Geisler Norman & Saleeb Abdul Answering Islam 14

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Appendix 1MUSLIMSECTSANDMOVEMENTS

TWOMAJORSECTS: SUNNIANDSHIITE

Islam is divided into two basic sects, Sunni and Shiite. The Sunnis are by far and

away the largest group, comprising about ! percent of all "uslims. These sects aroseoriginally over the political dispute as to who should be the first #aliph or successor to

"uhammad. $aving failed to appoint one before he died, the Sunnis contended that

"uhammads successor should be elected. The Shiites %the party of Ali&, on the otherhand, insisted that he should come from the bloodline of "uhammad. This would have

meant that Ali, "uhammads cousin and son'in'law, was the only legitimate successor to

the (rophet. Therefore, the Shiites re)ect the legitimacy of the first three #aliphs of Islamand view them as people who deliberately deprived Ali of his divine rights.

"any of the factors involved in the historical development of Shiite Islam have been

political in nature. As *a+lur ahman points out, -Thus, we see that Shiism became, in

the early history of Islam, a cover for different forces of social and political discontent.The southern Arabs used it as a facade to assert their pride and independence against the

Arabs of the orth. In the Ira/i mixed population, it claimed the services of the

discontented (ersians and contributed to the rise 0 of an extreme (ersian cultural,nationalistic movement.1

The central motif of Shiite thought is derived from the violent and bloody

martyrdom of $usayn, Alis son and "uhammads grandson, at the battle of 2arbala by

the troops of the corrupt Islamic government. ippin and 2nappert explain thesignificance of $usayns martyrdom in Islamic culture3

The tales of the battles and $usayns eventual death are told throughout the Shiite world

and cannot fail to produce tears in those who listen and participate.0 4very year,

millions of faithful followers in Ira/, Iran, (a5istan, India, and 4ast Africa commemorate

the sad events with rituals of mourning. A replica of the mausoleum at 2arbala is carried

around and the mourners sing hymns and recite prayers during the procession and the

1 ahman,Islam, 161.


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night'long mos/ue service that follows it. Scenes of self'flagellation are common

occurrences during the procession.

The 7sacrifice of $usayn is compared to Abrahams readiness to sacrifice his son in

obedience to 8od and that sacrifice is celebrated on the same day of Ashura with the

slaughter of a sheep. This underlies the parallelism with the passion of 9esus in

#hristianity who is also compared to the lamb slaughtered by Abraham.:

In addition to the above political differences, there are also fundamental theological

differences between the Sunnis and the Shiites. ;ased on the creed of $asan ibn :?&, an eminent Shiite theologian, @illiams explains some of the theological

differences in the following summary account3

Theologically, they ShiitesB are "uta+ili rationalists, believing that the Curan is

created, and that since 8od is essentiallygood, $e cannotdo evil. $e has created manwith free will.0 It follows that $e would not leave man without guidanceD thus the boo5s

of the prophets have been sent down. 4ven so, as the sects of Islam attest, confusion

arises, so it follows that 8od has given man in addition to the (rophet an infallible guidein religious matters. This guide is theImam. It is also clear then that the selection of theImamsis a matter which could not be left to human errorD they were =ivinely appointedfrom birth. The trueImamsare the direct line of Ali through al'$usayn.0 ShiitesBbelieve in the doctrines of occultation %ghayba& and return %raja&. The twelfth of theline ofImamsdid not die, as his enemies assert, but li5e the Curanic 9esus, he was ta5enby 8od from human sight, and is in occultation. $e will return to earth as theMahdi, theawaited messianic figure who 0 will bring the triumph of religion and herald the last

)udgment.>

SUFISM

The Sufis are the mystical wing of Islam. Sufism is the popular branch of Islamic

belief and practice in which "uslims see5 after a direct personal experience of 8od and

his divine love. The roots of this movement are traced to very early times in the history ofIslam. Abdul'$a// writes,

"any early "uslims felt their hearts to be so rusty that they resorted to asceticism and

self'renunciation as a measure of relief. The first century of Islam found "uslims

possessors of a vast empire in (ersia, "esopotamia, Syria, 4gypt, and orth Africa.0

Theirs was a life of luxury, with concubines and slaves, such as was un5nown to their

ancestors. This new affluent life'style was supported by taxation of the con/uered lands

: ippin and 2nappert, Textual Sources for the Study of Islam, :1E::.> @illiams, ::FE:G. *or a brief but scholarly treatment of various aspects of Shiite

Islam, see 8old+iher, 1?6. *or two recent sympathetic wor5s on Shiite Islam, written by

Shiite scholars, see "oo)an "omen,An Introduction to Shiite Islam: The History andDoctrines of Twelver Shiism%ew $aven3


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and booty from on'going military campaigns. There were people in the community who

disli5ed the increasing worldliness that was affecting the people in general.0 They began

to protest against the seculari+ation of Islam. To highlight their concern they too5 to

clothing themselves in coarse cloth in the manner of Syrian #hristian mon5s, cloth made

of coarse wool called -suf. Jn that account they came to be called -Sufis in course oftime.F

In agreement with Abdul'$a//s )udgment, the 4uropean Islamicist, =ermenghem,also writes, -Sufism represents a protest, at one and the same time against )uridical

formalism and against the worldliness resulting from the con/uests. It gives primacy to

the religion of the heart, to the love of 8od and to the values of contemplation andasceticism. G

$istorically, Sufism has played a significant role in the spread of Islam. As one noted

scholar of Islam points out, -It is than5s to its mysticism that Islam is an international and

universal religion.?

In addition to its religious appeal and missionary accomplishment, Sufism has alsoproduced some of the greatest philosophical and literary geniuses in the history of Islam,

such as Al'8ha+ali, Ibn ushd %Averroes&, Ibn Sina %Avicenna&, al'2indi, and al'*arabi.6

It is also important to point out that despite the recent rise of Islamic fundamentalism

in the "uslim world, Sufism is not only not declining but in fact it has found a newmomentum. (hil (arshall, a longtime mission ary in (a5istan, even goes so far as to say,

-It has been calculated that 6! percent of all "uslims are ac/uainted with the Sufi orders

within Islam.

