Gender Diferences of Job Satisfaction of Univerity Teachesrs
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Gender differences inthe job satisfaction of university teachers
Titus Oshagbemi
Job satisfaction is a heavily researched area of
inquiry. Locke (1976) estimated that, as of
1976, about 3,350 articles or dissertations
had been written on the topic. In 1992,
Cranny et al . suggested that more than 5,000
studies of job satisfaction have been
published. In a more recent estimate,
Oshagbemi (1996) suggested that if a count of
relevant articles and dissertations was made,
Locke's estimate, made only 20 years earlier,
would probably be doubled.
As a result of many decades of effort by
social scientists, there appears to be a high
level of agreement among them on the
meaning of the construct of job satisfaction.
Typically, job satisfaction is conceptualised as
a general attitude toward an object, the job.
For example, the definitions given by Lofquistand Dawis (1969, p. 53), Porter et al. (1975,
pp. 53-4), Locke and Henne (1986, p. 21) are
a few illustrations of several others that are
consistent with the general construct stated
above. The definitions given by these authors
are similar to the one offered by Locke (1976,
p. 1300) who defined job satisfaction as ``a
pleasurable or positive emotional state,
resulting from the appraisal of one's job
experiences''. There are, of course, a few but
largely unimportant differences to the general
construct. Wanous and Lawler (1972, pp. 95-
105) discussed these variations. In general,
therefore, job satisfaction refers to an
individual's positive emotional reactions to a
particular job. It is an affective reaction to a
job that results from the person's comparison
of actual outcomes with those that are
desired, anticipated or deserved.
The topic of job satisfaction is an important
one because of its relevance to the physical
and mental well being of employees, i.e. job
satisfaction has relevance for human health.Work is an important aspect of people's lives
and most people spend a large part of their
working lives at work. An understanding of
the factors involved in job satisfaction is
relevant to improving the well being of a
significant number of people. While the
pursuit of the improvement of satisfaction is
of humanitarian value, Smith and others
stated that ``trite as it may seem, satisfaction is
a legitimate goal in itself'' (Smith et al., 1969,
p. 3). The topic of job satisfaction is alsoimportant because of its implications for job
related behaviours such as productivity,
absenteeism or turnover. Therefore, apart
from its humanitarian utility, it appears to
The author
Titus Oshagbemi is a Lecturer at The Queen's University
of Belfast, Belfast, UK.
Keywords
Gender, United Kingdom, Job satisfaction,
Academic staff, Higher education
Abstract
In recent years there has been a substantial rise in the
number of women entering the work force. One
consequence of this trend is that it has generatedconsiderable interest in the relationship between gender
and job satisfaction. The objective of this study was to
investigate the effects of gender on the job satisfaction of
UK academics. A questionnaire including several
demographic questions such as gender, rank and age was
administered to 1,102 university teachers. A total of 554
responses was received, giving a response rate of 50.3
per cent. The results indicated that gender does not affect
the job satisfaction of university teachers directly.
However, the interaction effect of gender and rank was
statistically significant (p < 0.05). Overall, female
academics at higher ranks namely, senior lecturers,
readers and professors, were more satisfied with their
jobs than male academics of comparable ranks. The
implications of this finding and other results are explored.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
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Volume 15 . Number 7 . 2000 . pp. 331±343
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make economic sense to consider whether
and how job satisfaction can be improved.
Objectives of the present study
Statistics in the UK show that women have
become increasingly economically active and
this trend is projected to continue. For
example, whereas in 1971, women made up
37 per cent of the civilian labour force, this
rose to 44 per cent in 1993 and it is estimated
to reach 46 per cent in 2006 (Church, 1995,
p. 65). The increase in economic activity rates
by women is correlated with economic and
social changes such as falling birth rates. In
the universities, however, women account for
only about 22 per cent of the full timeacademic staff as of 1993 (Church, 1995,
p. 66). The percentage of women in academia
is thus only half of the percentage of women
in overall employment. One interesting
question is whether women academics are, at
least, as satisfied with their jobs when
compared with their male counterparts? This
paper attempts to answer this question and
addresses the effects of gender on the job
satisfaction of UK academics. The study also
investigates the impact of gender differences
on three aspects of the university teachers'
job, namely: satisfaction levels with pay,
promotions and physical conditions/working
facilities.
While there are numerous publications on
job satisfaction there has been relatively little
on the job satisfaction of university teachers in
general and very little still on the job
satisfaction of UK academics in particular
(Oshagbemi, 1996; Ward and Sloane, 1998).
