhibit homeostatic mechanisms to cope with
such conditions (Eliot and Quintino, 2007). Any factor that disturbs this state is found to
inflict adverse effect on organisms and hence stressors.
Indian estuaries are linked to the country’s vast network of rivers and rivulets
which are sources of nutrients. Estuaries in Indian subcontinent comprise 113 major and
minor estuaries which are linked to a combined river length of 45,000 km (Ramesh and
Purvaj, 2009). The Kerala coastal area supports nearly 30 brackish water perennial
estuaries covering an area of 2,42,600 ha (Bijukumar and Sushama, 2000).
The environmental degradation and contamination of backwater ecosystem is
generally due to anthropogenic activities which lead to the alteration in physical, chemical
and biological characteristics of water and results in the ecological imbalance.
1.1 Industrial pollution of estuaries
The past few decades have witnessed an overwhelming increase in the plight of
landscape and water quality deterioration of estuaries all over the world (Howarth et al.,
2000). Rapid industrialization and incessant anthropogenic pressures are the major driving
forces of pollution of estuaries (Kennish, 2002).
Increased population trend and development patterns around the coastal zone have
adverse impacts on estuaries. Complicated interconnections exist between the quality and
quantity of freshwater inflows and the health of estuaries. Estuarine pollution is considered
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
2
as a critical ecological issue because of the high variation in several abiotic factors that
impose severe restrictions to the inhabiting organisms (Matthiessen and Law, 2002).
The Pollution of Thames estuary in London (Andrews, 1984), Forth estuary,
Eastern Scotland (McLusky and McCrory, 1989), Northern San Francisco Bay, U.S.A.
(Hager and Schemel, 1992), Humber estuary, U.K (Uncles et al., 1998) all highlight the
degradation of estuaries due to industrial and anthropogenic factors.
The influence of industrial and domestic sewage on eutrophication and bacterial
pollution in Baixada Santista estuarine system has also been reported (Braga et al., 2000).
Davis et al. (2000) highlighted the massive pollution of Rio Tinto estuary in Spain as a
result of uncontrolled mining industries. The variation of sewage inputs and related
contamination of Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro) estuary in Brazil was investigated
thoroughly and noted that domestic and industrial effluents together with agricultural
runoff are the major contributing factors (Carreira et al., 2004). Scott et al. (2005)
documented the pollution status of North American estuaries. Freitas et al. (2008)
documented the anthropogenic influence of Sado estuary in Portugal.
The degradation of the upper and middle estuarine stretches of the Danshuei
ecosystem in Taipei have been investigated by Liu et al. (2003) and Wang et al. (2007).
The study of Hwang et al. (2010) also illustrated the pollution effects on zooplankton
distribution and diversity along the marine, estuarine, and riverine portions of the
Danshuei Ecosystem.
Estuaries in India are diverse distinctly, by virtue of its geographical extent, varied
terrain and climatic conditions. The situation of Indian estuaries is also in peril. Qasim and
Sengupta (1983) found out that about 5 million tonnes of fertilizers, 55,000 tonnes of
pesticides, and 1,25,000 tonnes of synthetic detergents were used in India alone.
Interestingly, about 25% of all these ultimately end up in the coast, especially in estuaries.
Some of these are biodegradable while others are persistent with catastrophic ecological
implications. Reddy et al. (2009) studied the pollution status of Pennar River Estuary,
India with drastic morphological abnormalities in benthic foraminifera.
Several investigators reported the extent of industrial pollution in various Indian
estuaries like Hoogly estuary (Dutta et al.,1954); Mandovia and Zuari estuary of Goa
(Sengupta et al., 1989); Vellar estuary (Palanichamy and Balasubramanian, 1989);
Rushikulya Estuary (Das et al., 2002); Ulhas Estuary (Ram et al., 2003); Tapi estuary
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
3
(Krupadam et al., 2006); Ennore estuary (Padmini and Vijaya Geetha, 2007); Amba
estuary (Ram et al., 2009); Uppanar Estuary (Soundarapandian et al., 2009) and Dharma
estuary (Prasanna and Ranjan, 2010). The extent of pollution due to fertilizer output in
Devi estuary, Orissa has also been investigated (Pradhan et al., 2009).
There are a large number of perennial/ temporary estuaries, present in the Kerala
cost covering a total length is about 590 km long. Reports from estuarine pollution in the
state of Kerala are also available -Vembanadu estuary (Harikumar et al., 2009); Cochin
estuary (Remani et al., 1980; Sankaranarayanan et al., 1986; Anirudhan et al., 1987;
Balachandran et al., 2005; Kumar et al., 2010 and Anju et al., 2011); Ashtamudi estuary
by (George Thomas et al., 1995 and Geetha Bhadran et al., 1997).
The enrichment of heavy metals due to rapid industrialization and urbanization and
their effects of water quality were recorded from Vembanadu Lake (Mohan and Omana,
2007). Industries around Vembanadu release nearly 260 million liters of effluents to the
wetland ecosystem and in Cochin alone sixteen major industries, discharge nearly 0.104M
m3/d of waste containing organic load into the nearby backwaters (Balachandran et al.,
2002). Earlier reports are also available on the estuarine pollution by effluents containing
heavy metals (Ouseph, 1987).
Indu et al. (2011) documented the trace metal pollution in Meenachil River at
Kottayam, Kerala and observed that the major causes of depletion in water quality is due
to the discharge of domestic wastes, municipal wastes, effluents, terrestrial runoff from
seepage sites, agricultural sites and also due to geological weathering process. The water
quality of Adimalathura Estuary, Kerala, India has been investigated. It is found that all
the physico-chemical parameters (transparency, temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved
oxygen) and nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and silicate) showed considerable spatial
and temporal variations (Anilakumary et al., 2007).
Anoop and Suryaprakash (2008) listed the problems faced by Ashtamudi estuary due
to pollution, over-fishing, sand mining, bank erosion and loss of mangroves. Ashraf et al.
(2008) observed heavy metal pollution in South Indian estuaries such as Vembanad,
Ashtamudi and Veli. Cochin estuary alone receives large quantities of untreated industrial
effluents and domestic effluents (CPCB, 1996).
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
4
1.2 Industrial pollution and distribution of estuarine biota
Aquatic ecosystems are affected by several health stressors that significantly
deplete biodiversity. In the future, the loss of biodiversity and its effects are predicted to
be greater for aquatic ecosystems than for terrestrial ecosystems (Sala et al., 2000).
Estuarine systems are under developmental and pollution pressures because of
urbanization and green revolution. Some estuaries experienced heavy industrial pollution
by chemicals while others faced uncontrolled sewage inflow. The dumping of deluge of
sewage and industrial effluents into estuaries has resulted in a drastic reduction in
biodiversity, increased pollution and ecological imbalance (Rajendran et al., 2004).
Estuaries are dynamic water bodies in the coastal area which are the cradle grounds
for phytoplankton growth (Ketchum, 1967). Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorous (P) are
limiting nutrients (Neill, 2005) which support the growth of phytoplankton to establish a
suitable pelagic food web (Adams and Bates, 1999). The physical variables such as
flushing rate, salinity and turbidity also have profound influence on the distribution and
abundance of plankton communities in estuaries (Cleorn, 1987 and Ferreira et al., 2005).
The hydro ecology and phytoplankton diversity in the Coleroon estuary was studied by
Thillai et al. (2005).
Phytoplanktons are suitable indicators, as they are simple, capable of quantifying
changes in water quality, applicable over large geographic areas and can also furnish data
on background conditions and natural variability. The microalgal communities provide
immediate response to fluctuations and are suitable bio-indicators of water pollution status
which are beyond the tolerance of many other biota used for monitoring (Nwankwo and
Akinsoji, 1992).
An immediate decrease in faunal abundance was reported from Bilbao estuary,
Spain mainly due to industrial pollution and other human interferences (Saiz-Salinas,
1997). Whitfield (1999) demonstrated factors influencing the ichthyofaunal community
structure in South African estuaries due to industrial pollution. Whitfield and Elliot (2002)
reviewed the responses of estuarine fishes (both resident and migrant fish species) and
concluded that incessant anthropogenic pressure and uncontrolled industrial pollution
critically influenced distribution, diversity, breeding, abundance, growth, survival and
behaviour of fishes in estuaries.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
5
Arkoosh et al. (1998) observed the bioaccumulation of juvenile salmon
Oncorhynchus sp. and their prey from estuarine water with chlorinated and aromatic
hydrocarbons which lead to immunosuppression and increased disease susceptibility in
juvenile salmon. Gyedu-Ababio et al. (1999) established the influence of heavy metal
contamination in the sediments on the density and diversity of nematode communities
in the Swartkops river estuary, South Africa. The responses of estuarine meiofauna
community assemblages against fertilizer enrichment in estuarine complex of
Itamaraca Island and north coast of Pernambuco State, Brazil have been studied in
detail (Santos et al., 2009).