T$4=J#TI4SJ*SH*IS"

@e must ac5nowledge the fact that -Sufism does not present a homogeneous, closed

system either in its theories or in its practices. There is no precise agreement even on thedefinition of general aims.1! Jur treatment of this important branch of Islam will only

be confined to a brief discussion of some of Sufisms most basic and commonly accepted

concepts and practices.

It is a perplexing but well'established fact that much of Sufi teaching directly

contradicts some of the most fundamental doctrines of orthodox Islam. @hereas in

F Abdul'$a//, 1?E?.

G =ermenghem, 6:.

? See @illiams, 1>6. Also see (hil (arshall,Brides to Islam%8rand apids3 ;a5er,1>&, >1E>6.

6 See =ermenghem, 6FD and @illiams, 1GGE?.

See the comments of (rofessor 6.

1! See 8old+iher, 1F?.


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orthodox Islam there is a firm belief in the absolute transcendence and the ma)esty of

8od, in Sufism, -8od is in all things and all things are in $im. All visible and invisible

beings are an emanation from $im, and are not really distinct from $im.11 This Sufiunderstanding of 8od leads to another heretical belief that man can attain divinehood by

being absorbed into the being of 8od.

This eo'(latonic and pantheistic doctrine of Sufism that describes mans ultimate

goal as the absorption of human personality into the being of 8od is calledfanna%annihilation&. Jne Sufi explains this idea in the following way3 -@hen the temporal

associates with the eternal, it has no existence left.


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In addition to the ma)or "uslim sects, there are several minor ones. The @ahhabis,

who are primarily in Saudi Arabia, a strong legalistic group who are a radical wing of the

Sunnis. Jsama bin Kaden was a @ahhabi. The =ru+e sect is located primarily inKebanon, Syria, and northern (alestine. The Alawite sect is mostly in Syria. The

Ahmadiyas are a heretical "uslim group from (a5istan whose founder, "ir+a 8hulam

Ahmad, claimed to be the promised "ahdi and "essiah. They also believe that 9esus,after escaping crucifixion, went to 2ashmir and died in Srinagar. They also deny the

virgin birth and sinless nature of #hrist, discrediting any superiority of #hrist over

"uhammad. They are the most active "uslim missionary group in the @est.

;eyond these ma)or and minor sects Islam has spawned two other religions3 Si5hismin India and an eclectic religion called ;ahai that boasts a prophet, ;ahaullah, who

supersedes "uhammad and has temples scattered around the world.

The ation of Islam led by Kouis *arra5han is considered a heresy by orthodox

Islam, since it claims there is a prophet after "uhammad, namely, the $onorable 4li)ah

"uhammad %see Appendix ?&.

Appendix :MUSLIMRELIGIOUSPRACTICES

The term -Islam means submission to the will of 8od. The person who submits is

called a -"uslim, or submitted one. This submission involves both beliefs %iman& andpractices %deen&. The basic "uslim believes in one 8od, the prophets %including his last

prophet "uhammad&, angels, the Curan as the @ord of 8od, and the final day of

)udgment %with heaven and hell following&. These have already been discussed in somedetail %in #hapters 1E?&.

$ere we will briefly outline basic "uslim religious obligations or practices3

L To recite theshahadah. This means to -bear witness, which is done by reciting

the creed3 -There is no god but Allah, and "uhammad is $is messenger. Sayingthis sincerely is all that is necessary to become a "uslim.

L To pray %salat&. "uslims are re/uired to say seventeen complete prayers each

day. They may pray individually or collectively. Jn *riday at noon "uslims are


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re/uired to gather at the mos/ue to pray. *ollowing the prescription in the Curan,

"uslims are called to prayer five times a day. This is practiced more widely in

"uslim countries.

L To fast %sawm&. *ollowers of "uhammad commemorate his receiving of the

Curan by fasting in the ninth lunar month of#amadan. They are expected torefrain from eating food during the daylight hours for this entire month. $owever,

they are allowed to eat and drin5 from sunset to sunrise during this time.

L To give alms %$a%at&. "uslims are obligated to contribute one'fortieth %:.G

percent& of their income. This is given primarily to the poor and needy.

L To ma5e the (ilgrimage %hajj&. It is the duty of every "uslim to ma5e a trip to

"ecca %in Arabia& at least once in his lifetime, provided he or she is physicallyand financially able. 4ach pilgrim must wear a white garment called ihram,

which is to eliminate all distinctions of class or status during the hajj. The trip

usually ta5es a wee5 or more, sometimes even a month, since it involves visitingseveral sacred sites. After the pilgrimage, a person is entitled to be called a hajji.

Appendix >THEGOSPELOFBARNABAS

"uslims often cite The &os!el of Barna'asin defense of Islamic teaching. In fact, it

is a best seller in "uslim countries.


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>:G A.=. > Another "uslim author, ". A.


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Slomp says flatly, -There is no text tradition whatsoever of the 8. ;. M. ;y contrast,

the ew Testament boo5s are verified by nearly G,6!! 8ree5 manuscripts that begin in

the second and third centuries A.=. %see #hapter 1!&.

Second, K. ;evan 9ones notes that -the earliest form of it 5nown to us is in an Italian

manuscript. This has been closely analy+ed by scholars and is )udged to belong to thefifteenth or sixteenth century, i.e., 1F!! years after the time of ;arnabas.1! 4ven

"uslim defenders of it, li5e "uhammad Ata ur'ahim, admit that they have nomanuscripts of it before the 1G!!s.

Third, this gospel is widely used by "uslim apologists today, yet there is no reference

to it by any "uslim writer before the fifteenth or sixteenth century. ;ut surely they wouldhave used it if it had been in existence. As agg observes, -Against the supposition that

the 8ospel of ;arnabas ever existed in Arabic we must set the argument from the total

silence about such a 8ospel in the polemical literature of the "oslems. This has been

admirably catalogued by Steinschneider in his monograph on the sub)ect.11

agg goes on to note the many "uslim writers who wrote boo5s who would no doubt

have referred to such a wor5Phad it been in existencePsuch as Ibn $asm %d. FG? A.$. &,

Ibn Taimiyyah %d. 6: A.$. &, Abul'*adl al'Suudi %wrote F: A.$. &, and $a))i 2halifah

%d. 1!?6 A.$. &. ;ut not one of them, or anyone else, ever refers to it between the seventhand fifteenth centuries when "uslims and #hristians were in heated debate.