Furthermore, research on gender differences
of university teachers are very few indeed,despite the plethora of research on the topic
of job satisfaction.
Literature review
As a preliminary review of the literature on
job satisfaction, the researcher assessed the
database held by the Institute of Scientific
Information for relevant publications on the
topic. Invoking the Social Sciences CitationIndex on ``Job Satisfaction'' between 1981-
1999, the findings revealed that as many as
1,085 publications were recorded in the 19
years for which data were available. When the
search focused on studies of job satisfaction
where teachers were the subjects, 55
publications were recorded. The review at this
stage included all teachers ± primary and
secondary school teachers, as well as teachers
in tertiary institutions all over the world.
When job satisfaction studies relating to
university teachers were specifically sought,
the Institute of Scientific Information Social
Sciences Database revealed that there was
none between 1981 and 1999. In fact,
teachers at all levels do not appear to attract
much attention from researchers, as the
information from data reported by
Oshagbemi (1996, p. 391), suggests. In the
source referred to, less than 5 per cent of the
reported studies concern teachers. In the
same source, other justifications for studyingthe job satisfaction of university teachers, in
addition to the fact that they are an under
researched group, have been adequately
discussed (Oshagbemi, 1996, pp. 389-90).
Several researchers have examined the
relationship between job satisfaction and
gender (see, for example, Mottaz, 1986; Goh
et al., 1991; Mason, 1995). However, the
results of the many studies concerning the
relationship between job satisfaction and the
sex of the employees have been contradictory.
While some studies have found women to be
more satisfied than men (Bartol and
Wortman, 1975; Murray and Atkinson, 1981;
Sloane and Williams, 1996; Clark, 1996,
1997; Ward and Sloane, 1998), other studies
have found men to be more satisfied than
women (Hulin and Smith, 1964; Weaver,
1974; Shapiro and Stern, 1975; Forgionne
and Peeters, 1982). It is important to observe,
however, that most of the studies in this area
report no significant differences between the
sexes in relation to job satisfaction,particularly when a number of other variables
were statistically controlled (Brief et al., 1977;
Golembiewski, 1977; Weaver, 1978; Smith
and Plant, 1982; Mottaz, 1986).
One common explanation for the different
level of work satisfaction sometimes reported
for men and women is that women have
different expectations with regard to work
(Campbell et al., 1976). It was revealed that
careers were of central importance to men but
not as important to women (Kuhlen, 1963).Research has suggested that men and women
may use qualitatively different criteria in their
assessment of work. From this perspective,
job satisfaction is seen to be an emotional
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Gender differences in the job satisfaction of university teachers
Titus Oshagbemi
Women in Management Review
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response resulting from the interaction of
work rewards and work values. The greater
the perceived congruence between rewards
and values, the greater the job satisfaction; the
greater the perceived discrepancy, the less the
satisfaction.
Centres and Bugental (1966) have reported
other differences. Their research suggested
that women placed more value on the social
factors of a job than did men, and that men
valued the opportunity for self-expression in
their work more than did women. Schuler
(1975) found that the females in his study
valued the opportunities to work with
pleasant employees more than males, whereas
males regarded the opportunities to influence
important decisions and direct the work of
others as more important. There is much
evidence to support the hypothesis that men
and women may differ in terms of work
related values (Keith and Glass, 1977;
McCarney et al., 1977; Jurgensen, 1978).
Job satisfaction is therefore seen by some
people to be a function of what is expected
and what is received. Thus if one expects little
and gets little, one will be satisfied. At the
same time, if one expects a lot and gets a lot,
one will also be satisfied. However, if one
expects a lot but gets little, one will bedissatisfied. The basic argument is that
although women receive less from their jobs
than men do, they have lower expectations
and hence perceive themselves as being just as
satisfied as men. A study by Murray and
Atkinson (1981) investigated this argument.
They reasoned that if the expectancy notion
was correct then women should be more
satisfied than men if job level and work
rewards are held constant. Their findings
supported this hypothesis. In this vein, in arecent study by the Association of University
Teachers (Kinman, 1998, p. 17), there were
significant gender differences recorded in
perceived job satisfaction. Male respondents,
on average, reported that they gained less
satisfaction from their jobs compared with the
females.
Result from a study by Weaver (1977) also
supports the hypothesis that gender and job
satisfaction is unrelated when the effects of
other variables are controlled. Findings froma report by Forgionne and Peeters (1982)
similarly suggest that other factors may be
involved in the relationship between gender
and job satisfaction, such as the number of
dependants in a family and the level of
management position held in the workplace.