Abrupt fluctuations in plankton density and abundance of post-larvae were noticed
in estuaries of Madras region (Pulicate, Adyar and Ennore) as a result of chemical
discharges from the surrounding industries (Joseph et al., 1991). The relation between
phytoplankton availability and industrial pollution in Uppanar estuary was studied earlier
(Periyanayagai et al., 2007). Palleyi et al. (2011) studied the influence of water quality on
the biodiversity of phytoplankton in Dhamra River Estuary of Odisha Coast, Bay of
Bengal. Their findings indicates that the major genera observed are Coscinodiscus,
Skeletonema, Nitzschia, Navicula, Thallasiothrix, Triceratium, Biddulphia, Ceratium,
Rhizosolenia, Thallasionema, Bacillaria, Chaetocerous, Melosira, Trichodesmium,
Podosira and Pleurosigma.
The presence of seventy seven species of phytoplankton was noticed in Mahanadi
estuary, east coast of India with 63 species of Bacillariophyceaae, 8 species of
Dinophyceae and 6 from Cyanophyceae (Naik et al., 2009). They also established the
presence of pollution indicating species such as, Anabena sp., Chlorococcus sp.,
Dinophysis sp., Gymnodium sp., Mycrocystis sp., Nitzschia seriata, Oscillatoria sp.,
Prorocentrum micans, Phaeocystis sp. and Trichodesmium sp. from the estuary and throw
some light into the pollution status of the estuary by phytoplankton analysis. Perumal et al.
(2009) evaluated the seasonal variations in plankton diversity in the Kaduviyar estuary,
Nagapattinam, southeast coast of India.
The distribution of zooplankton along Southern Kerala revealed a very high
numerical abundance of siphonophores from Veli which indicates the pollution thriving
nature of that species especially at low pH and high water temperature (Robin et al.,
2009). Latha and Thanga (2010) also analyzed the macro invertebrate diversity and its
relation with pollution of Veli and Kadinamkulam estuaries, South Kerala, India. They
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
6
reported 24 families represented by mollusca, annelida and arthropoda (crustaceans and
insects). The dominant taxon was Mytilidae (molluscan) and the diversity and distribution
patterns of some species were clearly related to water quality.
1.3 Industrial pollution and sediment quality
Sediment is a complex matrix of components and sediment quality has
considerable influence on the overall status of a water body. Sediments act as a reservoir
for contaminants and are a primary source of contaminant exposure for sediment-dwelling
organisms and animals that feed on the bottom. This exposure can produce deleterious
impacts on benthic communities and can also lead to indirect effects due to
bioaccumulation.
Traditionally, sediment quality was assessed by making comparisons between
concentrations of contaminants with sediment quality guidelines (SQGs). Based on such a
comparison, the potential risks, or hazardous sediment-bound contaminants can be
estimated (Den Besten et al., 2003).
Sediments are natural buffers and form an important habitat as well as a main
nutrient source for aquatic life which have an impact on ecological quality and well being
(Stronkhorst et al., 2004). It is well established that sediments are integral part of
biogeochemical cycle of most contaminants, acting as source, sink and transformation
centre (Moreira et al., 2006). Estimation of anthropogenic impact on sedimentary
composition is pivotal for environmental monitoring studies, as sediments are sensitive
and reliable recorders of both natural and anthropogenic interferences (Szefer, 2002).
Sediment monitoring are thus considered as vital to evaluate the extent of contamination
and pollution histories within estuarine, coastal and shelf regions globally (Zwolsman et
al., 1996; Nolting et al., 1999 and Selvaraj et al., 2004).
Numerous contaminants introduced into aquatic ecosystems via industrial and
domestic sewage discharge, surface run-off and atmospheric fallout are adsorbed,
transported and suspended in sediments. After complex cycles of deposition, resuspension,
transport, and biological and chemical interactions, these contaminants associated with
particles settled in bottom sediments, which become the ultimate pollutant sink with
catastrophic outputs (Luoma and Ho 1993 and Mecray et al., 2001). Sediment
contamination is considered as one of the worst environmental problems for estuarine and
marine ecosystems. Sediments act as sinks and also as sources of contaminants in aquatic
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
7
systems, as heavy inputs of effluents are taking place regularly (Mucha et al., 2003 and
Ajay et al., 2008).
Loizeau et al. (2004) studied the sediment quality and its relation with effluents
from sewage treatment plant at Bay of Vidy, Lake Geneva, Switzerland. It was concluded
that the quantity of heavy metals deposited in the bay was considerable which created
sediment instability and consequently constituted a potential hazard for biota.
The relation between watershed stressors and sediment contamination in
Chesapeake Bay estuaries was well evaluated (Comeleo et al., 1996). Liu et al. (2003)
concluded that sewage discharges from Shanghai, in China provides large quantities of
nitrogen and phosphorus to the estuary and the estuary was under the risk of
eutrophication and red tide. Riba et al. (2002) studied the influence of the Aznalcóllar
mining spill on the vertical distribution of heavy metals in sediments from the
Guadalquivir estuary, SouthWest Spain.
Franc et al. (2005) assessed the sediment quality and its relation with pollution
loads in various sites in Tagus estuary, Portugal. Binning and Baird (2001) reported heavy
metal pollution in sediments due to industrial pollution of Swartkops river estuary, South
Africa with an elevation of concentrations of chromium, lead, zinc, titanium, manganese,
strontium, copper and tin. Leton and Akpila (2008) reported the deteriorating sediment
quality of Woji River, as a result of industrial effluents. Olomukoro and Azubuike (2009)
assessed the extent of heavy metal in sediment samples in Ekpan Creek, Warri, Nigeria
and suggested the influx of industrial effluents.
The study by Kehrig et al. (2003) suggested that metal concentrations in sediment
samples from Jequia mangrove and estuary in Brazil, was very high which indicated a
significant anthropogenic input of zinc, lead, chromium, copper and methyl mercury.
Sujatha et al. (2009) studied the sediment quality of Ashtamudi and Vembanadu
lakes and concluded that Vembanadu is more deteriorated than Ashtamudi and is due to
urbanization, demographic explosion, industrial discharges and enormous use of
agrochemicals.
1.4 Impact of industrial wastewater on fishes
Chemicals in industrial effluents are toxic to animals and even cause death or
sublethal pathology of various internal organs like the liver, kidney, reproductive,
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
8
respiratory and nervous systems. Fishes are very sensitive to toxicants in water and it can
be easily established. Fish is considered as highest in trophic level in aquatic ecosystem.
They are excellent bioindicators of pollution as it is easy to collect, enough potential to
accumulate toxins, increased lifespan and optimum size for studies (Batvari et al., 2007).
The bioaccumulation of toxins and metals in fishes are directly proportional to ecological
requirements, metabolic activity, salinity, level of pollution in food, water and sediment
(Fidan et al., 2007).
The deluge of chemicals entering the aquatic ecosystem through human activities,
cause adverse effects on the aquatic life, including deleterious changes which alter or
destruct metabolic activity and rate (Hirth, 1964). When any aquatic animal is exposed to
a polluted environment, a sudden and immediate stress is developed by the animal which
meets more energy demand to overcome the toxic stress from surroundings (Sreenivasan
et al., 2011).
Ahmad and Shuhaimi-Othman (2010) established the presence of Cu, Zn, Pb and
Cd in fishes (Puntius schwanenfeldii, P. bulu, Ompok bimaculatus, Cylocheinichtys
apogon, Osteochilus hasseltii, O. melanopleura, Notopterus notopterus, Chana
micropeltes, Labiobarbus festiva, Hampala macrolepidota, Chela oxygastroides,Mystus
nigriceps, Thynnichthys thynnoides, Barbichthys laevis and Helostoma temmincki)
inhabiting lake Chini, Malaysia.
The effect of electroplating industrial effluent with chromium on energy
metabolism of air breathing cat fish Mystus cavasius was studied in detail (Palanisamy et
al., 2011). Almeida et al. (2001) studied the metabolic responses of Nile tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus after exposure to environmental cadmium. Pathan et al. (2009)
noted extreme behavioral changes and toxicity in freshwater fish Rasbora daniconius
exposed to paper mill effluent from Kaiogaon paper mill, Aurangabad.