*ourth, no father or teacher of the #hristian church ever /uoted it from the first to the

fifteenth century. If The &os!el of Barna'ashad been considered authentic, it moresurely would have been cited many times by some #hristian teacher during this long

period of time, as were all the other canonical boo5s of Scripture. @hat is more, had this

gospel even been in existence, authentic or not, certainly it would have been cited bysomeone. ;ut no father cited it during its supposed existence for over 1,G!! yearsO

*ifth, sometimes it is confused with the first'century.!istle of /+seudo0 Barna'as%c.

A.=. 6!E!&, which is an entirely different boo5.1: In this way "uslim scholars falsely

allege there is support for an early date. "uhammad Ata ur'ahim confuses the two

boo5s, thus wrongly claiming that it was in circulation in the second and third centuries

A.=. This is a strange error since he admits that they are listed as different boo5s in the

-Sixty ;oo5s as -Serial o. 1 4pistle of ;arnabas.0 Serial o. :F. 8ospel of

;arnabas.1> In one place ahim even cites by name the -4pistle of ;arnabas asevidence of the existence of the &os!el of Barna'asO1F

Ibid.

1! K. ;evan 9ones, 1hristianity .x!lained to Muslims, rev. ed. %#alcutta3 ;aptist"ission (ress, 1?F&, 6.

11 Kongsdale and agg, xlviii. Steinschneiders monograph is listed asA'handlunen f2r

die 3unde des Morenlandes, 166.1: See Slomp, >6E>.

1> See Ata ur'ahim, F:EF>.

1F Ibid., F:.


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Some have mista5enly assumed that the reference to a gospel used by ;arnabas

referred to in the apocryphalActs of Barna'as%before c. A.=. F6& was The &os!el of

Barna'as. $owever, this is clearly false, as the /uotation reveals3 -;arnabas, havingunrolled the 8ospel, which we have received from Matthewhis fellow-la'ourer, began to

teach the 9ews.1G ;y deliberately omitting this emphasi+ed phrase, the impression is

given that there is a &os!el of Barna'asO

Sixth, the message of the apocryphal &os!el of Barna'asis completely refuted byeyewitness first'century documents that possess over five thousand manuscripts to

support their authenticity, namely, the ew Testament. *or example, its teaching that

9esus did not claim to be the "essiah and that he did not die on the cross are thoroughlyrefuted by eyewitness, first'century documents %see our #hapters 1! and 11&.

Seventh, no "uslim should accept the authenticity of The &os!el ofBarna'as since it

clearly contradicts the Curans claim that 9esus was the "essiah. It claims, -9esus

confessed, and said the truthD 7I am not the "essiah.0 I am indeed sent to the house of

Israel as a prophet of salvationD but after me shall come the "essiah %sects. F:, F&. Thisis flatly contradictory to the Curan, which repeatedly calls 9esus the -"essiah the

-#hristB %cf. G31, 6G&.

4ighth, even "uslim scholars li5e Su+anne $aneef, who highly recommends it, haveto admit that -the authenticity of this boo5 has not been un/uestionably established and

that -it is believed to be an apocryphal account of the life of 9esus.1? Jther "uslim

scholars doubt its authenticity too.16 *or the boo5 contains anachronisms anddescriptions of medieval life in western 4urope that reveal that it was not written before

the fourteenth century. *or example, it refers to the year of 9ubilee coming every one

hundred years, instead of fifty as it was practiced before this time %The&os!el of

Barna'as, :&. The papal declaration to change it to every one hundred years was madeby the church in A.=. 1>F>. 9ohn 8ilchrist, in his wor5 titled 4riins and Sources of the

&os!el of Barna'as, concludes that -only one solution can account for this remar5ablecoincidence. The author of the 8ospel of ;arnabas only /uoted 9esus as spea5ing of the

)ubilee year as coming 7every hundred years because he 5new of the decree of (ope

;oniface. $e added, -but how could he 5now of this decree unless he lived at the same

time as the (ope or sometime afterwardsN This is a clear anachronism that compels us toconclude that the 8ospel of ;arnabas could not have been written earlier than the

fourteenth century after #hrist.1 Jne significant anachronism is the fact that The

&os!el of Barna'asuses the text from the oman #atholic Katin Mulgate translation ofthe ;ible %fourth century A.=. &, even though ;arnabas supposedly wrote it in the first

century A.=. Jther examples of anach ronisms include a vassal who owes a share of his

1G See Slomp, 11!, emphasis ours.1? $aneef claims it was -lost to the world for centuries due to its suppression as a

heretical document, but there is not a shred of documented evidence for this. In fact, it

was not even mentioned by anyone before it first appeared in the sixth century.16 See Slomp, ?.

1 9ohn 8ilchrist, 4riins and Sources of the &os!el of Barna'as%=urban, epublic of

South Africa3 9esus to the "uslims, 1!&, 1?E16.


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crop to his lord %The &os!el of Barna'as, 1::&, an illustration of medieval feudalismD a

reference to wooden wine cas5s %ibid., 1G:&, rather than wine s5ins as were used in

(alestineD and a medieval court procedure %ibid., 1:1&.

inth, 9omier provides a list of many mista5es and exaggerations in The &os!el of

Barna'as. There are historical mista5es, such as, -9esus was born when (ilate wasgovernor, though he did not become governor until :? or :6 A.=. 1 There are also

geographical mista5es. *or example, #hapter :! -stated that 9esus sailed to a+areth,even though it is not on the seashore.:! Ki5ewise, The &os!el of Barna'ascontains

exaggerations, such as #hapter 16s mention of 1FF,!!! prophets and 1!,!!! prophets

being slain by 9i+ebel %in #hapter 1&.:1

Tenth, according to Slomp, -9omiers study showed many Islamic elements

throughout the text that prove beyond any doubt that a "uslim author, probably a

convert, wor5ed on the boo5. *ourteen such influences are noted. *or example, 9omier

notes that the word -pinnacle of the temple, where 9esus is said to have preachedP

hardly a good placeOP was translated into arabic by di%%a*a platform used in mos/ues.