Witt and Nye (1992) evaluated potential
gender differences among 12,979 personnel
in 30 different organisational systems in:. correlations between fairness and job
satisfaction scores; and. standardised group differences in the
perceived amounts of pay and promotion
fairness and expressed levels of facet and
global job satisfaction.
The fairness-satisfaction relationship was not
higher for men, and there were no practical
differences in fairness perceptions and job
satisfaction between men and women.
However, Mwamwenda (1997) shows that in
a stratified random sample in South Africa,
while both male and female teachers
expressed a considerable degree of job
satisfaction, the general trend was that there
were more male teachers expressing job
satisfaction than was generally the case with
female teachers. This finding lends support to
studies carried out in Japan and Germany in
which it was shown that more men than
women enjoyed teaching as a profession
(Lissmann and Gigerich, 1990; Ninomiya
and Okato, 1990).
Inconsistencies in findings concerning the
relationship between gender and job
satisfaction may, therefore, be due to a variety
of factors. Not only might males and females
in the same organisations differ in job level,
promotion prospects, pay and so on, they may
differ in the extent to which the same job
satisfies their needs. A job high on social
satisfaction but low on skill utilisation and
career prospects may result in higher job
satisfaction for females than for males,
whereas in occupations allowing little scopefor social relationships, the differences in
satisfaction might be in the opposite
direction. Given the overall results from these
studies, it is apparent that when other
variables are taken into account, there is very
little evidence to suggest that gender directly
influences job satisfaction. There is no
compelling reason to believe that given equal
education, employment and advancement
opportunities, and an equal chance to apply
their skills to appropriate challenges, womenshould be any less satisfied than men with
their jobs.
From the 1950s to date, therefore, the
findings regarding gender differences in job
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Gender differences in the job satisfaction of university teachers
Titus Oshagbemi
Women in Management Review
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satisfaction have been inconsistent (DeSantis
and Durst, 1996; Hickson and Oshagbemi,
1999). The current investigation examines
the effects of gender on the job satisfaction of
university teachers, an occupational group yet
to be extensively researched although a
substantial proportion, if not the bulk, of
research activities is undertaken by them
(Oshagbemi, 1995).
Methodology
To investigate the effects of gender on the job
satisfaction of university teachers, the
following research methodology was
employed in the study.
Sample
A questionnaire survey was conducted in
1994. The population for this study
comprised university teachers in the UK. A
total of 1,102 questionnaires was
administered to potential respondents chosen
from 23 universities. The universities were
selected to include sample institutions from
all the regions of the country. A total of 554
usable questionnaires was returned giving a
response rate of 50.3 percent. The names of
the potential respondents were obtained from
the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook
(1993). Of the 554 usable responses, 306
(55.2 per cent) were from lecturers, 175 (31.6
per cent) were from senior lecturers, 25 (4.5
per cent) were from readers, and 48 (8.7 per
cent) were from professors. Similarly, 217
(39.2 per cent) responses were from females
while 337 (60.8 per cent) responses were
from males. Table I shows a breakdown of
respondents by, gender, rank and age.
Questionnaire
To measure job satisfaction, a questionnaire
comprising a slightly modified form of the Job
Descriptive Index (Smith et al ., 1969, 1985)
and some demographic questions was
constructed. The job elements in the study
are consistent with findings on the
measurement of job satisfaction (Wanous and
Lawler, 1972; Giles and Field, 1978;
Schneider and Dachler, 1978; Kulik et al.,
1980; Scarpello and Campbell, 1983; Loheret al., 1985; Clark et al., 1996; Oshagbemi,
1997a, b, c; 1998, 1999a, b; 2000a, b). The
Job Descriptive Index is one of the most
popular measures of job satisfaction and has
been found to produce highly reliable results
(Imparato, 1972). The questionnaire used in
this study employed eight scales designed to
measure satisfaction with respect to different
components of university teachers' overall job
satisfaction, namely:
(1) teaching;
(2) research;
(3) administrative and managerial duties;
(4) present pay;
(5) opportunities for promotion;
(6) supervision/supervisor behaviour;
(7) co-workers' behaviour;
(8) physical conditions/working facilities.
Each item in the scale was measured from a
range of (1) representing extremely
dissatisfied to (7) representing extremely
satisfied. Thus (4) represented indifference,i.e. neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.
