Running Head: STRUCTURED BY GENDER

Structured by Gender: Inequality for Women in the Workforce

Kumiko Sasa

Colorado Mesa University

Structured by Gender 1

To a degree, everything in society is structured around gender, particularly the lifestyles

of people. Whether an individual is male or female, gender structures how they are supposed to

behave and where their priorities are supposed to be. This includes the types of careers, the

occupations, the style of work, and the responsibilities at home. As a result of ascribing status

according to gender, there are barriers placed within the social structure of the United states.

Two major barriers that impact both men and women is occupational segregation and the sex gap

in pay. However, in order to understand how these barriers are created, it is necessary to address

the concepts of “glass ceilings”, “the mommy track” and “glass escalators.”Ultimately, each of

these concepts illustrate how these barriers continually promote gender inequality for both men

and women in their homes and at work.

Gender Roles: Masculinity and Femininty

Before addressing the structure of gender inequality, gender itself should be defined. In

contrast to the concept of sex, as the fixed biologically determination of male and female

differences, the concept of gender is socially determined. Rather gender is “a result of cultural,

social, and psychological factors” (Marger 2014). In short, the behavioral expectations for males

and females is established by society. Then through socializ.ation, these expectations are taught

and individuals are socially expected to conform. For men and women, these expectations differ.

For men, they are held to the standards of masculinity. One of major traits for this particular

standard is being less emotional or less “feminine.” If a male acts more “feminine” then it is seen

as a negative, unacceptable, and the individual may be perceived as “gay or homosexual” and

less manly (Porter 2010). Furthermore, they are taught by society to be more competitive,

independent, and aggressive (Felmlee, Sweet, and Sinclair 2012). They are also “rated more

highly than women on agentic qualities such as instrumental competence, assertiveness,

Structured by Gender 2

confidence, independence, forcefulness, and dominance” (Ridgeway 2011:58). In short, the

acceptable behavior for men is to talk less and act more.

Women on the other hand are held to these standards of femininity, which are essentially

the opposite of masculinity. Instead of being non-communal, society perceives women to be

intimate, emotional, caring, and communal (Watson 2012). They are told to value these traits of

interconnectedness and nurturance (Felmlee, Sweet and Sinclair 2012). They are also “rated

more highly than men on communal attributes such as emotional expressiveness, nurturance,

interpersonal sensitivity, kindness, and responsiveness” (Ridgeway 2011:58). In contrast to

masculinity, women aren’t supposed to be domineering or arrogant. If they are perceived to be

more masculine, aggressive, demanding and assertive they may be labeled as a “butch” or

“bitch.” Overall, they must balance their femininity without appearing too masculine.

Given these ascribed statuses, society creates this social structure based on these

gendered behaviors. Males are to maintain assertiveness, dominance and instrumental action;

whereas, women are to maintain their interconnectedness, submission and nurturing behaviors.

As a result of these expectations, women and men have assimilated to these responsibilities

within the workforce and homelife. In all, society has assimilated to these expectations, and in

doing so has created barriers for both men and women to pursue options that differ from their

stereotypical gender roles. Two of which include occupational segregation and the sex gap in

pay.

Barrier One: Occupational Segregation

Entering the workforce, men and women are faced with the pressures of gender

stereotypes. For example, “if it is assumed that men are more aggressive and daring by nature,

police officer and firefighter become “natural” male occupations. If women are assumed to be

Structured by Gender 3

more compassionate and nurturing, nurse and schoolteacher become “natural” female

occupations” (Marger 2014:340). Essentially, each gender is automatically sorted into these

occupations based on their socially ascribed behaviors. For men, they are faced with the social

pressures of finding a job that demonstrates their strength, aggression, success, independence,

and action; in other words, their masculinity. In addition to these, men are to be seen holding

positions of authority and status. Occupations such as automative mechanics, lawyers, doctors,

pilots, truck drives, firefighters, engineers, and STEM field workers can be seen demonstrating

these various traits. In contrast, women are faced with the social pressures of finding a job that

highlights their “natural” abilities to care, nurture and give emotional support.This may include

jobs as teachers, nurses, dental hygenists, waitressing, social workers, and secretaries. Once

again, women are seen in jobs that require more of housekeeping tasks, caretaking, and behind

the scene actions rather than the central high status, highly active and engaged roles. Marger

emphasize that “this gender essentialism-the idea that there are unique male and female traits that

make men and women naturally suited to different occupational roles—continues to drive

women into the nonmanual sector of the labor force and, conversely, men into the manual

sector” (2014:341). In 2002, Liben and Bigler’s study found that the attitudes of both female and

male college students endorse these stereotypical occupations for themselves as well as others

(DiDonato and Strough 2013). On average, “men were more likely than women to state that they

would want to be an auto mechanic and that only men should be auto mechanics.Women were

more likely than men to state that they would want to be a dental assistant and that only women

should be dental assistants” (DiDonato and Strough 2013:538). When choosing a major, both

men and women were consistent with these traditional gender stereotypes. Data sugessts that

women make up 79% of education majors while men make up 82% of engineering majors

Structured by Gender 4

(Corbett and Hill 2012). In all, this research suggests that gender stereotypes can often lead to

self-fullfilling prophecies, ultimately sustaining and reinforcing occupational clustering and

gender inequality in the work force.