::

Also, 9esus is represented as coming only for Israel but "uhammad -for the salvation of

the whole world %#hapter 11&. *inally, the denial of 9esus to be the Son of 8od isCuranic, as is the fact that 9esus sermon is modeled after a "uslim hut'athat begins

with praising 8od and his holy (rophet %#hapter 1:&.:>

In summation, the "uslim use of The &os!el of Barna'asto support their teaching is

devoid of evidence to support it. Indeed, its teachings even contradict the Curan. Thiswor5, far from being an authentic first'century account of the facts about 9esus, is

actually a late medieval fabrication. The only authentic first'century records we have of

the life of #hrist are found in the ew Testament, and it categorically contradicts the

teaching of the &os!el of Barna'as. *or a further criti/ue of this -gospel the readershould consult =avid Soxs excellent boo5 titled, The &os!el of Barna'as.:F

Appendix F

1 See Slomp, .

:! Ibid.

:1 Ibid.:: Ibid., 6.

:> Ibid.

:F Sox.


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POPULARMUSLIMACCUSATIONSAGAINSTTHENEW

TESTAMENT

This appendix is a brief discussion of the three most popular "uslim charges against#hristianity and especially the ew Testament that one often encounters in Islamic boo5s

or debates. The three areas of debate are3 the textual corruption of the ew Testament, the

historical unreliability of the 8ospels, and the evidence of pagan influence on themessage of the ew Testament.

Since we have already responded to the first charge %in #hapter 1!& we will not

respond to it at this point. $owever, we will discuss lac5 of understanding that lies behind

such accusations by /uoting from the late "uslim critic of #hristianity Ahmed =eedat.

THECHARGEOFTEXTUALCORRUPTION

In his boo5let entitled,Is the Bi'le &ods 5ord6 1 =eedat attempts to show the

textual corruption of the ;ible by the fact that there are many 4nglish versions that have

tried to improve on the 2ing 9ames MersionO: $e then lists what he believes are four-great errors of the ;iblePout of what he says are a possible fifty thousandO The first

error that =eedat points to in his comparison between the evised Standard Mersion of

the ;ible and the 29Mis the fact that the word -virgin in Isaiah 631F has been changed to

the phrase -a young woman. The second error is that in 9ohn >31? , the phrase -begottenson has been changed to -only son. =eedat shows no awareness of the fact that in both

of the above instances the original $ebrew and 8ree5 terms have remained identical inall our manuscripts and that only the 4nglish phrases have been changed due to the)udgment of the translators. So it is not a /uestion of ins!irationof the ;ible by 8od in

the text of its original languages %which is without any error& but of its translationsby

men into different languages %which may contain some nonsubstantive errors&.

The last two supposed errors concern the omission of 1 9ohn G36 and the shorterending of "ar5 in the later translations of the ;ible.> Jnce again the invalidity of the

charges is obvious to anyone who is even slightly familiar with the science of textual

criticism.F #hristians do not claim that every manuscript of the ;ible has been copied

1 Ahmed =eedat,Is the Bi'le &ods 5ord6, ?th print, =ec. 16.

: Ibid., 6E11.

> Ibid., 1:E:1. @e should also note that =eedat is very fond of /uoting 9ehovahs@itnesses for support of his charges against the integrity of the biblical textO

F *or two excellent and standard treatments of the sub)ect of ew Testament textual

criticism, the reader is encouraged to refer to ;ruce "et+ger, The Text of the ,ewTestament: Its Transmission* 1orru!tion* and #estoration %ew


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without error. In fact, most #hristian scholars believe that this verse % 1 9ohn G36 & on the

Trinity was not in the original text that 8od inspired, since it scarcely appears in any

manuscript before the fifteenth century. It was probably a gloss %scribal comment in themargin& that was later ta5en as part of the text by a subse/uent translator.G or does the

omission of this verse from many modern translations of the ;ible affect the #hristian

doctrine of the Trinity in the least, since there are many other verses that clearly teachthere are three persons in the one and only 8od %see #hapter 1:&.

Another example of =eedats unsubstantiated charges against the ;ible is his

statement that -out of over four thousand differing manuscripts the #hristians boast

about, the #hurch fathers )ust selected four which tallied with their pre)udices and calledthem theB 8ospels of "atthew, "ar5, Ku5e and 9ohn.? It is ama+ing that =eedat does

not seem to understand that these thousands of manuscripts are simply copies of the

twenty'seven ew Testament boo5s and not thousands of separate boo5s or gospelsO6

*urther, while many "uslims charge the ;ible with textual corruption, they remain

blissfully ignorant of the fact that the Curan itself has suffered from a multitude oftextual variations %see #hapter &. If the divine authenticity of a boo5 were to be based

on the unanimous agreement among all the human'made copies of the originaldocuments, then the Curan itself will undoubtedly fail the testO #ontrary to the opinion

of many "uslims, we do not have the original copy of the Curan or even the original

official Hthmanic codex. As 8ilchrist points out, -the oldest text of the Curan still extantdates from the second century after the $i)rah and is compiled on vellum in the early al-

mailArabic script. Jther early Curans are in3uficscript and date from the same time as

well.

Sir orman Andersons comment in this context is also well'ta5en. -So, although it is

true that today the 2ufan text of $afs is accepted almost everywhere in the "uslimworld, the claim commonly made by "uslims that they have the i!sissima ver'aexact

wordsB of what "uhammad actually said, without any variant readings, rests upon anignorance of the facts of history.1!

@hat many "uslim scholars forget is this parallel with their own Scriptures.

8uillaume notes that3

The truth is that the textual history of the (uran is very similar to that of the Bi'leemphasis oursB. ;oth boo5s have been preserved remar5ably well. 4ach is, in its basic

structure and content, a very fair record of what was originally there. ;ut neither boo5

has been preserved totally without error or textual defect. ;oth have suffered here and

G See . K. 8eisler and ix, F>EF.? See =eedat, :F.

6 *or a complete response to =eedats charges, see 9ohn 8ilchrist, The Textual History of

the (uran and the Bi'le%Millach, Austria3 Kight of Kife, 1, reprint&. See ibid., :6.