Conceptually the indifference zone, 4,
represents zero satisfaction. Thus 5, 6, 7
recordings represent positive satisfaction, the
higher the number, the greater the satisfaction
level. Similarly, 1, 2, 3 recordings represent
negative satisfaction, the lower the number,
the greater the level of dissatisfaction. The
total of the eight scales gives a summary
measure of overall job satisfaction. The
demographic questions included gender and
satisfaction with aspects of job. Questions on
age and rank were asked, to see whether the
relationship between gender and job
satisfaction is moderated by age or rank. The
Table I Breakdown of respondents by gender, rank and age
Frequency (%)
Overall job
satisfaction
score
Gender
Male 337 60.8 4.206Female 217 39.2 4.220
Rank
Lecturer 306 55.2 4.118
Senior lecturer 175 31.6 4.283
Reader 25 4.5 4.327
Professor 48 8.7 4.484
Age
Less than 35 79 14.3 4.173
35 to 44 194 35.0 4.196
45 to 54 204 36.8 4.208
At least 55 77 13.9 4.290
Notes: Overall job satisfaction score for all respondents: 4.212; standarddeviation: 0.798
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Titus Oshagbemi
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present study discusses academics' overall job
satisfaction and their satisfaction with their
pay, promotions, and physical conditions/
working facilities.
Statistical methods
To study the effect of gender on the job
satisfaction of university teachers, as well as
the effects of age and rank, a three-way
analysis of variance, i.e. three-way ANOVA,
was performed (Edwards, 1979; Bray and
Maxwell, 1985; Iversen and Norpoth, 1987).
This analysis was used as the job satisfaction
scales do not wildly violate the assumptions of
Gaussian distribution and homogeneity of
variance between cells. The direct effects of
gender, age and rank, and all the interactive
effects among gender, age and rank were
investigated. Not only overall job satisfaction
in relation to gender was investigated, but also
satisfaction with present pay, promotions, and
physical conditions/working facilities in
relation to gender. Descriptive statistics were
also computed to examine the overall job
satisfaction levels across the different
classifications of university teachers. In
addition, histograms showing the nature of
relationships between gender and overall
satisfaction and between gender andsatisfaction with present pay, promotions, and
the physical conditions/working facilities,
were presented to depict the nature of these
relationships graphically.
Results and discussion
As can be seen from Table I, female university
teachers are marginally more satisfied with
their jobs when compared with their malecounterparts. The overall job satisfaction
score was 4.220 for females versus 4.206 for
males. It can also be observed from the table
that overall job satisfaction score increases
with rank and with age. Thus, lecturers are
least satisfied with their jobs, with overall job
satisfaction score of 4.118, followed by senior
lecturers (4.283), and readers (4.327), with
professors being the most satisfied with
overall job satisfaction score of 4.484.
Similarly, the overall job satisfaction score of academics who were less than 35 years of age
was 4.173 and the score rises progressively to
4.290 for academics who were at least 55
years of age (refer to Table I for the details).
These findings are interesting because they
suggest that women in academia are
marginally more satisfied with their jobs vis-aÁ -
vis their male counterparts and that job
satisfaction in the academic community
increases with rank and with age. However,
these tentative findings remain to be
confirmed by more rigorous analyses designed
to test whether the reported differences
between the sexes, ranks and ages are
statistically significant.
A further breakdown of the overall job
satisfaction scores of the different ranks of
university teachers by gender and age group is
provided in Table II. Although it is difficult to
extract findings from the three-way cross
tabulation, it is clear that there was no male or
female university teacher, who was less than35 years of age, and who was a reader or a
professor. It is interesting to note that there
was no female academic in the sample who
was a reader and the three female professors
record overall job satisfaction scores much
higher than the average, not only for their
male counterparts, but also for the overall
sample. Could this observation suggest that
female professors are more satisfied with their
jobs compared with their male counterparts?
Table III shows ANOVA results for overall
job satisfaction and satisfaction with pay,
promotions and physical conditions/working
facilities, which exist in UK universities. For
direct effects on overall job satisfaction, age
and gender are not statistically significant but
rank is ( p < 0.021). Hence, there is evidence
to show that job satisfaction of university
teachers is dependent on rank after allowing
for age and gender. For interactive effects,
only the interaction of gender and rank is
statistically significant ( p < 0.012). That is,
although gender by itself is not significantlyrelated to job satisfaction, it is significant
when compared together with the rank of
university teachers. The ANOVA results of
the interactive effects of gender and rank are
presented graphically in Figure 1. Please note
that only the results for the variables gender
and interactions with age and/or rank are
discussed, as these are the focus of this paper.
