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GEN 101 ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Lecturer: Salifu N. Alhassan

Department of African and General Studies

Lecture 1 -3.

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E-mail from a long essay group

please sir find attach the proposal on the topic, and particulars of the group. we are most pleased of you been our supervisor, and we hope you can contain us online. Thank you.• Please Sir, find attached the proposal on the

topic, and particulars of the group. We are most pleased of you being our supervisor, and we hope you can contain us online. Thank you.

• we are pleased to have you as our supervisor..

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1. SPELLING

• 1. English spelling is arbitrary and at variance with its pronunciation; any appearance of regularity falls apart after a few instances. • There is a long vowel sound /i:/ in

meet, sheep, sleep, feet, see, etc.

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• But the same sound can be represented in other ways as in:

• be, sea, key, quay, ski, esprit, • deceit, field, people, • amoeba/ameba, aeon/eon, leave, these, etc.

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• The same /i:/ sound is also spelt ie: niece, priest, siege, believe

• Exceptions – seize, weird.• After c it is spelt ei: deceive, receive, ceiling, receipt, conceive, etc.

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• 2. c before a/o/u is hard – • cat, cot, cut, come, cup, can... • but before e/i it is soft – • cent, center, certificate, cite, city,... • except façade

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• 3. Words with aberrant letter values• any, gaol (BrE) for jail, • laugh, phantom,• colonel, woman, sugar, • xenophobia, • indict, etc.

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HOMOGRAPHS AND HETEROGRAPHS

• 1. Homonyms: Words that have the same spelling and sound, but distinct meanings.

• tender feelings, (adj)• fire tender, (noun)• to tender one’s resignation (verb)• These do not usually pose any problem when

they are in context.

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2. Homographs:

• Words that have the same spelling but different sound (pronunciations).

• bow [bow and arrow] bow [bow down your heads] • refuse (verb) refuse

(noun)• These cause ambiguities for readers, but not

for writers.

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• Most homographs are very closely related: for example, "absent" as an adjective meaning "missing", and as a verb meaning "to make oneself missing". Many of these words only exhibit stress alternation.

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• ‘cool’ (verb) – Let the machine to cool for an hour

• ‘cool’ (adj) – The weather is cool.• ‘cool’ noun- Don’t panic; keep your cool.

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• Many of these words only exhibit stress alternation.

• convict (verb) – The judge convicted the accused.

• convict (noun) – The convict was whisked away to start his sentence in jail.

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• row (noun) – The row over the 45 new constituencies is now over.

• row (noun)- He always sits in the front row.• row (verb) – He rowed the canoe while his

father fished in the stream.• See List A.

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3. Homophones:

• Two or more words that are SPELT DIFFERENTLY, but have the SAME sound/ pronunciation.

• There are over 600 pairs in English (The Oxford Companion of the English Language, 1992).

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• pair/pare/pear• right/rite/write/wright• cent/scent/sent• In reading they present no problem, but

in writing they require an effort of memorization as one word can easily be confused for the other; e.g. when flair is written for flare or fare for fair.

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• Note: Some words may not be true homophones; that is, they are not exactly the same in sound, but they are close enough in sound to cause confusion in spelling, e.g.

• temporal/temporary; • loose/lose; • once/ones/one’s.• See List B

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4. Problem words

• Confusion over doubled consonants: supprise* for surprise

accomodate* for accommodate commitee* for committee dissapear* for disappear

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Other problem words:acknowledge allegeargument (argue) calendar cemetery committeeconcede conscience embarrass exceedexistence(not existance*) Februaryforeign governmentharass inoculateinaugurate restaurant

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• library necessary• occasion parliament• precede secede• supersede privilege• maintenance explanation• secretary pronunciation

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5. British Spelling/ American Spelling

• There are differences in spelling between British and American English. In some cases the two occur.

• American British• catalog catalogue• check cheque• offense offence• program programme• color colour

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• neighbor neighbour• labor labour• flavor flavour• honor honour• vigor labour• center centre• meter metre• fiber fibre

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• liter litre• ameba amoeba• diarrhea diarrhoea• esophagus oesophagus• archeology archaeology• gynecology gynaecology• encyclopedia encyclopaedia

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• -ise or –ize• -ize: capsize, seize, • -ise: advise, surprise, • Both ise/ize are acceptable in some words:civilise/civilize, civilisation/civilization organise/organize organisation/organizationanalyse/analyze paralyse/paralyze BUT analysis/paralysis

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• Watch out for words which must be only-ise: advertise advise comprise compromise disenfranchise enterprise franchise improvise merchandise revise supervise televise, etc.