Bainy et al. (1996) studied oxidative stress in gill, erythrocytes, liver and kidney of
Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) collected from a polluted water body and these
changes are detrimental to normal functioning. Severe biochemical and morphological
changes in gills of Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) after experimental cadmium
exposure was studied earlier (Wong and Wong, 2000). According to SEM analysis they
concluded that an augmentation of micro bridges in pavement cells and an increase in the
apical membrane of chloride cells was observed after cadmium exposure which leads to
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
9
hypocalcemia. Sun and Tsai (2009) reported intersex Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) due to
endocrine disruption as a result of exposure to toxic chemicals in Era-Jiin River of
southern Taiwan.
Ghazaly (1992a) monitored the effect of nickel on carbohydrate metabolism, blood
and mineral contents of Tilapia nilotica. Ghazaly (1992b) also reported severe
haematological and physiological fluctuations to sub lethal concentrations of cadmium in
Tilapia zilli. The accumulation of heavy metals from effluents among fishes, especially
Tilapia mossambiccus inhabiting Ureje Dam in south-western Nigeria was also reported
(Adefemi et al., 2008).
Ravanaiah and Murthy (2010) observed severe pathologic changes in Tilapia
mossambicca collected from Pennar estuarine water of Nellore district, in Tamil Nadu.
The histopathological changes recorded in the gill epithelium appear to be a primary
response to the toxic influence of the industrial pollutants in the region. Navaraj (2003)
observed the toxic effect of electroplating industry effluent on respiratory rate and oxygen
consumption of Oreochromis mossambicus. Ambedkar and Muniyan (2011) observed the
accumulation of Chromium, Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Zinc in Tilapia mossambica
collected from Vellar River, Tamil Nadu, India.
1.5 Bacteria in sediments
Sediments form a large global reservoir of organic carbon which contributes to
global biogeochemical processes and through the way they influence carbon degradation
and preservation (Berner and Lasaga, 1989). Sediments are large repositories of bacterial
populations, being found in sediments as deep as 800 meters below the seafloor and as old
as 15 million years (Parkes et al., 2000 and Wellsburry et al., 2002). Sediment inhabiting
bacteria are of great ecological and economic importance as they are responsible for
decomposition, mineralization and recycling of organic matter.
Guo et al. (2005) isolated PAH-degrading bacteria from mangrove sediments in
China. Inniss and Mayfield (1979) studied the seasonal variation of psychrotrophic
bacteria in sediment from Lake Ontario. Piza et al. (2004) investigated the actinobacterial
communities present in two tropical estuarine sediments in Brazil. Mucha et al. (2004)
monitored the sediment quality and other characteristics of sediments in Douro river
estuary, Portugal.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
10
Eze and Okpokwasili (2010) isolated bacteria such as Nocardia sp., Pseudomonas
sp., Klebsiella sp., Lactobacillus sp., Flavobacterium sp., Escherichia sp., Bacillus sp.,
Micrococcus sp., Proteus sp., Citrobacter sp., Staphylococcus sp. and fungi like Rhizopus
sp., Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Mucor sp. and Candida sp. from industrially polluted
sediments collected from Okpoka-Woji river estuary, Nigeria.
Boyle et al. (1999) isolated several strains of Desulfovibrio from estuarine
sediments. Li et al. (1999) investigated the microbial diversity in sediments from Nankai.
Wuertz et al. (1991) enumerated the presence of tributyltin-resistant Bacillus sp. from
estuarine and freshwater sediments. The presence of Hydrogen-oxidizing, Fe (III)-
reducing bacteria from the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire was also documented
(Caccavo et al., 1992). Tal et al. (2005) established the presence of anaerobic ammonia-
oxidizing bacteria in Baltimore Inner Harbor sediment samples.
Anon (1997) reported a higher bacterial population density in sediments than water
due to the rich organic content in sediments and lesser residence time of the
microorganisms in the water column than the sediments from Nagapattanam. Karthikeyan
et al. (2007) noted the fluctuations in heavy metal resistant bacteria inhabiting Uppanar
estuary. Mahalakshmi et al. (2011) monitored the presence of total heterotrophic bacteria
and human pathogens among sediment and water samples in Cuddalore fishing harbor,
Tamil Nadu.
1.6 Bioremediation of heavy metals using bacterial isolates
Heavy metals are natural constituents of the earth crust which are persistent
environmental contaminants as they are non-biodegradable. Heavy metals enter the body
through food, air, and water and bio-accumulate over a certain period of time (Lenntech,
2004). They are normal constituents of the aquatic environment (Nieboer and Richardson,
1980), which even at low levels are able to elicit profound biological effects (Duruibe et al.,
2007). Majority of heavy metals are toxic, but Hg, Cu, Cd and Pb are considered as more
toxic than others (Bryan, 1979). The presence of heavy metals in aquatic realm was
deleterious to all aquatic life forms.
Pollution due to heavy metals is very prominent in regions with mining and old
mine sites (Peplow, 1999). Heavy metals are leached out through slopes and finally
reaches water bodies which are emphatically polluted (INECAR, 2000). Heavy metals,
after ingestion, are converted to their stable oxidation states (Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, As2+, As3+,
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
11
Hg2+ and Ag+) and combine mainly with proteins and enzymes to form strong and stable
chemical bonds and are toxic (Ogwuegbu and Ijioma, 2003). Heavy metals enter into
aquatic environment from various anthropogenic sources, such as industrial wastewater
discharges, sewage overflow, fossil fuel combustion and atmospheric deposition (Linnik
and Zubenko, 2000 and Idrees, 2009).
Heavy metal contamination in the environment is uncountable due to the increase
in the addition of these metals to the environment either from natural sources or from
anthropogenic sources and has become a threat to public health (Roane and Pepper, 1999).
The concentration of metal contaminants in a habitat can be divided into three:- (a)
contamination indices which compare the contaminants with the clean or polluted stations
measured elsewhere; (b) background enrichments indices which compare the results for
the contaminants with the baseline or background levels and (c) ecological risk indices
that compare the results for the contaminants with Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG)
(Caeiro et al., 2005).
Several techniques are used to remove heavy metals such as chemical
precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, electrochemical treatment, evaporative
recovery, filtration, ion exchange, and membrane technologies (Hussein et al., 2004).
Biological methods provide an attractive replacement to physico-chemical methods
(Kapoor and Viraraghavan, 1995). Recent investigations with microorganisms, especially
bacteria and fungi were promising to mitigate heavy metal pollution. Microorganisms
uptake heavy metals either actively (bioaccumulation) and/or passively (biosorption)
(Hussein et al., 2001 and Hussein et al., 2003).
It is well established that biosorptive process are more applicable than the
bioaccumulative processes as living systems often require the addition of nutrients and
subsequent increase in biological oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand
(COD). Moreover, the maintenance of viable microbial population is very difficult due to
heavy metal toxicity and other inhibitory environmental factors. In addition, potential for
desorptive metal recovery is restricted as metals are intracellular bound and metabolic
products may form complexes with metals to retain them in solution (Brown and Lester,
1982; Ajmal et al., 1996 and Dilek et al., 1998).
The process by which microorganisms are stimulated for rapid degradation of
hazardous organic contaminants to environmentally safe levels is termed as microbial
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
12
bioremediation (Umrania, 2006). The chemical transformations in bioremediation involve
cleavage of complex molecules into several molecules in simpler form. In some instances,
the byproducts of microbial bioremediation are harmless and in some cases it was proved
to be beneficial and favourable (Gupta et al., 2003).
Biosorption, bioleaching, biomineralization, intracellular accumulation and enzyme-
catalyzed transformation are the principal mechanisms adopted by microorganisms in
bioremediation of heavy metals (Lloyd, 2002). Bacteria, fungi, yeasts and algae are proved
to be metal biosorbents which can decrease heavy metal ion concentration in polluted
habitats (Das et al., 2008).
The past few decades had documented a steady hike in studies regarding the
interactions of microorganisms with heavy metals. The newer biotechnological processes
such as bioremediation and biobeneficiation through microbial metal re-absorption are
cost effective and eco-friendly and got wide acceptance.