From the histogram (Figure 1), it can be
seen that both male and female lecturers are
about equally satisfied, while femaleacademics experienced higher satisfaction
levels than their male counterparts for the
ranks of senior lecturer, reader and professor.
In essence, the findings show that female
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Gender differences in the job satisfaction of university teachers
Titus Oshagbemi
Women in Management Review
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academics of senior lecturer rank and above
are more satisfied than their male
counterparts of comparable ranks. In the
professorial rank, the differences between the
job satisfaction of males and females are
considerable (overall mean job satisfaction
score of 5.000 versus 3.946). One reason
suggested for this result is the relatively few
numbers of female workers in top academic
ranks. Thus, the few female readers and
professors may see themselves as
exceptionally gifted and hardworking in their
disciplines, that feeling explaining their
greater job satisfaction. However, the number
of female professors in this survey requires
caution in making categorical statements that
they are more satisfied with their job vis-aÁ -vis
their male counterparts.
Table III also shows ANOVA results for
satisfaction with present pay, promotions and
physical conditions/working facilities, which
exist in universities. It is interesting to note
that on pay satisfaction, gender, the
Table II Overall job satisfaction score, by categories
Age Lecturers Senior lecturers Readers Professors All types
Female academics
Less than 35 4.188 4.188 ± ± 4.193
5 to 44 4.253 4.212 ± 5.750a 4.275
45 to 54 3.781 4.425 ± 5.125a
4.129At least 55 4.016 4.422 ± 5.125a 4.272
All age groups 4.091 4.338 ± 5.333 4.220
Male academics
Less than 35 4.169 4.031 ± ± 4.155
35 to 44 4.108 4.168 3.938 4.458 4.138
45 to 54 4.215 4.228 4.250 4.357 4.249
At least 55 3.941 4.429 4.563 4.513 4.285
All age groups 4.133 4.245 4.213 4.416 4.206
Note: aOnly one valid case; ± No responses in this category
Table III ANOVA results: overall job satisfaction and satisfaction with present pay, promotions, and physical conditions/working
facilities
Aspect of job
Overall job Present pay Promotions
Physical conditions/
working facilities
Source: df F value Pr > F F value Pr > F F value Pr > F F value Pr > F
Age 4 0.228 0.923 1.095 0.358 0.437 0.782 1.577 0.179
Gender 1 0.037 0.848 7.634 0.006*** 0.091 0.763 4.634 0.032**
Rank 4 2.925 0.021 6.378 0.000 23.699 0.000 2.198 0.068
Gender6age 6 0.453 0.843 2.927 0.008*** 0.868 0.518 1.443 0.196
Gender6rank 6 2.976 0.012** 3.938 0.001*** 12.697 0.000*** 2.077 0.054*
Age6
rank 7 0.791 0.595 2.920 0.005 6.622 0.000 1.570 0.142Gender6rank6age 7 0.575 0.776 1.668 0.115 1.442 0.187 1.935 0.063*
Notes: *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01; Please note that only significant effects involving gender are indicated as such; overall job satisfaction was defined as the mean of the summation of the individual job satisfaction measures, i.e. satisfaction levels in(teaching + research + administration and management + present pay + promotions + head of unit's supervision +co-workers' behaviour + physical conditions/ working facilities)/8
Figure 1 Histogram of ANOVA results: gender x rank
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interactive effect of gender and age, and the
interactive effect of gender and rank are all
statistically significant ( p < 0.01). It shows
that the pay satisfaction of university teachers
is greatly influenced by gender and the
interactions of gender with age or rank.
Figure 2 confirms that female satisfaction
with pay is higher than that of the males (pay
satisfaction score of 3.289 for males versus a
figure of 3.599 for females). It is interesting to
observe that the women are more satisfied
with their pay compared with the men
although their salaries may not be higher. If
so, their satisfaction may be explained by their
role in the family, especially if they are not the
sole or the primary income earners.
Additionally, for female professors, there is
the positive psychological dimension to theformal and informal, monetary and non-
monetary opportunities which higher rank
bestows on incumbents, who, in this case,
are few.