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• SPELLING CHECKER• Computer software for checking spelling.• Identifies words not in the program’s list, e.g.

non-words such as ther, for there.• Where there is confusion between there and

their this cannot be detected.

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6. Sentence Structure

• The general view about physical exercises is that the use of gross muscle groups to generate heat and energy in the body for a person’s total strength, health and recreation.

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-Subject and Predicate

• A sentence normally has a subject and a predicate. • The subject: the word or group of words that tells

who or what performs or undergoes the action named by the verb, or experiences the condition named.

• The predicate: the word or group of words that normally follows the subject and tells what it (i.e. the subject) does, has, is, or what is done to it, or where it is.

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Subject and Predicate

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Helen is laughing.The movie starts at nine.The children have a new toy.This blade is sharp.Two tenants have been evicted.The milk is in the refrigerator.

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Basic sentence patterns

• Note that the verb is obligatory in every sentence.

• This gives the basic pattern of the English sentence as:

• i. SUBJECT + VERB – (SV)

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i. SUBJECT + VERB – (SV)Gases react.Languages change.Birds fly.Food satisfies.Education pays. We won.

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• ii. Some sentences require an object to make the sense complete.

Teachers transmit ideas.Acids attack metals.Oxygen oxidizes iron.Students develop skills.Demand determines prices.Cleanliness saves lives.

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• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT - (SVO)

The object is ‘affected’ by the action denoted by the verb.

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• iii. The verb may also require another word to throw more light on the subject itself.

Bombs are dangerous.Human beings are mammals.Adam Smith was an economist.They became University students.The child is happy.

• SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT - (SVC)

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• iv. A complement may also give more light on the object.

He named the substance alcohol.We painted the house green.Haemoglobin makes blood red.The manager appointed her as farm

manager.Culture makes us human.Homer wrote The Iliad, a book of poetry.

• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT (SVOC)

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• v. We may throw more light on the verb by the use of an ADVERB

Gases react violently.Languages change slowly.Birds fly high.We won convincingly.

• SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERB - (SVA) or • SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + ADVERB - (SVOC)• We won the match convincingly.

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He mixed the substances quickly.The farmers harvest their crops in January.Development helps society enormously.

• SVOA

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• vi. The verb in a sentence may affect two objects, one directly and the other indirectly.

I gave my friend a birthday present. The agricultural officer gave the farmers

some insecticides.Food costs us money.The student showed the counselor

her essay.• SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECTdirect + OBJECTindirect

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• It is not enough for a sentence to conform to one of these patterns; it must make sense.

• ‘The mango swallowed the house.’ has the pattern SVO but does not make sense, and so is the following sentence;

• ‘Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.’ (SVA)

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• A writer may get lost if the sentence is too long.The general view about physical exercises is that the use of gross muscle groups to generate heat and energy in the body for a person’s total strength, health and recreation.

• The predicate of the above sentence is not complete:• ....that the use of gross muscle groups to generate heat and energy

in the body for a person’s total strength, health and recreation... • A short sentence also can be incomplete:

Because he slept late.The reason why he is not here.

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7. Expanding Sentences

• The sentences used so far are basic types. To convey our thoughts effectively we connect the sentences through the processes of coordination and subordination.

The Black Stars will win against Malawi.I will collect Ghȼ 200 from my roommate.He is betting against the Black Stars.

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• These can be combined for more effectiveness by turning some of the sentences into clauses.

• Clause 1: If the Black Stars win against Malawi,

• Clause 2: I will collect Ghȼ 200 from my roommate,

• Clause 3: who is betting against the Black Stars.

If the Black Stars win against Malawi, I will collect Ghȼ 200 from my roommate who is betting against them.

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• Every sentence consists of one or more clauses. A sentence is a clause, but not all clauses are sentences.

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A. Coordination

• i. He sold his maize. He bought a new bicycle.He sold his maize and he bought a new bicycle.

• ii. He harvested his maize. He wanted a new bicycle. He sold the maize. He got 600 cedis. He used 200 cedis to buy a bicycle.

He wanted a new bicycle, so he harvested his maize, sold it for 600 cedis and bought a bicycle for 200 cedis.

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• Words, phrases, clauses and sentences may be connected by using:

• and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet- coordinating conjunctions/ connectives

• either...or, neither...nor – correlative conjunctions

• however, consequently, hence, moreover, furthermore, also, accordingly, likewise, besides, indeed, thus, meanwhile, namely, and then – conjunctive adverbs

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• Coordination may express • addition• contrast• choice• result

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• Addition • Coordination may be done to indicate that both

ideas are of equal rank and what follows is an addition or is supplementary to the first.