Martin-Gonzalez et al. (2006) evaluated the ability of ciliated protozoa to
bioaccumulate heavy metals in wastewater treatment ponds. The potential of Vibrio
alginolyticus in bioaccumulation of heavy metals was well studied (El-Hendawy et al.,
2009). Ruiz et al. (2011) reported mercury bioremediation by transgenic bacteria
expressing metallothionein and polyphosphate kinase.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, was industrially exploited for treating heavy metal
contaminated soils, and bio-leaching of metal sulfide and uraninite ores (Straube et al.,
2003). Pseudomonas aeruginosa is very effective for reclamation of soil contaminated
with metals (Mathiyazhagan et al., 2011). Carrasco et al. (2005) and Monica et al. (2008)
established the association between plant community and abundance and composition of
microorganisms in quick and successful bioremediation and subsequent soil restoration.
Mathiyazhagan and Natarajan (2011) reported bioremediation of effluents from
Magnesite and Bauxite mines by applying Thiobacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. The
capability of Rhodobacter sphaeroides in bioremediation of cadmium contaminated
environments was also investigated (Bai et al., 2008).
Panwichian et al. (2010) isolated purple nonsulfur bacteria from contaminated
shrimp ponds which have capacity to detoxify heavy metals and sodium. Bacteria of
genera Bacillus, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Pseudomonas and also some yeasts and fungi
play crucial role in bioremediation of chromium-contaminated soil and water by bio-
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
13
absorption and bioaccumulation processes (Ray and Ray, 2009). The chromium reduction
potential of Bacillus sp., E. coli ATCC 33456, Shewanella alga BrY-MT is already
established (Guha et al., 2001 and Camargo et al., 2003).
Parungao et al. (2007) reported the biosorption of Cu, Cd and Pb by
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia under controlled conditions. Congeevarama et al. (2007)
proved the potential of Micrococcus sp. in removal of chromium and nickel from
industrial wastewater. In short, there is an urgent need to screen indigenous
microorganisms which provide new insights into bacterial diversity under unfavourable
conditions, with new genetic information on heavy metal resistance, which could be
exploited in mitigation of contaminated sites.
Molecular techniques have become the cornerstone in studies of microbial ecology,
in the past few decades. It is well evident that classical enrichment techniques often
underestimate the bacterial diversity within natural environments and only a minority of
bacterial species have been isolated and cultured in the laboratory (Pace, 1997). The
phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences of various microbes were studied
(Strous, 2000; Jiang et al., 2006; Gontang et al., 2007 and Quian et al., 2010).
1.7 Objectives of the study
The present study was conducted in the Vattakayal estuary, which is near the
industrial area of Chavara, Kollam District and was earlier an important backwater for
fishing and shell fisheries. The estuary and neighbouring areas are now polluted due to the
industrial discharge for more than two decades. The Vattakayal backwaters were
supporting the livelihood of the local people before the arrival of the industry, but now the
estuary has been deteriorated because of the pollution load affecting the flora, fauna and
productivity. Only limited studies have been carried out so far on the pollution status of
Vattakayal backwaters. Hence the present study was taken up with the following
objectives
1. To assess the seasonal variation of water quality with special reference to the
parameters like temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, TDS, total
alkalinity, total hardness, chloride, salinity, DO, BOD, COD, sulphate, nitrate-N,
total phosphorous and heavy metals - Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr, Fe.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
14
2. To assess the sediment characteristics (pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon,
zinc, copper, cadmium, lead, chromium and iron) during different seasons in the
Vattakayal lake system.
3. To evaluate the stress effect of polluted wastewater from the factory on the fish
Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters).
4. To study the potentials of selected bacterial isolates from the sediment of
Vattakayal estuary for the bioaccumulation of selected heavy metals.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
15
References
Adams, J. B. and Bate, G.C. 1999. Growth and photosynthetic performance of Phragmites
australis in estuarine waters: a field and experimental evaluation. Aquatic Botany,
64 : 359-367.
Adefemi, S.O., Asaolu, S.S. and Olaofe, O. 2008. Determination of heavy metals in
Tilapia mossambiccus fish, associated water and sediment from Ureje Dam in
southern –western Nigeria. Res. J. Environmen.Sci., 2 (2) : 151-155.
Ahmad, A.K. and Shuhaimi-Othman, M. 2010. Heavy metal concentrations in sediments
and fishes from lake Chini, Pahang, Malaysia. Journal of Biological Sciences, 10
(2) : 93-1.
Ajay, P.S., Prakash, C.S. and Prashant, S. 2008. Relationship of heavy metals in natural
lake waters with physico-chemical characteristics of waters and different chemical
fractions of metals in sediments. Water Air Soil Pollut., 188 : 181–193.
Ajmal, M., Rafaqat, A.K. and Bilquees, A.S. 1996. Studies on removal and recovery of Cr
(VI) from electroplating wastes. Water Research, 30 (6) : 1478-1482.
Almeida, J.A., Novelli, E.L., Silva, D.P.M. and Junior, R.A. 2001. Environmental
cadmium exposure and metabolic responses of the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus. Environ. Pollut., 114 (2) : 169-175.
Ambedkar, G. and Muniyan, M. 2011. Accumulation of metals in the five commercially
important freshwater fishes available in Vellar River, Tamil Nadu, India. Arch.
Appl. Sci. Res., 3 (3) : 261-264.
Andrews, M.J. 1984. Thames estuary: Pollution and recovery. In: Effects of pollutants at
the ecosystem level. Sheehan, P.J., Miller, D.R., Butler, G.C. and Bourdeau, PH.
(Eds.). John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 195-227.
AnilaKumary, K.S., AbdulAzis, P.K. and Natarajan, P. 2007. Water quality of the
Adimalathura Estuary, southwest coast of India. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 49 (1) :
01–06.
Anirudhan, T.S., Balachand, A.N., Nair, S.M. and Nambisan, P.N.K. 1987. Distributionn
pattern of salinity and silicon and their inter relationship in Cochin backwaters.
Proc.Natn. Sem. Estuarine Management, 26-31.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
16
Anju, A.K. Dipu, S. and Sobha, V. 2011. Seasonal variation of heavy metals in Cochin
estuary and adjoining Periyar and Muvattupuzha rivers, Kerala, India. Global
Journal of Environmental Research, 5 (1) : 15-20.
Anon, J. 1997. Ecological, toxicological and environmental impacts assessment studies of
the effluents discharge from MRLCHR in Marine environs of Nagapattinam, Tamil
Nadu. Technology Reference Number NIO. 12/97 : 86.
Anoop, P. and Suryaprakash, S. 2008. Estimating the option value of Ashtamudi estuary in
South India: A contingent valuation approach. 12th Congress of the European
Association of Agricultural Economists – EAAE : 1-5.
Arkoosh, M.R., Casillas, E., Clemons, E., Kagley, A.N., Olson, R., Reno, P. and Stein,
J.E. 1998. Effect of pollution on fish diseases: Potential Impacts on Salmonid
Populations. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health, 10 : 182–190.
Ashraf, M.P. Edwin, L. and Meenakumari, B. 2008. Trace metal pollution in estuaries of
South India. Asian Journal of Water Environment and Pollution, 5 (2) : 63-69.
Bai, H.J., Zhao-Ming, Z., Guan- E, Y. and Bao-Zhen, LI. 2008. Bioremediation of
cadmium by growing Rhodobacter sphaeroides: Kinetic characteristic and
mechanism studies. Bioresource Technology, 99 (1) : 7716-7722.
Bainy, A.C.D., Saito, E., Carvalho, P.S.M. and Junqueira, V.B.C. 1996. Oxidative stress in
gill, erythrocytes, liver and kidney of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from a
polluted site. Aquat. Toxicol., 34 : 151–162.
Balachandran, K. K., Joseph, T., Nair, K. K. C., Nair, M. and Joseph, P. S. 2002. The
complex estuarine formation of six rivers (Cochin backwaters system on west coast
of India) - Sources and distribution of trace metals and nutrients. APN/SASCOM/
LOICZ Regional Workshop on Assessment of material fluxes to the coastal zone in
South Asia and their impacts. Negombo, 8-11, Sri Lanka.
Balachandran, K.K., LaluRaj, C.M., Nair, M., Joseph, T., Sheeba, P. and Venugopal, P.
2005. Heavy metal accumulation in a flow restricted, tropical estuary. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 65 (1-2) : 361-370.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
17
Batvari, B.P.D., Kamala-Kannan, S., Shanthi, K., Krishnamoorthy, R., Lee, K.J. and
Jayaprakash, M. 2007. Heavy metals in two fish species (Carangoidel malabaricus
and Belone stronglurus) from Pulicat Lake, North of Chennai, Southeast coast of
India. Environ. Monit. Assess., 79 : 1800-1509.
Berner, R.A. and Lasaga, A.C. 1989. Modeling the geochemical carbon cycle. Scientific
Am., 260 : 74–81.