With satisfactions derived from promotions,
the interactive effect of gender and rank is
statistically significant ( p < 0.01). This means
that while gender alone does not explain job
satisfaction with respect to promotions
(promotion satisfaction score of 3.363 for
males versus 3.364 for females, as shown inFigure 2), gender and rank together reveal
some significant results on this aspect of their
job (see Figure 1). In particular, women at
higher ranks are very satisfied with
promotions in their establishments. Again,
this could be as a result of the fact that there
are only a few of them at top positions
compared with the men. It should also be
noted, however, that pay and promotions are
related in the sense that promotions (higher
rank) mean higher pay, other things being
equal.
Satisfaction derived from physical
conditions/working facilities is statistically
significant with respect to gender, the
interactive effect of gender and rank, and the
combined interactive effect of gender, rank
and age (refer to Table III). The findings are
hardly surprising as some women tend to be
more concerned than the men with the quality
of their physical work environment and the
adequacy of their working facilities. Thus they
tend to be less satisfied compared with themen on this consideration, as depicted in
Figure 2. Here, the overall job satisfaction
score of women on physical conditions/
working facilities is 4.097. This compares
with a similar figure of 4.411 for men. On this
consideration, while the men tend to be
relatively nonchalant, women tend to pay
attention to the adequacy of the working
facilities and an attractive work environment.
This explains the observed significant
differences in the satisfaction levels of the
sexes. Please note that the impact of gender
on the other five aspects of the university
teachers' job are not considered in this article,
to avoid making the discussions unduly long.
Figure 2 depicts graphically the nature of
relationships between gender and overall
satisfaction and between gender and
satisfaction with present pay, promotions, and
physical conditions/working facilities, which
exist in UK universities. From the figure,
female academics are only marginally more
satisfied with their overall jobs whencompared with their male counterparts, while
the two sexes are about equally dissatisfied
with their promotions. Hence there were no
significant differences between the sexes on
these two considerations (refer to Table III).
On their pay, however, the female academics
are more satisfied than the males, while the
females are less satisfied with physical
conditions/working facilities which exist in
their organisations when compared with the
male academics.The findings on satisfaction with pay and
physical conditions/working facilities are
presented in the ANOVA results in Table III.
Here, gender difference is statistically
Figure 2 Histogram showing the nature of relationships between gender
and overall satisfaction and between gender and satisfaction with present
pay, promotions and physical conditions/working facilities which exist in
UK universities
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significant on pay ( p < 0.01). From Figure 2,
we know that the female satisfaction with pay
is higher than that of the males. From Figure
2 also, we know that it is the female
academics who are less satisfied with the
physical conditions/working environments
when compared with their male counterparts
and that the differences in job satisfaction
levels between the two sexes are statistically
significant. The tables and figures are
therefore complementary in explaining not
only the overall job satisfaction score of the
teachers, but also their satisfaction with
individual aspects of their jobs, namely, pay,
promotions and physical conditions/working
facilities.
Summary, conclusions and implications
This study examined gender differences in the
job satisfaction of UK university teachers and
found from the frequency distribution that
female and male academics were more or less
equally satisfied with their jobs. The
differences between the overall job
satisfaction scores of males versus females are
not significant when a three-way ANOVA was
employed in the analysis. The multivariate
statistical analysis showed that, on the effects
of gender on job satisfaction, gender by itself
does not affect job satisfaction, consistent
with the findings of, for example, Gaertner
and Ruhe (1983), Senatra (1988) and Larkin
(1990). However, within certain ranks,
gender does affect the job satisfaction of
university teachers. In particular, within the
ranks of senior lecturer, reader and professor,
female academics were more satisfied with
their jobs when compared with males of
comparable ranks.That female academics at higher ranks find
themselves more satisfied than their male
colleagues of comparable ranks may be due,
in part, to the relatively low numbers of
female academics at higher ranks within UK
universities. It was observed in the
introduction of this article that overall, female
academics are only about 22 per cent of the
full time academic staff as of 1993 (Church,
1995, p. 66). In addition, it was reported
recently that just 7 per cent of professors inthe UK are women (Times Higher Education
Supplement , 1998). This compares with 18 per
cent in the USA and 14 per cent in Australia.
Indeed only 3 per cent of UK science
professors are female, according to the
source cited.
In conclusion, it should be stated that our
results show the associative relationship
between gender (as well as rank and age) and
job satisfaction but they do not suggest
cause-effect relationship. This limitation
suggests some possible directions for future
research. It is interesting to investigate how
and why gender, among other factors, affectcs
job satisfaction. It will be useful if gender and
other effects can be quantified, as this will
enhance the current literature on job
satisfaction. It is hoped that this study can
contribute towards the literature on job
satisfaction of university teachers. There
appear to be no direct effects of gender on
such satisfaction. Whatever effects there are,they are a factor of the university teacher's
rank. Perhaps since the data collected were on
the basis of a 1994 sample, it is useful to state
that a follow-up study may now reveal some
changes in higher education statistics and
therefore possible changes in the job
satisfaction of the workers.