Occupational Clustering

Within the United States, men and women typically remain clustered into particular

occupations. For example, the majority of service occupations consist primarily of females.

According to the United States Department of Labor (2013), there are 30 leading occupations

that women are employeed in. A few of these include elementary and middle school teachers,

where women make up 81% of the total employeed, secretaries and administrative assistants

with 94%, registered nurses with 90%, health aids with 89%, receptionists with 92%, childcare

workers with 95%, preschool and kindergarten teachers with 98%, and social workers, where

80% of the employeed being female. Men on the other hand, make up the majority of

construction and engineering occupations. In relation to the percentage of women, men make up

almost 99% of jobs that include being a metal worker, central heating installer, and car mechanic

(CBS.nl 2004). This data suggests that gender stereotypes may play an important role in

occupational clustering. The socialization of women to be more communal and caring pushes

them to take on the more nurturing jobs. Whereas, for men, they are socialized to be more

competent in mathematics, building and action, which pushes them towards occupations within

construction.

In spite of these trends, the division of labor has become less rigid and defined according

to stereotypically female or male professions. Today, more women can be found in typically

male dominated career fields; including pharmacology, editing, and insurance agencies (Marger

2014). Furthermore, the number of women in some of the more prestigious professions, such as

Structured by Gender 5

medicine and law, have increased. According to the Department for Professional Employees, “in

2008, women accounted for 32.4% of all lawyers, 32.2% of all physicians and surgeons, and

68.8% of all psychologists” (2010). To some degree these percentages, as of 2012, have

increased. The percentage of women in legal occupations is approximately 50% (Bureau of

Labor Statistics 2014:35). From 32% it can be argued that this is a significant increase. In

contrast, the percentage of female physicians and surgeons has increased slightly to 34.3%

(Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014:36). This is similar for female psychologists, as the percentage

has risen slightly from 68% to 72.7% (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014:35). These trends

illustrate, that although gender segregation still characterizes the labor force, changes are

occurring. It is important to note that in addition to these trends of females becoming more

integrated into typically male-dominated occupations, males are also becoming more involved in

typically female-dominated occupations. Dewan and Gebeloff explain that “nationally, two-

thirds more men were bank tellers, almost twice as many were receptionists and two-thirds more

were waiting tables in 2010, than a decade later” (2012). In addition to these occupations, men’s

representation in the nursing field has also increased. In 1970, only 2.7% of nurses were men, but

by 2011 9.6% of nurses were male (U.S. Census Bureau 2013:2). It can be argued that this is a

minor increase over a 31 year time span. However, it is still an increase of male participation in

female occupations.

Barrier Two: The Sex Gap in Pay

Although the division of labor appears to be less defined, who receives the larger

paycheck is still very distinct. Women still make relatively less money than men. On average,

they make 23% less (Marger 2013:342).This inequality of pay can have tremendous deficits for

women. In 2007, the Center for American Progress, found that over a 40-year period, female

Structured by Gender 6

workers lose approximately $434,000 in wages due to this pay inequity (Arons 2008). With

regards to this, it is important to look at the ranking of the U.S. and its level of inequality.

According to the Department for Professional Employees,“out of 23 Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the United States has the seventh largest

gender earnings gap. The gender wage gap in the U.S. is 21.6% well above the OECD average of

18.5%” (2010). Given this statistic, the wage gap can vary across countires.

This is also true for the wage gap across occupations; yet, this lag in women’s pay is

across almost every occupation, whether they are signified as predominately female or male

occupationss. In short, equal pay remains a problem and its significance comes from the dramatic

gap seen among various professions, both those stereotypically female occupations and

stereotypically male. First, looking at service occupations, that are deemed to be “naturally”

fitting for females, “women in professional and related occupations earned over 26% less than

their male counterparts, while women in sales and office occupations earned 20% less than

similarly employeed men” (Department for Professional Employees 2010). This trend is similar

for other occupations; for example, female elementary or middle school teachers earned over

14% less than similarly employed men; female registered nurses, whom comprise the majority of

the field, earn more than 5% less than those who were male; female physicians and surgeons

earned 36% less than males in the same position; and female lawyers typically earn 25% less

than lawyers who are male (U.S. Department of Labor 2010). These levels of pay inequality need

to be recognized as a social problem. In spite of whatever occupation a woman holds, she

continually makes less than her male coworker. To further explain why this problem exists it is

necessary to look at the concepts of “glass ceilings”, “the mommy track” and “glass escalators.”