Bijukumar, A. and Sushama, S. 2000. Ichthyofauna of Ponnani estuary, Kerala. T. Mar.
Bioi. Ass. India, 42 (1 and 2) : 182-189.
Binning, K. and Baird, D. 2001. Survey of heavy metals in the sediments of the Swartkops
River Estuary, Port Elizabeth South Africa. Water SA., 27 (4) : 461-466.
Boyle, A.W., Phelps, C.D. and Young, L. Y. 1999. Isolation from estuarine sediments of a
Desulfovibrio strain which can grow on lactate coupled to the reductive
dehalogenation of 2,4,6-Tribromophenol. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,
65 (3) : 1133–1140.
Braga, E.S., Bonetti, C.V.D.H., Burone, L. and Bonetti-Filho, J. 2000. Eutrophication and
bacterial pollution caused by industrial and domestic sewage at the Baixada
Santista Estuarine System – Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40 : 165-173.
Brown, M.J. and Lester, J.N. 1982. Role of bacterial extracellular polymers in metal
uptake in pure bacterial culture and activated sludge. Water Research, 16 : 1539-
1548.
Bryan, G.W. 1979. Bioaccumulation of marine pollutants. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser.
B., 286 : 483-505.
Caccavo, F., Blakemore, R.P. and Lovley, D.R. 1992. A Hydrogen-oxidizing, Fe(III)-
reducing microorganism from the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology, 58 (10) : 3211-3216.
Caeiro, S., Costa, M. H., Ramos, T. B., Fernandes, F., Silveira, N., Coimbra, A., Medeiros,
G. and Painho, M. 2005. Assessing heavy metal contamination in Sado estuary
sediment: An index analysis approach. Ecological Indicators, 5 : 151–169.
Camargo, F.A.O., Bento, F.M., Okeke, B.C. and Frankenberger, W.T. 2003.Chromate
reduction by chromium resistant bacteria isolated from soils contaminated with
dichromate. J. Environ. Qual., 32 : 1228-1233.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
18
Carrasco, J.A., Armario, P., Pajuelo, E. and Burgo, A. 2005. Isolation and characterization
of symbiotically effective Rhizobium resistant to arsenic and heavy metals after the
toxic spill at the Aznalcollar pyrite mine. Soil Biol. Biochem., 37 : 1131-1140.
Carreira, R.S., Wagener, A.L.R. and Readman, J. W. 2004. Sterols as markers of sewage
contamination in a tropical urban estuary (Guanabara Bay, Brazil): space–time
variations. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 60 : 587–598.
Cleorn, J. N. 1987. Turbidity as a control on phytoplankton biomass and productivity in
esturies. Continental Shelf Research, 7 : 1367-1387.
Comeleo, R.L., Paul, J.F., August, P.V., Copeland, J., Baker, C., Hale, S.S. and Latimer,
R.W. 1996. Relationships between watershed stressors and sediment contamination
in Chesapeake Bay estuaries. Landscape Ecology, 11 (5) : 307-319.
Congeevarama, S., Sridevi, D., Parkb, J., Dexilina, M. and Thamaraiselvi, K. 2007.
Biosorption of chromium and nickel by heavy metal resistant fungal and bacterial
isolates. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 146 (1-2) : 270-277.
CPCB. 1996. Pollution potential of industries in coastal areas of India. Coastal Pollution
Control Series COPOCS/ 9/1995–96. Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi.
Das, N., Vimala, R. and Karthika, P. 2008. Biosorption of heavy metals – An overview.
Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 7 : 159-169.
Das, S. and Sahu, B.K. 2002. Ecological implication of mercury contaminated waters of
Rushikulya estuary along east coast of India. In: Ecology of polluted waters.
Kumar, A. (Ed.).Vol. II. A P. H. New Delhi, 899-924.
Davis, R.A., Welty, A.T., Borrego, J., Morales, J.A. and Pendon, J.G. 2000. Ryan Rio
Tinto estuary (Spain): 5000 years of pollution. Environmental Geology, 39 (10) :
1107-1116.
Den Besten, P.J., Deckere, E, de., Babut, M.P., Power, B., DelValls, T.A., Zago, C.,. Oen,
A.M.P. and Heise, S. 2003. Biological effects-based sediment quality in ecological
risk assessment for European waters. J. Soils and Sediments, 3 (3) : 144-162.
Dilek, F.B., Gokcay, C.F. and Yetis, U. 1998. Combined effects of Ni(II) and Cr(VI) on
activated sludge. Water Research, 32 (2) : 303-312.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
19
Duruibe, J.O., Ogwuegbu, M. O.C. and Egwurugwu, J.N. 2007. Heavy metal pollution and
human biotoxic effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2 (5) : 112-
118.
Dutta,N.,Malhotra,J.C. and Bose,B.B.1954.Hydrology and seasonal fluctuations of the
plankton in the Hooghly estuary. Symposium on Marine and Freshwater Plankton
in the Indian Pacific.pp.35-47.
El-Hendawy, H.H., Ali, D.A., El-Shatoury, E.H. and Ghanem, S.M. 2009.
Bioaccumulation of heavy metals by Vibrio alginolyticus isolated from wastes of
Iron and Steal Factory, Helwan, Egypt. Egypt. Acad. J. biolog. Sci., 1 (1) : 23-28.
Elliot, M. and Quintino, V. 2007. The estuarine quality paradox, environmental
homeostasis and the difficulty of detecting anthropogenic stress in naturally
stressed areas. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54 : 640–645.
Ezes, V.C. and Okpokwasili, G.C. 2010. Microbial and other related changes in a Niger
Delta River sediment receiving industrial effluents. Continental J. Microbiology,
4 : 15-24.
Ferreira, J.G., Wolff, W.J., Simas, T.C. and Bricker, S.B. 2005. Does biodiversity of
estuarine phytoplankton depend on hydrology? Ecological modeling, 187 : 513-
523.
Fidan, A.F., Cigerci, I.H., Konuk, M., Kucukkurt, I., Aslan, R. and Dundar, Y. 2007.
Determination of some heavy metal levels and oxidative status in Carassius
carassius L. 1758 from Eber Lake. Environ. Moni. Assess., 69 : 1951-1958.
Franc, S., Vinagre, C., Cacador, I. and Henrique, C.N. 2005. Heavy metal concentrations
in sediment, benthic invertebrates and fish in three salt marsh areas subjected to
different pollution loads in the Tagus Estuary (Portugal). Baseline/Mar. Poll. Bull.,
50 : 993–1018.
Freitas, M.C., Andrade, C., Cruces, A., Munhá, J., Sousa, M.J., Moreira, S., Jouanneau,
J.M. and Martins, L. 2008. Anthropogenic influence in the Sado estuary (Portugal):
A geochemical approach. Journal of Iberian Geology, 34 (2) : 271-286.
Geetha Bhadran. 1997. Heavy metal pollution in Ashtamudi estuarine system. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Kerala.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
20
George Thomas. 1995. Comparative study on the ecobiology of mangrove communities
along the backwater system of Kerala.PhD.Thesis, University of Kerala.
Ghazaly, K.S. 1992a. Sublethal effects of nickel on carbohydrate metabolism, blood and
mineral contents of Tilapia nilotica. Water Air Soil Pollution, 64 : 525-532.
Ghazaly, K.S. 1992b. Haematological and physiological response to sublethal
concentrations of cadmium in a freshwater teleost,Tilapia zilli. Water Air Soil
Pollution, 64 : 551–559.
Gontang, E.A., Fenical, W. and Jensen, P.R. 2007. Phylogenetic diversity of gram-
positive bacteria cultured from marine sediments. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology, 73 (10) : 3272–3282.
Guha. H., Jayachandran, K. and Maurrasse, F. 2001. Kinetics of chromium (VI) reduction
by a type strain Shewanella alga under different growth conditions. Environmental
Pollution, 115 : 209–218.
Guo, C.L., Zhou, H.W., Wong, Y.S. and Tam, N.F.Y. 2005. Isolation of PAH-degrading
bacteria from mangrove sediments and their biodegradation potential. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 51 (8-12) : 1054-1061.
Gupta, A.K., Yunus, M. and Pandey, P. 2003. Bioremediation in ecotechnology for the
present century. Inter. Soc. Environ. Botanists Environnews, 9 (2).
Gyedu-Ababio, T.K., Furstenberg, J.P., Baird, D. and Vanreusel, A. 1999. Nematodes as
indicators of pollution: A case study from the Swartkops River system, South
Africa. Hydrobiologia, 397 : 155-169.