See 8ilchrist, :6.

1! Anderson, F6.


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there from variant readings in the early codices 5nown to us but neither has in any way

been corrupted. Sincere #hristians and "uslims will honestly ac5nowledge these facts.

$e adds that

The only difference between the Curan and the ;ible today is that the #hristian #hurch

in the interest of truth, carefully preserved the variant readings 0 whereas the "uslims at

the time of Hthman deemed it expedient to destroy as far as possible all the evidences ofdifferent readings of the Curan in the cause of standardi+ing one text for the whole of

the "uslim.0 These facts must also always be considered against the bac5ground of

further evidence in the $adith that the Curan today is still not complete.11

THECHARGEOFHISTORICALUNRELIABILITY

Another often encountered "uslim charge is simply a rehash of the conclusions of the

so'called higher'critical scholarship. It seems that "uslim authors never bother to assessthe validity of these scholars presuppositions, methodologies, and arguments, but are )ust

happy to report their s5eptical conclusions.

Typical of this approach is "uhammad Ata ur'ahims)esus* A +ro!het of Islam7

The author writes3

"ore and more people are now aware that the #hristianity they 5now has little to do with

the original teaching of 9esus. =uring the last two centuries the research of the historians

has left little room for faith in the #hristian -mysteries, but the proven fact that the#hrist of the established #hurch has almost nothing to do with the 9esus of history does

not in itself help #hristians toward the Truth.1:

The author goes on to refer to the wor5s of =avid Strauss, who -almost destroyed the

historic credibility not only of the fourth but also of the first three 8ospels as well.1>

After such a /uic5 dismissal of the biblical testimony to 9esus, in the chapter ironicallyentitled -An $istorical Account of 9esus, ahim presumes %without any arguments& the

historicity of the -8ospel of ;arnabas, gives us a portrayal of #hrist based on the

writings of some medieval "uslim poets, and concludes that 9esus was the leader of aband of revolutionary 4ssencesO1F

In a similar fashion ahim dismisses the most well'established fact of #hristianity,

the crucifixion. $e writes, -The 7arrest, the 7trial, and the 7crucifixion are hedged

around with so many contradictions and misstatements, that it is extremely difficult tountangle and penetrate through them in order to arrive at what actually happened.1G

11 Ibid., :!E:1.

1: Ata ur'ahim, 1>.1> Ibid., 1F.

1F Ibid., 16E>.

1G Ibid., >G.


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Instead of accepting the 8ospel accounts of the events surrounding 9esus death, the

author proposes a typical Islamic version of the situation in which it was 9udas who was

mista5enly arrested and crucified.1? The most astonishing proposal of ahim concernsthe role of (ilate. $e writes, -*inally, there is another significant fact. In the calendars of

the Saints of the #optic #hurch, both in 4gypt and in 4thiopia, (ilate and his wife appear

as 7saints. This could be possible only if we accept that (ilate, 5nowing full well that hissoldiers had made a wrong arrest, 5nowingly condemned 9udas in place of 9esus, and

allowed the latter to escape.16

Jne wonders how such fanciful accounts without a shred of reliable historical

evidence can claim to give us a true picture of the historical 9esus. Jn what basis shouldwe re)ect the authenticity of the 8ospels in favor of the baseless "uslim speculations or

dogmatic Curanic assertionsN It must seem to the unbiased reader that on this most

crucial point concerning 9esus crucifixion that it is the Curan and not the ;ible that ismista5en.

It is outside the scope of this appendix to respond fully to the charges against thehistorical reliability of the 8ospels. "uch can be said in defense of the 8ospels and the

rest of the ew Testament by way of archaeological discoveries, non'#hristian andextrabiblical historical records, and the early date of the composition of the ma)ority of

ew Testament boo5s.

As one example we cite the conclusion of the classical oman historian, A. .

Sherwin'@hite, concerning the historical reliability of the ;oo5 of Acts %it is agreed byalmost all biblical scholars that the author of Acts was the same as that of the 8ospel of

Ku5e&3 -*or the ew Testament boo5 of Acts, the confirmation of historicity is

overwhelming.0 Any attempt to re)ect its basic historicity, even in matters of detail must

now appear absurd. oman historians have long ta5en it for granted.

1

$owever, theauthor admits that due to biased and critical presuppositions -it is astonishing that while

8raeco'oman historians have been growing in confidence, the twentieth'century studyof the 8ospel narratives,startin from no less !romisin material, has ta5en so gloomy a

turn.1 ;ut we agree with #raig ;lomberg, an evangelical ew Testament scholar, that

-such gloom should be replaced by a radiant endorsement of the historical reliability of

the four gospels, and there are some encouraging signs that in places that is in factbeginning to occur.:!

1? Ibid., >?. It is interesting that =eedat, the most well'5nown "uslim apologist, departsfrom the traditional Islamic denial of 9esus crucifixion, and instead opts for the swoon

theory as a way to deny the reality of 9esus death on the cross. It is noteworthy that

=eedat himself has been condemned on this point by orthodox "uslim authorities ofSouth AfricaO See 9ohn 8ilchrist, The 1rucifixion of 1hrist: A 8act* not 8iction%Millach,

Austria3 Kight of Kife&.

16 Ibid., >6.1 A. . Sherwin'@hite,#oman Society and #oman 9aw in the ,ew Testament%Jxford3

#larendon (ress, 1?>&, 1.