Structured by Gender 7

Glass Ceilings and The Mommy Track

In reference back to gender roles, it is traditionally seen as a female’s role to be the care

taker and service provide. In addition, they have been given is this achieved status of

motherhood. That is to say they are given the status of bearing children, taking care of them and

working hard to be responsible mother. As a result of these stereotypes, a “glass ceiling” or

rather an invisible limit has been placed on women’s opportunities for career advancements

(Conley 2013:313). For example, if a young woman applies for a corporate manager position,

there may be the assumption that she will have kids in the future. As she is identified with the

stereotypical female role of motherhood, to some degree she is already sorted out from greater

economic opportunities. She is perceived to potentially take what is called the “mommy track,”

which dictionary.com defines as “a career path for women who are willing to forgo promotions,

raises, etc. so as to spend more time with their children” (2014). Ultimately, as Stewart

concludes, “young women …may find themselves caught between economic realities which

increasingly demand that women work and norms which still advocate motherhood as the most

‘noble of professions’” (2003:8). When women face this dilemma they often choose jobs that

allow them to work as well as be a mother. However, these part time jobs typically pay less and

provide little skill development for an enhanced job in the future. As a result, women are at a

further loss of opportunity to improve skills and wages (Marger 2013:345). Furthermore, within

these part time jobs women are regarded as less committed (Harvard Law Review 1996).

Glass Escalators

A male on the other hand, is associated with working longer to provide for his family;

therefore, if he was in that corporate position he would be more dedicated. Through socialization

the perception of men has been to hold positions of authority, to be the primary breadwinner, and

Structured by Gender 8

provide for his family. In addition, men haven’t been held to the same caretaking responsibilities

as women. As a result, they tend to be penalized less for being a father and working overtime;

whereas, women once again tend to be perceived as being a good worker, while also being a

good mother. In the workforce, this can be seen through the concept of the “glass escalator”,

which is the “promotional ride men take to the top of a work organization” (Conley 2013: 314).

Men, in both stereotypically female occupations and male occupations, are perceived to hold

positions of authority and status. In short, very little, if any social barriers, are placed in their

way from quickly advancing up the management ladder.

Who Cares?

Overall, due to the socialization of female and male gender roles, advantages as well as

disadvantages are set into place. First, women are given the ascribed status of motherhood, along

with the responsibilities of caretaking, nurturing, housekeeping and serving. Their positions in

the work force reflect these attributes, as they comprise the majority of service oriented

occupations. Within these jobs women often receive a lower income, lower opportunity for

career advancement, and little chance for skill development; in short they hit what’s called the

“glass ceiling”. In addition, they are also faced with the conflict of work and being a good

mother; which leads to the perception of women taking the “mommy track.” Employers view

women as the primary caretakers of their children, and as a result the women they hire may be

penalized for working too much. Yet, they may also be penalized for working too little, not being

fully dedicated to their jobs. Men on the other hand, are encouraged to work more in order to fit

the socially ascribed status of masculinity and fulfilling their role as a provider. This includes

occupations that are seen as primarily male dominated or female dominated. In any case, within

Structured by Gender 9

these occupations they are seen in positions of authority and given the promotional opportunities

to place them in these positions; hence the concept of the “glass escalator.”

Under such circumstances, women face two primary barriers: occupational segregation

and the sex gap in pay. First, women have been encouraged to hold primarily service

occupations because of their “natural” abilities at care taking. This has limited their opportunities

to obtain higher paying occupations. In addition, within these service jobs, they have been set to

balance their responsibilities at home and at work. Even then, women are often perceived to be

less dedicated to their work than a man. As a consequence, women often face lower pay than

their male counterparts who hold the same occupation; as well as little chance for moving up on

the promotional ladder. In short, these socially ascribed gender roles that are place on men and

women have promoted the patterns of social inequality as described above. Women in particular

are at a disadvantage within the workforce as they face the gender roles or barriers of

motherhood responsibilities and work. Whereas, men are lifted to positions of status and

authority. In other words, as a result of socializing one another to these standards of gender a

cyclical pattern of social inequality is established.

Structured by Gender 10

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