Hager, S. W. and Schemel, L.E. 1992. Sources of nitrogen and phosphorus to northern San
Francisco Bay. Estuaries, 15 : 40-52.
Harikumar, P.S., Nasir, U.P., Rahman, M.P.M. 2009. Distribution of heavy metals in the
core sediments of a tropical wetland system. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech., 6 (2) : 225-
232.
Hirth, D.F. 1964. Enzyme damage due to heavy metal intoxication. Munch Med. Wschr.,
106 : 985-988.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
21
Howarth, R., Anderson, D., Cloern, J., Elfring, C., Hopkinson, C., Lapointe, B., Malone,
T., Marcus, N., McGlathery, K., Sharpley, A. and Walker, D. 2000. Nutrient
pollution of coastal rivers, bays, and seas. Issues in Ecology, 7: 2-17.
Hussein, H., Farag, S. and Moawad, H. 2003. Isolation and characterisation of
Pseudomonas resistant to heavy metals contaminants. Arab Journal of
Biotechnology, 7 : 13-22.
Hussein, H., Ibrahim, S.F., Kandeel, K. and Moawad, H. 2004. Biosorption of heavy
metals from wastewater using Pseudomonas sp. Electronic Journal of
Biotechnology, 7 (1) : 38-46.
Hussein, H., Krull, R., Abou El-Ela, S.I. and Hempel, D.C. 2001. Interaction of the
different heavy metal ions with immobilized bacterial culture degrading xenobiotic
wastewater compounds. Proc. of International Water Association World Water
Conference. (15th - 19th October, Berlin, Germany).
Hwang, J.S., Kumar, R., Hsieh, C.W., Kuo, A.Y., Souissi, S., Hsu, M.H., Wu, J.T., Liu,
W.C., Wang, C.F. and Chen, Q.C. 2010. Patterns of zooplankton distribution along
the marine, estuarine, and riverine portions of the Danshuei ecosystem in Northern
Taiwan. Zoological Studies, 49 (3) : 335-352.
Idrees, F.A. 2009. Assessment of trace metal distribution and contamination in surface
soils of Amman. Jordan J. Chem., 4 (1) : 77-87.
Indu, V.N., Singh, K., Arumugam, M. and Clarson, D. 2011. Monitoring of trace metal
pollution in Meenachil River at Kottayam, Kerala (India). E-Journal of Chemistry,
8 (1) : 257-263.
Inniss, W.E. and Mayfield, C.I. 1979. Seasonal variation of psychrotrophic bacteria in
sediment from Lake Ontario. Water Research, 13 (6) : 481-484.
Institute of Environmental Conservation and Research INECAR . 2000. Position Paper
Against Mining in Rapu-Rapu, Published by INECAR, Ateneo de Naga
University, Philippines (www.adnu.edu.ph/Institutes/Inecar/pospaper1.asp).
Jiang, H., Dong, H., Zhang, G., Yu, B., Chapman, L.R. and Fields, M.W. 2006. Microbial
diversity in water and sediment of Lake Chaka, an Athalassohaline lake in
Northwestern China. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72 (6) : 3832–
3845.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
22
Joseph, K.O., Srivastava, J.P. and Hoda, Z. 1991. Impact of pollution on the
hydrobiological features of the estuaries in Madras region. Trends in Life Science
(lndia), 6 (1) : 29-34.
Kapoor, A. and Viraraghavan, T. 1995. Fungal biosorption- an alternative treatment option
for heavy metal bearing wastewater: A review. Bioresource Technolology, 53 (3) :
195-206.
Karthikeyan, R., Vijayalakshmi, S. and Balasubramanian, T. 2007. Monthly variation of
heavy metal and metal resistant bacteria from Uppanar Estuary (South East Coast
of India). Research Journal of Microbiology, 2 : 50-57.
Kehrig, H. A., Pinto, F. N., Moreira, I. and Malm, O. 2003. Heavy metals and
metylmercury in a tropical coastal estuary and a mangrove in Brazil. Organic
Geochemistry, 34 : 661-669.
Kennish, M. J. 2002. Environmental threats and environmental future of estuaries.
Environmental Conservation, 29 : 78-107.
Keser, M., Swenarton, J.T., Foertch, J.F., 2005. Effects of thermal input and climate
change on growth of Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) in eastern
Long Island Sound (USA). J. Sea Res., 54 (3) : 211–220.
Kessarkar, P.M., Rao, V.P., Shynu, R., Ahmad, I.M. 2009. Wind-driven estuarine turbidity
maxima in Mandovi Estuary, central west coast of India. J. Earth Syst. Sci., 118 :
369–377.
Ketchum, B.H. 1967. Phytoplankton nutrients in estuaries. In: Lau., G.H. (ed.), Estuaries.
Vol.83. American Association for the Advancement of Science, The Horn-Shafer
Company, Washington DC.
Krupadam, R., Smita, P0. and Wate, S.R. 2006. Geochemical fractionation of heavy
metals in sediments of the Tapi estuary. Geochemical Journal, 40 : 513-522.
Kumar, R.C.S., Joseph, M.M., Kumar,G.T.R., Renjith, K.R., Manju, M. N. and
Chandramohanakumar, N. 2010. Spatial Variability and contamination of heavy
metals in the inter-tidal systems of a tropical environment. Int. J. Environ. Res., 4
(4) : 691-700.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
23
Latha, C. and Thanga, V.S.G. 2010. Macroinvertebrate diversity of Veli and
Kadinamkulam lakes, South Kerala, India. Journal of Environmental Biology., 31 :
543-547.
Lenntech Water Treatment and Air Purification Water Treatment. 2004. Lenntech,
Rotterdamseweg, the Netherlands.
Leton, T.G. and Akpila, S.B. 2008. An assessment of the impact of industrial effluents on
sediment quality of Woji River. American-Eurasian J. Agric. and Environ. Sci., 4
(6) : 713-718.
Li, L., Guezennec, J., Nichols, P., Henry, P., Yanagibayashi, M. and Kato, C. 1999.
Microbial diversity in Nankai Trough sediments at a depth of 3,843m. J.
Oceanogr, 55 : 635–642.
Linnik, P.M. and Zubenko, I.B. 2000. Role of bottom sediments in the secondary pollution
of aquatic environments by heavy metal compounds, lakes and reservoirs. Res.
Manage, 5 (1) : 11–21.
Lipp, E.K., Farrah, S.A. and Rose, J.B., 2001. Assessment and impact of microbial
fecalnnpollution and human enteric pathogens in a coastal community. Mar.
Pollut. Bull., 42 (4) : 286–293.
Liu, C., Wang, Z., He, Y. and Wei, H. 2003. Water quality and sediment quality of waters
near shanghai sewage outfalls. Proc. of International Conference on Estuaries and
Coasts, November 9-11, Hangzhou, China, 646-654.
Liu, S.Y., Liu, W.C., Hsu, M.H., Kuo, A.Y. 2003. Recent water quality conditions in
Danshuei River estuarine system. Taiwan Hydrol., 51 : 43-52.
Lloyd, J.R. 2002. Bioremediation of metals: The application of microorganisms that make
and break minerals. Microbiology Today, 29 : 67-69.
Loizeau, J.L., Pardos, M., Monna, F., Peytremann, C., Haller, L. and Dominik, J. 2004.
The impact of a sewage treatment plant’s effluent on sediment quality in a small
bay in Lake Geneva (Switzerland–France). Part 2: Temporal evolution of heavy
metals. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 9 : 53–63.
Luoma, S.N. and Ho, K.T. 1993. Appropriate uses of marine and estuarine sediment
bioassays. In: Handbook of ecotoxicology. Calow, P. (Edr). Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, 193–226.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
24
Mahalakshmi, M., Srinivasan, M., Murugan, M., Balakrishnan, S. and Devanathan, K.
2011. Isolation and Identification of total heterotrophic bacteria and human
pathogens in water and sediment from Cuddalore Fishing Harbour after the
Tsunami. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences, 4 : 148-156.
Martin-Gonzalez, A., Díaz, S., Borniquel, S., Gallego, A. and Gutierrez, J.C. 2006.
Cytotoxicity and bioaccumulation of heavy metals by ciliated protozoa isolated
from urban wastewater treatment plants. Res. Microbiol., 157 : 108-118.
Mathiyazhagan, N. and Natarajan, D. 2011. Bioremediation on effluents from Magnesite
and Bauxite mines using Thiobacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. J. Bioremed.
Biodegrad, 2 (1) : 1-6.