• I love him and he loves me. • Connectives used to show addition include:• also both besides

moreover and furthermore likewise then

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• I once had a cold. It gave me a terrible headache. I went to see the doctor. He said I had a sinus infection.

• I once had a cold, and it gave me a terrible headache. I went to see the doctor and he said I had a sinus infection.

• Note: This can still be improved with subordination (further below).

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• Contrast• Ideas may be coordinated to show contrast or

conflict • I love him but he does not love me.• Connectives used to show addition

include:but, however, nevertheless, still, yet.

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-addition and contrast• The University for Development Studies has four

campuses. Each campus offers both undergraduate and graduate programmes. The student population in all four campuses has grown in recent years. The facilities of the university have not expanded as fast.

Revised:- The University for Development Studies has four campuses, and each campus offers both undergraduate and graduate programmes. The student population in all four campuses has grown in recent years, but the facilities of the university have not expanded as fast.

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• Choice• Coordination may show alternate possibility;• You buy it or I buy it.• Other connectives: either ...or, neither...nor, or,

otherwise.

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• Result• Coordination may show the consequence or

result of a preceding statement;• I love him therefore he loves me.Other connectives that show result: • consequently, accordingly, hence, therefore.

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• Faulty Coordination• For correct coordination of two or more statements, first

establish the kind of relation between them. • Faulty: Ekua took a long vacation and her health did not improve.• Revised: Ekua took a long vacation, but her health did not improve. • Faulty: Ekua spent a long time in the hospital, but she came out entirely well.• Revised: Ekua spent a long time in the hospital; consequently she came out entirely well.

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• Faulty: They watched him deliver different types of sermons and how he handled feedback from

listeners.• Revised: They watched how he delivered different

types of sermons and how he handled feedback from listeners.

• Revised: They watched him deliver different types of sermons and handle feedback from

listeners.

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• Faulty: Any man that allows the wife or female participation in the decision making process is perceived as a weak man.

• Revised: Any man that allows his wife or a female to participate in the decision making process is perceived as a weak man.

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B. Subordination

• Subordination is another means of combining sentences. One clause provides the main idea and the subordinate sentence or clause throws more light on the main idea. The subordinate clause cannot stand on its own and is usually called a subordinate clause.

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• My sister designed a course on personal relations for her firm. She is an efficient manager. (Equal emphasis)• My sister, who is an efficient

manager, designed a course on personal relations for her firm.

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• The rains finally stopped. We felt so relieved.

• Revised:-We felt so relieved when the rains finally ceased.When the rains finally ceased we felt so relieved.

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Improving coordination through subordination

• I once had a cold, and it gave me a terrible headache. I went to see the doctor and he said I had a sinus infection.

• Revised:-I once had a cold which gave me a terrible headache, and when I went to see the doctor he said I had a sinus infection.

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• The dog lived next door. The dog was scrawny. The dog barked. The dog was old. The dog howled. The dog kept me awake. I was awake all night.The dog was scrawny and old, and he lived next door; he barked and howled and kept me awake all night.

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• Subordination makes the combination more effective:

• The dog that kept me awake all night with its barking and howling lived next door.

• This puts emphasis on the fact that the dog lives next door.

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Subordinating conjunctions.

• Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions.

• These express a relation of time, condition, result, purpose, reason or cause between the main clause and the subordinate clause.

We felt so relieved when the rains finally ceased.

• Some subordinating conjunctions may perform more than one of these functions.

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• i. Time: Subordinating conjunctions that express time relationship between the main clause and the subordinate clause include -

since, when, as, while, before, until, after, whenever, as soon as, as long as, ever since.• You must not get leave the examination hall

until you have submitted all the completed forms.

• The factory closed down when the owner died.

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ii. Expressing Condition: Subordinating conjunctions that express the condition under which the idea in the main clause applies-If, provided, while, unless• If battery-powered cars become popular, the

price of gas will drop.• He said he would not resign unless he got an

assurance that he will not be prosecuted.

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iii. Result or purposeThe subordinating conjunctions in order that, so that, lest, as a result of express the result or purpose of an idea in the main clause.• I worked in a department store for a year so

that I could earn money.• It is important to have a good laboratory so

that students can carry on the relevant experiments.

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iv. Reason or Cause Subordinating conjunctions that explain why something occurred in the main clause include - : since, as, whereas, because• We postponed the meeting because we did

not form a quorum.• Since he could not pay the fine, he had to

serve two weeks in jail.