A fairly comprehensive picture of the
university's job satisfaction given in this
article reveals that although gender is not by
itself related to overall job satisfaction of university teachers, gender is directly related
to their pay satisfaction and to the satisfaction
of their physical conditions/working facilities.
The general implications of the findings on
job satisfaction in higher education are well
documented (Oshagbemi, 1996). Such
implications reflect on the nature of higher
education in the UK, the changing work
practices or conditions of work for academics,
the growth of contract teaching and research
staff, the abolition of the binary divide,
expansion of student numbers, university
funding crisis and introduction of systems to
monitor performance. While both male and
female workers experience changing working
conditions, female academics of senior
lecturer rank and above appear to be more
satisfied overall in coping with the conditions
of work.
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``Gender differences in the jobsatisfaction of university teachers''
The following abstracts from the wider
literature have been selected for their
special relevance to the preceding article.
The abstracts extend the themes and
discussions of the main article and act as
a guide to further reading.
Each abstract is awarded 0-3 stars for
each of four features:
(1) Depth of research
(2) Value in practice(3) Originality of thinking
(4) Readability for non-specialists.
The full text of any article may be
ordered from the Anbar Library.
Contact Debbie Brannan, Anbar
Library, 60/62 Toller Lane, Bradford,
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E-mail: [email protected]
quoting the reference number shown at
the end of the abstract.
``Gender'' or ``job'' differences? Workingconditions among men and women inwhite-collar occupations
Emslie, C., Hunt, K. and Macintyre, S. in
Work Employment & Society (UK),
Dec 1999, Vol. 13 No. 4, p. 711 (19 pages)
Surveys white-collar workers in a UK bank
and a university to find out if there are any
differences in the way that male and female
employees, working in similar occupations,
perceive their working conditions, and to
understand if gender or the occupational
position affects this. Asks about the physical
environment; how stimulating and varied the
employees found their jobs; and the levels of
stress and tiredness felt. Analyses the results
and finds that the men scored significantly
higher than the women on lack of 'job
stimulation' whereas significantly morewomen reported poor working conditions.
Considers the reasons for these results and
concludes that the characteristics of the job,
rather than external factors such as family
roles, were the main influence on how both
men and women judged their jobs ±
occupational position being the most
important factor.
Survey/Theoretical with application in
practice
Research implications: ***
Practice implications: ** Originality: **
Readability: ** Total number: *********
Reference: 29AE975
Cost: £18 (plus VAT)
The effect of age on the satisfaction ofacademics with teaching and research
Hickson, C. and Oshagbemi, T. inInternational Journal of Social
Economics (UK), 1999, Vol. 26 No. 4,
p. 537 (8 pages)
Studies the relationship between age and job
satisfaction in academics using regression
analysis to test data on UK university
teachers. Looks in particular at the effects of
academic experience, university tenure, rank
and gender. Discovers that in teaching job
satisfaction decreases with age, teaching staff
reaching a constant low in later years, while
for research staff age affects job satisfaction
positively but at a decreasing rate, the over-
45s achieving the maximum job satisfaction.
Also notes that job satisfaction in both
teaching and research increases with rank and
that women are generally more satisfied
than men.
Wholly theoretical
Research implications: **
Practice implications: ** Originality: ***
Readability: ** Total number: *********
Reference: 28AF150Cost: £24 (plus VAT)
Sex differences in satisfaction with payand co-workers: faculty and staff at apublic institution of higher education
Tang, T.L.-P. and Talpade, M. in Public
Personnel Management (USA), Autumn
1999, Vol. 28 No. 3, p. 345 (5 pages)
Briefly reviews previous research that has
found differences between men and women in
the factors that contribute to their feelings of
job satisfaction. Summarizes research with
Abstracts from the
wider literature
341
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232 faculty and staff members of a US public
university (response rate 47 per cent), which
measured job satisfaction in five categories ±
work, pay, promotion, supervision and co-
workers ± and which looked at how the male
and female respondents rated these
categories. Finds that the male respondentshad higher satisfaction with pay, while the
female respondents had higher satisfaction
with co-workers. Considers the implications
of this for managing employees' job
satisfaction.