Mathiyazhagan, N., Danashekar, K. and Natarajan, D. 2011. Amplification of
biosurfactant producing gene (rhlb) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from
oil contaminated soil. In. J. Phar. Bio. Sci., 2 : 497-504.
Matthiessen, P. and Law, R.J. 2002. Contaminants and their effects on estuarine and
coastal organisms in the United Kingdom in the late twentieth century. Environ.
Pollut., 120 : 739–757.
McCain, B.B., Brown, D.W., Krahn, M.M., et al., 1988. Marine pollution problems, North
American West Coast. Aquat. Toxicol., 11 (1–2) : 143–162.
McLusky, D.S. and McCrory, M. 1989. A long term study of an estuarine mudflat subject
to industrial pollution. Topics in Marine Biology, 53 (2-3) : 717-724.
Mecray, E.L., King, J.W., Appleby, P.G. and Hunt, A.S. 2001. Historical trace metal
accumulation in the sediments of an urbanized region of the Lake Champlain
watershed, Burlington, Vermont. Water Air Soil Poll., 125 : 201–230.
Mohan, M. and Omana, P.K. 2007. Statistical analysis of water quality data from Ramsar
site-Vembanadu backwaters, South west coast of India. Asian Journal of
Microbiology Biotech. Environ. Sci., 9: 313-320.
Monica, O.M., Julia, W.N. and Raina, M.M. 2008. Characterization of a bacterial
community in an abandoned semiarid Lead-Zinc mine tailing site. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol, 74 : 3899-3907.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
25
Moreira, S.M., Lima, I., Ribeiro, R., Guilhermino, L. 2006. Effects of estuarine sediment
contamination on feeding and on key physiological functions of the polychaete
Hediste diversicolor: Laboratory and in situ assays. Aquatic Toxicology, 78 : 186-
201.
Mucha, A.P., Bordaloa, A.A. and Vasconcelos, M.T.S.D. 2004. Sediment quality in the
Douro river estuary based on trace metal contents, macrobenthic community and
elutriate sediment toxicity test (ESTT). J. Environ. Monit., 6 : 585-592.
Mucha, A.P., Vasconcelos, M.S.T.D. and Borodalo, A.A. 2003. Macro benthic community
in the Dauro estuary: Relation with trace metals and natural sediment
characteristics. Environ. Pollut., 121 : 169–180.
Naik, S., Acharya, B.C. and Mohapatra, A. 2009. Seasonal variations of phytoplankton in
Mahanadi estuary, east coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences., 38 (2) :
184-190.
Navaraj, P.S. 2003. Synergetic effect of metals of electroplating industry effluent on
physiology of the Oreochromis mossambicus. J. Phys. IV. France., 107:925.
Neill, M. 2005. A method to determine which nutrient is limiting for plant growth in
estuarine waters at any salinity. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50 : 945-955.
Nieboer, E. and Richardson, D.H.S. 1980. The replacement of the nondescript term ‘heavy
metals’ by a biologically and chemically significant classification of metal ions.
Environ Poll Bull., 1 : 3-26.
Nolting, R.F., Ramkema, A. and Everaats, J.M. 1999. The geochemistry of Cu, Cd, Zn, Ni
and Pb in sediment cores from the continental slope of the Banc d’Arguin
(Mauritania). Continental Shelf Research, 19 : 665-691.
Nwankwo, D.I. and Akinsoji, A. 1992. Epiphyte community of water hyacinth,
Eichhornia crassipes (MART) Solms in coastal waters of South Western Nigeria.
Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 124 (4) : 501-511.
Ogwuegbu, M.O. and Ijioma, M.A. 2003. Effects of certain heavy metals on the
population due to mineral exploitation. Proc. of International Conference on
Scientific and Environmental Issues in the Population, Environment and
Sustainable Development in Nigeria. University of Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
8-10.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
26
Olomukoro, J.O. and Azubuike, C.N. 2009. Heavy metals and macroinvertebrate
communities in bottom sediment of Ekpan Creek, Warri, Nigeria. Jordan Journal
of Biological Sciences, 2 (1) : 1-8.
Ouseph, P. P. 1987. Heavy metal pollution in the sediments of Cochin estuarine system.
Proc. of National seminar on estuarine management. 123-127.
Pace, N.R. 1997. A molecular view of microbial diversity and the biosphere. Science,
276 : 734–740.
Padmini, E., and Vijaya Geetha, B. 2007. Seasonal influences on hydrographic parameters
and pollution status of Ennor estuary. J.Environ.Hydrol., 15 : 15.
Palanichamy, S. and Balasubramanian, T. 1989. Distribution of calcium and magnesium in
the Vellar estuary. Mahasagar-B ull. Natl. Inst.Oceanogr, 22 : 1-11.
Palanisamy, P., Sasikala, G., Mallikaraj, D., Bhuvaneshwari, N. and Natarajan, G.M.
2011. Electroplating industrial effluent chromium induced changes in carbohydrate
metabolism in an air-breathing cat fish Mystus cavasius (Ham). Asian J. Exp. Biol.
Sci., 2 (3) : 521-524.
Palleyi, S., Kar, R.N. and Panda, C.R.J. 2011. Influence of water quality on the
biodiversity of phytoplankton in Dhamra River Estuary of Odisha Coast, Bay of
Bengal. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage, 15 (1) : 69-74.
Panwichian, S., Kantachote, D., Wittayaweerasak, B. and Mallavarapu, M. 2010. Isolation
of purple nonsulfur bacteria for the removal of heavy metals and sodium from
contaminated shrimp ponds. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, 13 (4) : 1-12.
Parkes, R.J., Cragg, B.A. and Wellsbury, P. 2000. Recent studies on bacterial populations
and processes in subseafloor sediments: A review. Hydrogeol. J., 8 : 11–28.
Parungao, M.M., Tacata, P.S., Tanayan, C.R.G. and Trinidad, L.C. 2007. Biosorption of
Copper, Cadmium and Lead by copper-resistant bacteria isolated from Mogpog
River, Marinduque. Philippine Journal of Science, 136 (2) : 155-165.
Pathan, T.S., Sonawane, D.L. and Khillare, Y.K. 2009. Toxicity and behavioural changes
in freshwater fish Rasbora daniconius exposed to paper mill effluent. Botany
Research International, 2 (4) : 263-266.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
27
Peplow, D. and Edmonds, R. 2005. The effects of mine waste contamination at multiple
levels of biological organization. Ecological Engineering, 24 : 101–119.
Periyanayagai, R., Sasikala, V., Venkatesan, R., Karthikeyan, R. and Balasubramainan, T.
2007. Phytoplankton in relation to pollution in Uppanar estuary: Southeast coast of
India. Research J. Environ. Toxicol., 1 (3) : 153-157.
Perumal, N.V., Rajkumar, M., Perumal, P. and Rajasekar, K.T. 2009. Seasonal variations
of plankton diversity in the Kaduviyar estuary, Nagapattinam, southeast coast of
India. Journal of Environmental Biology, 30 (6) : 1035-1046.
Piza, F.F., Prado, P.I. and Manfio, G.P. 2004. Investigation of bacterial diversity in
Brazilian tropical estuarine sediments reveals high actinobacterial diversity.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 86 (4) : 317-328.
Pradhan, U.K., Shirodkar, P.V. and Sahu, B.K. 2009. Physico-chemical characteristics of
the coastal water of Devi estuary, Orissa and evaluation of its seasonal changes
using chemometric techniques. Current Science, 96 (9) : 1203-1209.
Prasanna, M.B. and Ranjan, P.C. 2010. Physico chemical properties of water collected
from Dhamra estuary. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1 (3) :
334-342.
Qasim, S. Z. and Sen Gupta, R. 1983. Environmental characteristics of the ocean. In:
Encyclopedia of environmental science and engineering. Pfafflin, J. R. and Zeigler,
E. N. (Eds.). Vol. I. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York. 294-309.
Quian, Y., Shi, J., Chen, Y., Lou, L., Cui, X., Cao, R., Li, P. and Tang, J. 2010.
Characterization of phosphate solubilizing bacteria in sediments from a shallow
eutrophic lake and a wetland: Isolation, molecular identification and phosphorus
release ability determination. Molecules, 15 : 8518-8533.
Rajendran, N., BaskaraSanjeevi, S., Ajmalkhan S. and Balasuramainian T. 2004. Ecology
and biodiversity of Eastern Ghats - Estuaries of India. EPTRI-ENVIS News letter,
10 : 1-11.
Ram, A., Rokade, M.A., and Zingde, M.D. 2009. Mercury enrichment in sediments of
Amba estuary, Indian. Journal of Marine Sciences, 38 (1) : 89-96.