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7. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Consider the sentence:• Several appeals we have made to the

Assembly to come to our aid and reconstruct the market has fallen on deaf ears.

The verb has fallen does not agree with the subject several appeals.• Every sentence must have a subject and a

verb. • The verb must reflect the correct number of

the subject.

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• If the subject is singular, the verb should also be in the singular form.

Singular I liveyou livehe/she/it/ lives

Plural we liveyou livethey live

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• When the subject is a singular noun, or third person pronoun (she/he/it), it requires a verb in the singular form –i.e. with -s or –es.Peggy wants to study economics.She works at the bank.It serves over two thousand depositors.Each of them holds a passbook.Marvin Megabucks owns the bank.

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He polishes his Jaguar once a week. Everyone has moments of self-doubt. The bank has closed for the holidays.

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• ii. When the subject is NOT a singular noun or third-person singular pronoun, use the bare form of the verb.– Economists study the fluctuation of prices.– His stories often have surprise endings.– Reporters and novelists both write for a living.

• Acid corrodes. (Sing.)• Acids corrode. (Pl.)

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iii. Modified nouns and Pronouns

When a noun or a pronoun is modified, the number depends on the noun or pronoun itself, not on the modifiers.

• A ship carrying hundreds of tourists has docked at the port.

• Each of the candidates has taken a different position.

• Big cities each have their own special problems.

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• The leader of the demonstrators was John Brown.

• The leaders of the opposition were commended for their show of tolerance.

• The President, together with his Vice, has arrived for the function.

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• iv. When the singular subject is defined by the words each, every, anyone, everybody, nobody, somebody, no one, the singular verb is used:

• In this university each man and woman studies for good grades.

• Every child and adult has to pay a fee in order to watch the film.

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• Anyone who thinks he has the answer can try the puzzle.

• Nobody has the right to take another’s life.• Somebody has taken a book from this shelf.• No one dares to disagree with the decision of

the committee.

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v. The following are always considered as singular:

he she itone each one everyonesomeone another

this something whateverthat everything whicheverwhoever

anybody either nothinganything neither none

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• vi. Always Pluralwe these both fewthey those others several

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8. AMBIGUITIES AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

• 8. AMBIGUITIES AND DANGLING MODIFIERS• A sentence or part of a sentence is ambiguous

when it conveys more than one meaning. • There are times when an ambiguous meaning is

intended by a writer.• Sometimes, however, an ambiguous sentence

may occur in writing where the writer does not intend it, and the reader is left struggling to decide what or who the writer is referring to.

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i. Lexical ambiguity

• In many cases ambiguity may be caused by the use of a word which is homonymous with another.

• Life depends on the liver. Is liver the person who lives it, or the liver in the body?

• He lives near the bank. The bank building, or the bank of the river?

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• Ambiguity may be caused by polysemy, i.e. two or more meanings of the same word.

He may leave.a) It is possible, but not certain, that he will leave.b) He has my permission to leave.

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ii. Misplaced modifiers and modifying phrases.

• If a modifier or a modifying phrase does not clearly point to the word it modifies, it is misplaced, and can cause an ambiguity.

*The police were looking for a middle-aged woman with a little Scotch terrier beside her driving a dark green Nissan pick-up. • Was the Scotch terrier doing the driving?

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• Revised: The police were looking for a middle-aged woman driving a dark green Nissan pick-up with a little Scotch terrier beside her.

• He killed the man with a pistol.• Question: Is it that he killed the man who had

a pistol or he used a pistol to kill the man?• Revised: He killed the man who had a pistol.

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• [Biting dogs] can kill you. = Dogs which bite can kill you.

• [Biting] [dogs] can kill you. = If you bite dogs, it can kill you.

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• The old fisherman [mended the net] [at the beach.] = the mending was done at the beach.

• The old fisherman mended [the net at the beach.] = the net which was at the beach.

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iii. Misplaced restrictors

• A restricter is a one-word modifier that restricts the meaning of another word or a group of words. Restricters include only, just, almost, merely, nearly, scarcely, simply, even, exactly, hardly. Usually a restricter should come immediately before the word, phrase, or clause it modifies:

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• Only John saw the lion. (i.e. no one else saw it)• John only saw the lion. (i.e. he didn’t shoot)• John saw only the lion (i.e. he did not see the

tiger).• An ambiguity or sometimes an absurdity may

be created if the restricter is not properly placed.

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• *At most universities, students only get their certificates if they have paid all their bills.

• *At most universities, students get only their certificates if they have paid all their bills.

Revised: • At most universities, students get their

certificates only if they have paid all their bills.