1 Ibid., 16.


15/46

THECHARGEOFPAGANINFLUENCE

The last charge that we would briefly address at this point is once again a rehash of

outdated negative critical scholarship mixed with a misinformed and misleading "uslim-version of church history.:1 According to this charge the apostle (aul and some of the

later church fathers corrupted much of the purity of 9esus teachings by mixing thepaganism of their day with the original message of #hrist. *or example,


16/46

many critics are constrained to conclude that #hristianity is the facsimile or the second

edition of "ithraism.:>

The author goes on to list some of these similarities by noting that "ithra was alsoconsidered the son of 8od and savior, was born of a virgin, had twelve disciples, was

crucified, rose from the grave the third day, atoned for the sins of human5ind, and finally

returned to his father in heaven.:F

;y way of a brief response we need to point out that an honest reading of all the ewTestament data will clearly demonstrate that (aul did not teach a new religion. (aul,

similar to 9esus, taught that #hristianity was a fulfillment of 9udaism % om. 1!3F , E11 D

#ol. :31?E16 D "att. G31 D Ku5e 1?31?E16 &. ;oth taught that men are sinners % "ar5

>3> D om. >3:> & and that 9esus died, with his shed blood providing atonement for sin% "att. :?3: D "ar5 1!3FG D 4ph. 136 D om. G3 &. The death and burial of 9esus were

completed by his resurrection % Ku5e :F3F?EF6 D 9ohn :!3:GE: D om. 1!3 &. G D

9ohn 1G31E11 D : #or. G316 &. *inally, we should remember that (auls message of thegospel was both chec5ed and approved by the original apostles % 8al. 1E: &,

demonstrating official recognition that his message was not opposed to that of 9esus.:G

As we have already pointed out in #hapter 1:, even though the TrinityPeither the

term itself or its specific formulationPdoes not appear in the ;ible, nevertheless, it is afaithful expression dealing with all the biblical data. Also, an accurate understanding of

the historical and theological development of this doctrine would amply illustrate that it

was exactly because of the dangers of paganism that the #ouncil of icea formulated theorthodox doctrine of the Trinity.:?

In response to the specific charges of the influence of "ithraism on #hristianity,

#histis descriptions of this religion are baseless %it is interesting that the author gives no

reference for such alleged similarities&. onald ash, the author of The &os!el and the&ree%s, describes "ithraism in the following way3

:> Ibid., 6.

:F Ibid., 6E.:G See $abermas, ?6E6:. *or further response to the charge that (aul corrupted 9esus

original message, the reader should refer to 9. 8resham "achens classic The 4riin of

+auls #eliion%8rand apids3 4erdmans, 1:G&, *. *. ;ruce,+aul and )esus%8randapids3 ;a5er, 16F& and $erman idderbos,+aul and )esus%8rand apids3 ;a5er,

1G6&.

:? *or a brief treatment of the history of this doctrine, see 4. #alvin ;eisner, &od inThree +ersons%@heaton3 Tyndale $ouse&. Two of the classics in this field are 8. K.

(restige, &od in +atristic Thouht%Kondon3 S.(.#.2., 1G:& and 9. . =. 2elly,.arly

1hristian Doctrines%Kondon3 Adam and #harles ;lac5, 1G&.


17/46

@e do 5now that "ithraism, li5e its mystery competitors, had a basic myth. "ithra was

supposedly born when he emerged from a roc5D he was carrying a 5nife and torch and

wearing a (hrygian cap. $e battled first with the sun and then with a primeval bull,

thought to be the first act of creation. "ithra slew the bull, which then became the ground

of life for the human race.:6

ash continues,

Allegations of an early #hristian dependence on "ithraism have been re)ected on many

grounds. "ithraism had no concept of the death and resurrection of its god and no placefor any concept of rebirthPat least during its early stages.0 =uring the early stages of

the cult, the notion of rebirth would have been foreign to its basic outloo5.0 "oreover,

"ithraism was basically a military cult. Therefore, one must be s5eptical about

suggestions that it appealed to nonmilitary people li5e the early #hristians.

(erhaps the most important argument against an early #hristian dependence on

"ithraism is the fact that the timing is all wrong. The flowering of "ithraism occurredafter the close of the ew Testament canon, too late for it to have influenced the

development of first'century #hristianity.:

In fact, all the allegations of #hristian dependence on various mystery religions or

8nostic movements have been re)ected by scholars in the fields of biblical and classical

studies.: The reasons for such a re)ection are mainly due to the historical character of#hristianity and the early date of the ew Testament documents that would not have

allowed enough time for mythological developments on one hand, and on the other hand,

the complete lac5 of any early historical evidence in support of the mystery religions. Asthe ;ritish scholar Sir orman Anderson explains,

The basic difference between #hristianity and the mysteries is the historic basis of the

one and the mythological character of the others. The deities of the mysteries were nomore than -nebulous figures of an imaginary past, while the #hrist whom the apostolic

%erymaproclaimed had lived and died only a few years before the first ew Testamentdocuments were written. 4ven when the apostle (aul wrote his first letter to the

#orinthians the ma)ority of some five hundred witnesses to the resurrection were stillalive.>!

#oncerning the Curan, we would li5e to point out that, based on the findings ofreputable scholars of Islam, much of the content of the Curan can be traced to either

9ewish or #hristian wor5s %often from 9ewish or #hristian apocrypha& or pagan sources.

Arthur 9effery, in his technical and scholarly volume The 8orein oca'ulary of the(uran*ably proves that -not only the greater part of the religious vocabulary, but also

:6 onald ash, The &os!el and the &ree%s%=allas3 @ord, 1:&, 1FF.

: Ibid., 1F6.: Ibid., 11.

>! Sir orman Anderson, 1hristianity and 5orld #eliions%=owners 8rove3

InterMarsity, 1F&, G:EG>.


18/46

most of the cultural vocabulary of the Curan is of non'Arabic origin.>1 Some of the

vocabulary sources include Abyssinian, (ersian, 8ree5, Syriac, $ebrew, and #optic.>:

@. St. #lair'Tisdall, in his classic The Sources of Islam* also demonstrates the directdependence of certain Curanic stories of the Jld Testament on the 9ewish Talmud. The

influence of the 9ewish apocrypha can be seen on the Curanic stories of #ain and Abel,Abraham and the idols, and the Cueen of Sheba.>> The direct influence of #hristian

apocrypha can be seen in the story of seven sleepers and the childhood miracles of 9esus.*or the existence of Qoroastrian doctrines in the Curan we can cite the Curanic

descriptions of the houries %virgins& in (aradise and thesirat%the bridge between hell and

(aradise&.>F In addition to these, important "uslim practices such as visiting the shrineof 2aaba, and the many details of the ceremony of hajj, including visits to the hills of

Safa and "arwa, and also the throwing of stones against a stone pillar symboli+ing Satan,

were all pre'Islamic practices of pagan Arabia.>G

It spite of the above evidences, it is interesting that "uslim authors have been most

unwilling to address the issue of the human origins of the Curan, but have simplyrepeated their dogmatic assertions about its divine origin. In fact, in our research of

"uslim authors we have not even come across an ac5nowledgment of such problems inthe Curan, to say nothing of solutions.