Theoretical with application in practice
Research implications: **
Practice implications: ** Originality: **
Readability: ** Total number: ********
Reference: 28BB297
Cost: £12 (plus VAT)
Occupational stress, burnout and jobstatus in female academics
Doyle, C. and Hind, P. in Gender, Work
and Organization (UK), Apr 1998, Vol. 5
No. 2, p. 67 (16 pages)
Analyses whether there is any difference in
male and female academics' experience of
work-related stress and burnout. Focuses on
women academics working in psychology
department within UK higher education and
asks if women academics view the nature of
their work differently from male colleagues; if
there is any evidence of a ``glass ceiling''; if
there are gender differences in the reported
levels of job stress and burnout; if there are
any gender differences in the sources of stress;
and considers what the main indicators of stress and burnout are for both male and
female academics. Uses the Maslach Burnout
Inventory and the Faculty Stress Index to
analyse this and finds that there are few
differences in the way that the men and
women academics view their work but that,
while women academic experience more
pressure in their jobs, they experience lower
levels of burnout. Also concludes that there is
a glass ceiling for women working in higher
education departments, but that suggests that
this may not be due to career breaks but dueto the better access that male academics have
to the informal network structures. Considers
the reasons for these findings and their
implications.
Theoretical with application in practice/
Survey
Research implications: ***
Practice implications: ** Originality: *
Readability: ** Total number: ********
Reference: 27AK453
Cost: £24 (plus VAT)
Men's and women's definitions of ``good jobs'': similarities and differences byage and across time
Tolbert, P.S. and Moen, P. in Work &
Occupations (USA), May 98, Vol. 25 No. 2,
p. 168 (27 pages)
Looks at whether men and women prefer
certain jobs in the light of theories that
suggest that women's disadvantages in the
labour market, in terms of wages and status,
are a matter of choice rather than
discrimination. Points out that previous
studies on this subject have failed to consider
the impact of age and time on job preferences,
and argues that it is logical that people's
attitudes may vary at different time in their
careers and at different periods in time. Uses
data from the US General Social Survey to
explore the job characteristics that married
men and women, working full-time, value
most. Finds only partial support for the
hypothesis that men are more likely to value
high income, job security and promotion
opportunities whereas women are more likely
to value meaningful job content and short
hours ± only three of these job attributes were
significant ± meaningful work being ranked
first by women, promotion opportunities and
job security being ranked first by men. There
was no statistical difference in attitudes to
high income or shorter hours. Also finds that
age changes the attitudes of respondents, but
the passing of time does not ± the differences
in young men's and women's attitudes
tending to widen rather than narrow in recent
times. Points out the gender differences found
do not prove the human capital theories that
women trade off income from shorter or more
flexible hours, arguing that the relationship
between job preferences and job choice is
more complex than this.
Theoretical with application in practice/
Survey
Research implications:***
Practice implications: ** Originality: *
Readability: ** Total number: ********
Reference: 27AR070
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Flight paths and revolving doors: a casestudy of gender desegregation inpharmacy
Tanner, J., Cockerill, R., Barnsley, J. and
Williams, A.P. in Work Employment &
Society (UK), Jun 1999, Vol. 13 No. 2,p. 275 (19 pages)
Explores what happens when large numbers
of women enter occupations which have
traditionally been seen as the domain of men,
looking at how male and female incumbents
experience this transformation; if it means the
end of gender inequality; or if it masks the
emergence of new forms of inequality.
Focuses on pharmacy in Canada, pointing
out this is one of the first well trained, highly
prestigious occupations to have made a rapidtransformation from majority male to a
majority female occupation. Reports the
results of a survey of pharmacists working in
Ontario, Canada, which looked at the
occupational profile of the pharmacists
(setting of the pharmacy practice, position in
the pharmacy, and, if a community pharmacy,
whether it was a chain, franchise or freehold
pharmacy); their incomes; gender
composition of the pharmacy; and their job
satisfaction. Also asked them to give their
views on the future of the professions,
whether it was declining in status and if theywould recommend it as a career. Finds that
the male and female pharmacists remained
horizontally and vertically segregated. Also
finds that the women pharmacists were
happier with their careers than the men.
However, points out that the male
pharmacists were not wanting to leave the
career, suggesting that, while pharmacy may
not be an integrating career, it is not
resegregating into a women's career.
Survey/Theoretical with application inpractice
Research implications:***
Practice implications: ** Originality: **
Readability: *** Total number: **********
Reference: 28AR920
Cost: £18 (plus VAT)
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