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• *We only heard it yesterday.• We heard it only yesterday.

• After heating the mixture we only observed a slight change in colour.

• After heating the mixture we observed only a slight change in colour.

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iv. Ambiguity in Pronouns

• Pronouns, especially the personal pronouns (he, she, it, they, etc.) and the demonstratives (this, that, these, those) must be used in a way that they clearly refer to an antecedent noun.

• When a pronoun is used in such a way that it can apply to more than one antecedent, the result is ambiguity.

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*Mansa informed her sister that she would be late for the party.• Question: Who will be late for the party, Mansa

or her sister?• Revised: Mansa informed her sister that she

(Mansa) would be late for the party.• Mansa remarked that her sister would be late

for the party.

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• *After my mother called Christina three times she finally came downstairs.

Question: Does she refer to mother or sister?• Revised: After my mother called Christina

three times, Christina finally came downstairs. After my mother called her three times,

Christina finally came downstairs.

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• v. Using they and it without antecedents.• Avoid using they and it as pronouns without

definite antecedents. *In the first part of the movies, it shows clouds billowing like waves.Revised: The first part of the movie shows clouds billowing like waves.

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• *In high school they made me take three years of algebra.

In high school the authorities made me take three years of algebra.

In high school I was made to take three years of algebra.

In high school I had to take three years of algebra.

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DANGLING MODIFIERS

• Another type of ambiguity can occur when the subject-predicate relationship is not clear. This sometimes happens when there is a misplaced sentence modifier.

• Consider the following sentences in which the subject in the main clause and the subject in the subordinate clause are the same person.

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• I was walking towards the hall of residence when I saw him breaking into the car.

• As I was walking towards the hall of residence, I saw him breaking into the car.

In a case like the above the subordinate clause can be turned into a modifying clause.• Walking towards the hall of residence, I saw

him breaking into the car.

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• A construction like this makes sense only when the subject in the modifying clause is the same as the subject in the main clause.

• The person walking towards the hall of residence is the same person who saw the man breaking into the car.

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• I was running up the first long hill.• I felt my nose dripping.Combined: While I was running up the hill, I felt my nose dripping.While running up the hill, I felt my nose

dripping.Running up the hill, I felt my nose dripping.*Running up the hill, my nose began to drip.Χ

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• Now consider:*Moving towards the hall of residence, the goat hit the car.*As the goat was moving towards the hall of

residence, the goat hit the car.• Revised: As he was driving towards the hall of

residence the goat hit the car.

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• *Feeling feverish, a visit to the doctor seemed only logical.

Feeling feverish, he thought he had better see a doctor.

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Correcting Dangling modifiers.

• Supply suitable subject or reconstruct the sentence.

• *After doing my homework, the dog was fed.After I had done my homework, I fed the dog.After doing my homework, I fed the dog.

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*Sitting under the tree, the cool breeze from the sea soon made me fall asleep.• As I sat under the tree, the cool breeze

from the sea soon made me fall asleep.• Sitting under the tree and enjoying the

cool breeze from the sea, I soon fell asleep.

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Other Dangling phrases

• Driving through the town, several damaged buildings were noticed.

(Who was driving through the town?)Revised:• Driving through the town, we noticed several

damaged buildings.• When we were driving through the town, we

noticed several damaged buildings.• When we drove through the town, we noticed

several damaged buildings.

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• Riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.• Who was riding the bicycle?Revised:• Riding my bicycle, I was chased by a dog.• When I was riding my bicycle, a dog chased

me.• A dog chased me as I was riding my bicycle.

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• After putting a worm on my hook, the fish began to bite.

Did the fish put the worm on the hook?• After I put a worm on my hook, the fish began

to bite.

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• To write effectively, practice is necessary.(The phrase To write cannot relate to the subject of the main clause, practice.Revised:To write effectively, one must practice.If one wishes to write effectively, one (he or she) must practice.

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• When a baby, my grandfather gave me a silver cup.• Revised: • When a baby, I was given a silver cup by my

grandfather. (The subject of the main clause agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical clause.)

• When I was a baby, I was given a silver cup by my grandfather.

• When I was a baby, my grandfather gave me a silver cup.

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Practice: Correcting dangling modifiers/phrases

1. Being made of glass, I handled the tabletop carefully.

2. Driving along at top speed, the road took an unexpected turn to the left.

3. On receiving the news, tears filled his mother’s eyes.

4. To be completely immune to polio, several inoculations may be necessary.

5. To find out why the wheel shakes, the car must be driven over 50 miles an hour.