In conclusion, it is our sincere hope that the readers will consider the evidences set

forth in this boo5, pursue their specific areas of interest even further, and ma5e their

decision concerning the integrity and the reliability of the ew Testament based onhistorical *A#TSO

Appendix GISLAMANDVIOLENCE

>1 Arthur 9effery, The 8orein oca'ulary of the (uran%Kahore, (a5istan3 Al';iruni,

166&, :.

>: Ibid., 1:E>:.>> Tisdall, The Sources of Islam, 11E>!. *or a host of other similarities, see pp. >EFG.

>F Ibid., F?EG, 6FE1.

>G See =ashti, GG, >EF, 1?F.


19/46

After the events of September 11, the issue of violence and religion has once again

come into intense discussions and debate. It is our conviction that although various

political, socioeconomic and cultural factors have significantly contributed to the rise ofviolence and terrorism in contemporary fundamentalist Islam, we cannot ignore the

religious dimension of this violence that goes bac5 to the very heart and origin of Islam.

The point that wed li5e to ma5e is /uite simple. @hile many "uslims are peace'

loving, nonetheless, those who commit acts of violence and terror in the name of 8od canfind ample )ustification for their actions, based on the teachings of the Curan and the

sayings and examples from prophet "uhammad himselfO @e have often heard in the

media that the relationship between "uslim terrorists and Islam is li5e that of 222 and#hristianity. This analogy is clearly false. #hristians who have engaged in violence are

betraying the explicit teachings and examples of 9esus #hrist. Jn the other hand,

"uslims who ta5e upon themselves to destroy their alleged enemies in the name of 8odcan rightly claim to be following the commands of 8od in the Curan and imitating their

prophet as their role model.

Jur point, of course, should not be ta5en to imply that all faithful and devout

"uslims must become violent in order to be true to the teachings of Islam. o doubt thema)ority of the "uslim world condemns acts of terror and violence. There are many

schools of thought in Islam with various and often conflicting interpretations of the

Curan. $owever, the important distinction that we are ma5ing is this3 The minoritygroups in Islam who resort to violence are not an aberration to Islam but in fact can

legitimately claim to be wor5ing within the basic parameters of Islamic)ihad. @e will

now turn to the evidence in support of our claim.

SUPPORTFORVIOLENCEINTHEQURAN

The following are only some of the verses in the Curan that can and have been usedin the history of Islam in support of violence in the name of 8od and the glories of

martyrdom in a holy war.

:31!E1> -*ight in the cause of 8od those who fight you 0 And slay them

wherever ye catch them 0 And fight them on until there is no more tumult oroppression and there prevail )ustice and faith in 8od 0

:3:1? -*ighting is prescribed for you and ye disli5e it. ;ut it is possible that ye

disli5e a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad foryou. ;ut 8od 5noweth and ye 5now not.

:3::F -Then fight in the cause of 8od and 5now that 8od heareth and 5noweth allthings.


20/46

>31G6E1G -And if ye are slain or die in the way of 8od, forgiveness and mercy from

8od are far better than all they could amass. And if ye die, or are slain, KoO It is

unto 8od that ye are brought together.

>31? -Thin5 not of those who are slain in 8ods way as dead. ay, they live finding

their sustenance in the presence of their Kord.

>31G - 0 Those who have 0 fought or been slain, verily I will blot out from them

their ini/uities and admit them into 8ardens with rivers flowing beneathD a rewardfrom the presence of 8od 0

F31!1 - 0 *or the Hnbelievers are unto you open enemies.

F36F, 6G -Ket those fight in the cause of 8od who sell the life of this world for the

$ereafter. To him who fighteth in the cause of 8od whether he is slain or gets

victory, soon shall we give him a reward of great %value&. Those who believe fight

in the cause of 8od and those who re)ect faith fight in the cause of evil, so fightye against the friends of Satan, feeble indeed is the cunning of Satan.

F3 -They but wish that ye should re)ect faith as they do, and thus be on the samefooting as they. ;ut ta5e not friends from their ran5s until they flee in the way of

8od. ;ut if they turn renegades, sei+e them and slay them wherever ye find them

0

F3G -ot e/ual are those believers who sit %at home& and receive no hurt and thosewho strive and fight in the cause of 8od with their goods and their persons. 8od

hath granted a grade higher to those who strive and fight with their goods and

persons than those who sit %at home&.

G3>? -The punishment of those who wage war against 8od and $is apostle and strivewith might and main for mischief through the land is3 execution, or crucifixion, or

the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land. That

is their disgrace in this world and a heavy punishment is theirs in the $ereafter.

G3GF -J ye who believe. Ta5e not the 9ews and the #hristians for your friends andprotectors. They are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you

that turns to them %for friendship& is of them. Merily 8od guideth not a people

un)ust.

31:E16 -emember thy Kord inspired the angels %with the message&3 7I am with you.8ive firmness to the believers. I will instill terror into the hearts of the

unbelievers. Smite ye above their nec5s and smite all their finger tips off them.

This because they contend against 8od and his apostle. If any contend against8od and his apostle, 8od is strict in punishment 0 J ye who believe. @hen ye

meet the unbelievers in hostile array, never turn your bac5s to them. If any do turn


21/46

his bac5 to them on such a day, unless it be a stratagem of war 0 he draws on

himself the wrath of 8od and his abode is $ell, an evil refuge %indeed&.

3GE?! -Ket not the unbelievers thin5 that they can get the better %of the godly&.They will never frustrate %them&. Against them ma5e ready your strength to the

utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to stri5e terror into %the hearts of&the enemies of 8od and your enemies and others besides, whom ye may not

5now, but whom 8od doth 5now 0

3?G -J apostleO ouse the believers to the fight. If there are twenty amongst you,

patient and persevering, they will van/uish two hundred. If a hundred they will

van/uish a thousand of the unbelievers, for these are a people withoutunderstanding.

3G - 0 fight and slay the pagans wherever ye find them, and sei+e them, beleaguer

them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem %of war& 0

31F -*ight them, and 8od will punish them by your hands, cover them with shame.