Ram, A., Rokade, M.A., Borole, D.V. and Zingde, M.D. 2003. Mercury in sediments of
Ulhas estuary. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 46 : 846-857.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
28
Ramesh, R. and Purvaja, R. 2009. Coastal ecosystem and management in India: An
overview. Proc. of National Seminar on Coastal Ecosystem Management. 2-3
April, ENVIS Centre- KSCSTE and MoEF, 1-19.
Ravanaiah, G. and Murthy, C.V. 2010. Impact of aquaculture and industrial pollutants of
nellore district on the histopathological changes in the gill of fish, Tilapia
mossambica. Ind.Jour. Comp.Animal. Phsiol., 28 (1) : 108-114.
Ray, S. and Ray, M.K. 2009. Bioremediation of heavy metal toxicity-with special
reference to Chromium. Al Ameen J. Med. Sci., 2 (2) : 57-63.
Reddy, B.C.S.R., Jayaraju, N., Reddy, K.R. and Reddy, A.N. 2009. Pollution signatures of
benthic Foraminifera: A study from the Pennar River Estuary, India. Research
Journal of Earth Sciences, 1 (1) : 07-14.
Remani, K.N., Venugopal, P., Saraladevi, K., Lalitha, and Unnithan, R.V.1980. Studies on
the sediments of cochin backwaters in relation to pollution . Indian.J.Mar. Sci., 9 :
111-114.
Riba, I., DelValls, T.A., Forja, J.M. and Gómez-Parra, A. 2002. Influence of the
Aznalcóllar mining spill on the vertical distribution of heavy metals in sediments
from the Guadalquivir estuary (SW Spain). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44 : 39–47.
Roane, T.M. and Pepper, I.L. 1999. Microorganisms and metal pollutants. In: Environmental
microbiology. Maier, R. M., Gerba, C.P. and Pepper, I.A. (Eds.). Academic press,
San Diago, California, London. 403-423.
Robin, R.S. Srinivasan, M. and Chandrasekar, K. 2009. Distribution of zooplankton from
Arabian Sea, along Southern Kerala (Southwest Coast of India) during the cruise.
Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 1 (3) : 155-159.
Ruiz, O.N., Alvarez, D., Gonzalez-Ruiz, G. and Torres, T. 2011. Characterization of
mercury bioremediation by transgenic bacteria expressing metallothionein and
polyphosphate kinase. BMC Biotechnology, 11 (82) : 1-36.
Saiz-Salinas, J. I. 1997. Evaluation of adverse biological effects induced by pollution in
the Bilbao Estuary (Spain). Env. Pollut., 96 : 351-359.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
29
Sala, O.E., Chapin, F., Stuart, I., Armesto, J.J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R.,
Huber-Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L.F., Jackson, R.B., Kinzig, A., Leemans, R.,
Lodge, D.M., Mooney, H.A., Oesterheld, M., Poff, N.L., Sykes, M.T., Walker,
B.H., Walker, M., Wall, D.H. 2000. Global biodiversity scenarios for the year
2100. Science, 287 : 1770–1774.
Sankaranarayanan,V.N., Udayavarma, P., Balachandran, K.K., Pylee, A. and Joseph,
T.1986. Esturian charactristics of lower reaches of the river periyar ( Cochin
backwaters). Indian.J. Mar.Sci., 15 : 166-170.
Santos, P.J.P., Botter-Carvalho, M.L., do Nascimento-Júnior, A.B., Marinho, R.G.C.,
Carvalho, P.V.V.C. and Valença, A.P.M.C. 2009. Response of estuarine meiofauna
assemblage to effects of fertilizer enrichment used in the sugar cane monoculture
Pernambuco, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 57 (1) : 43-55.
Scott, D.B., Tobin, R., Williamson, M., Medioli, F.S., Latimer, J.S., Boothman, W.A.,
Asioli, A. and Haury, V. 2005. Pollution monitoring in two North American
estuaries: Historical reconstructions using benthic foraminifera. Journal of
Foraminiferal Research, 35 (1) : 65–82.
Selvaraj, K., RamMohan, V. and Szefer, P. 2004. Evaluation of metal contamination in
coastal sediments of the Bay of Bengal, India: geochemical and statistical
approaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49 : 174-185
Sengupta, R. and Sugandhini, N. 1981. Studies on calcium, magnesium and sulphate in the
Mandovia and Zuari river systems (Geo). Ind. J. Mar. Sci., 10 : 24-34.
Soundarapandian, P., Premkumar, T. and Dinakaran, G.K. 2009. Studies on the physico-
chemical characteristic and nutrients in the Uppanar Estuary of Cuddalore, south east
coast of India. Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 1 (3) : 102-105.
Sreenivasan, R.S., Moorthy, P.K. and Deecaraman, M. 2011. Biochemical stress of
chromium in tannery effluents on the fresh water fish, Tilapia mossambica
(Pisces). Int. J. Biol. Med. Res., 2 (3) : 784-788.
Straube, W.L., Nestlen, C.C., Hansen, L.D., Ringleberg, D., Pritchard, P.J., et al. 2003.
Remediation of poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) through landforming with
biostimulation and bioaugumentation. Acta Boitechnol., 23 : 179-196.
Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1
30
Stronkhorst, J., Brils, J., Batty, J., Coquery, M., Gardner, M., Mannio, J., O'Donnell, C.,
Steenwijk, J. and Frintrop, P. 2004. Discussion document on sediment monitoring
guidance for the EU water framework directive. Version 2. EU Water Framework
Directive expert group on Analysis and Monitoring of Priority Substances. May
2004.
Strous, M. 2000. Microbiology of anaerobic ammonium oxidation. Ph.D. thesis. Technical
University of Delft, The Netherlands.
Sujatha, C.S., Nify, B., Ranjitha, R., Fanimol, C.L. and SamanthaN.K. 2009. Nutrient
dynamics of two lakes of Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 38 (4):
451-456.
Sun,P. L. and Tsai, S.S.2009. Intersex Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) from a contaminated
river in Taiwan: A case study. Toxins, 1 : 14-24.
Szefer, P. 2002. Metals, metalloids and radionuclides in the Baltic Sea ecosystem.
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Tal, Y., Watts, J.E.M. and Schreier, H.J. 2005. Anaerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and
related activity in Baltimore Inner Harbor Sediment. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology, 71 (4) : 1816–1821.
Thillai Rajasekhar, K., Perumal, P., and Santhanam, P. 2005. Phytoplankton diversity in
the Coleroon estuary, South east of India.J.Mar.Biol.Asso.India, 47 (2) : 127-132.
Umrania, V.V.2006. Bioremediation of toxic heavy metals using acidothermophilic
autotrophies. Bioresour. Technol., 97 : 1237-1242.
Uncles, R.J., Wood, R.G., Stephens, J.A. and Howland, R.J.M. 1998. Estuarine nutrient
fluxes to the Humber Coastal Zone, UK, during June 1995. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, 37 : 225-233.
Wang, C.F., Hsu, M.H., Liu, W.C., Hwang, J.S., Wu, J.T., and Kuo, A.Y. 2007.
Simulation of water quality and plankton dynamics in the Danshuei River estuary,
Taiwan. J. Environ. Sci. Health. Part A., 42 : 933-953.
Wellsbury, P., Mather, I. D and Parkes, R.J. 2002. Geomicrobiology of deep, low organic
carbon sediments in the Woodlark Basin, Pacific Oceans. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol.,
1390 : 1–12.
General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature
31
Whitfield, A. K. and Elliott, M. 2002. Fishes as indicators of environmental and ecological
changes within estuaries: A review of progress and some suggestions for the
future. Journal of Fish Biology, 61 : 229–250.
Whitfield, A.K. 1999. Ichthyofaunal assemblages in estuaries: A South African case study.
Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 9 : 151-186.
Wong, C.K. and Wong, M.H. 2000. Morphological and biochemical changes in the gills
of Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) to ambient cadmium exposure. Aquatic
Toxicol., 48 (4) : 517-527.
Wuertz, S., Miller, I.C.E., Pfister, R.M. and Cooney, J.J. 1991. Tributyltin-resistant
bacteria from estuarine and freshwater sediments. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology, 57 (10) : 2783-2789.
Zwolsman, J.J.G. Van Eck, G.T.M. and Burger, G. 1996. Spatial and temporal distribution
of trace metals in sediments from the Scheldt estuary, south-west Netherlands.
Estuarine Coastal Shelf Science, 43 : 55-79.