0

3: -*ight those who believe not in 8od nor the Kast =ay nor hold that forbidden

which hath been forbidden by 8od and his apostle nor ac5nowledge the eligion

of Truth %even if they are& of the people of the ;oo5, until they pay the)i$ya

religious taxB with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.

F63F -Therefore, when ye meet the unbelievers, smite at their nec5s, at length when

ye have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly %on them&.0 but if it had

been 8ods will, he could certainly have exacted retribution from them %himself&,but %he lets you fight& in order to test you, some with others. ;ut those who areslain in the way of 8od, he will never let their deeds be lost.

?13F -Truly 8od loves those who fight in $is cause in battle array, as if they were a

solid cemented structure.

A simple reading of such Curanic passages ma5es it obvious how easy it is for many"uslims to feel hatred and enmity against 9ews, #hristians, and other non'

"uslims. Although many "uslims are very fond of /uoting some of the more -open'

minded and -inclusive verses of the Curan, one cannot ignore the weight and impactof the above passages on a devout "uslim who wants to find and obey the will of 8od asfound in the Curan. ;efore we go on to other examples from prophet "uhammad

himself, we need to respond to two issues that some "uslims bring up at this point.

ANSWERINGSOMEOBJECTIONS


22/46

"any have claimed that Curanic verses in support of fighting were for a special

historical situation concerning the beginning of Islam. They argue that since prophet

"uhammad was persecuted in "ecca for the first thirteen years of his ministry, he was)ustified in his military actions in the last ten years of his life in "edina and for the

support of the budding Islamic movement. The problem with this reasoning is that

nowhere in the Curan itself are the above commands to fight restricted to a special timeperiod or against a special people group. Hnli5e the divine commands found in the ;oo5

of 9oshua in the Jld Testament, that were specific to a time, place, and people group,

orthodox "uslims believe that the Curanic commands are universal and thus applicablefor all times and places.

A second ob)ection that one hears is that Islam is a religion of peace, and war in Islam

is only for self'defense. 9amal ;adawi, a popular "uslim apologist, claims, -Actual

armedjihadis permissible under two conditions alone3 one is for self'defense, and theother is for fighting against oppression.1 Although, ;adawi is /uite accurate in

describing the conditions of armedjihadin Islam, what he fails to say is that the

definitions of -self'defense and -fighting against oppression are much broader thanusually understood. "any orthodox "uslims believe that if a nations leaders do not

ac5nowledge the rule of Islam, then those rulers are -oppressors and thus a legitimate

target for war.: "any "uslims argue that America is a cultural aggressor by exporting

its $ollywood values all over the world, and thus any fight against Americans is done inself'defense.> Therefore, there is no end to how a "uslim group can define -self'

defense and -oppression and thus find an Islamic )ustification for violence.

SUPPORTFORVIOLENCEINTHELIFE

OFPROPHETMUHAMMAD

@e now turn our attention to )ust a few examples of some of the actions and sayings

of prophet "uhammad to see if "uslims can find any legitimacy for the use of violence

as witnessed in the contemporary world. @e remind the reader that we will only use the

most ancient, authoritative, and original Islamic writings in support of our thesis. Theearliest biography of prophet "uhammad was written by Ibn Isha/ in the second century

of the Islamic era and was later edited by Ibn $isham in the third century. This wor5 was

translated into 4nglish under the title The 9ife of Muhammadby A. 8uillaume andpublished by Jxford Hniversity (ress in 1GG. The following accounts are some of the

sayings and actions of prophet "uhammad and his close companions found in this

biography.

1 #ited in =iana 4c5,A ,ew #eliious America%San *rancisco3 $arper, :!!1&, :>.: See 9ohn 2elsay,Islam and 5ar%Kouisville3 @estminsterR9ohn 2nox (ress, 1>&, >G.

> See "ar5 8alli, -ow @hatN A #hristian response to religious terrorism, 1hristianity

Today, Jctober ::, :!!1.


23/46

EXAMPLESFROMTHEEARLIESTBIOGRAPHY

OFMUHAMMAD

In the constitution of "edina, which the prophet wrote when he and his followersmigrated from "ecca in the year ?::, we read, -A believer shall not slay a believer for

the sa5e of an unbeliever, nor shall he aid an unbeliever against a believer.0 ;elieversare friends one to the other to the exclusion of outsiders.0 The believers must avenge theblood of one another shed in the way of 8od.F

The first in the series of assassinations that the prophet ordered was an old 9ewish

man named Ibnul'Ashraf. $is crime was writing poetry against "uslims. -The apostle

said, 7@ho will rid me of Ibnul'AshrafN Jne of his followers volunteered and said, -Iwill deal with him for you, J apostle of 8od, I will 5ill him. And the prophet responded

by saying, -=o so if you can. The prophet also explicitly gave his assassins permission

to lie and use tric5ery in order to accomplish their mission. The report goes on to describehow the prophets followers deceived the old man out of his house in the middle of the

night and )umped on him with swords and daggers and brutally murdered him. Aftercompleting their mission, the followers reported bac5 to the prophet that they -had 5illed

8ods enemy. The author concludes this incident by writing, -Jur attac5 upon 8odsenemy cast terror among the 9ews, and there was no 9ew in "edina who did not fear for

his life.G

In the very next incident in this biography of prophet "uhammad we read, -The

apostle said, 72ill any 9ew that falls into your power. The author then recounts the storyof two brothers, the younger one of which was a "uslim. Hpon hearing this command,

the younger "uslim brother 5ills a 9ewish merchant. The older brother became very

critical of the action of his younger sibling. In response the younger brother says, -$ad

the one who ordered me to 5ill him ordered me to 5ill you I would have cut your headoff. The older brother exclaimed, -7;y 8od, a religion which can bring you to this is

marvelousO and he became a "uslim.?

In one of the battles, after one of prophet "uhammads uncles was savagely 5illed,"uhammad became so angry that he said, -If 8od gives me victory over Curaysh in the

future I will mutilate >! of their men. Seeing the grief of their prophet, "uhammads

followers claimed, -;y 8od, if 8od give us victory over them in the future we willmutilate them as no Arab has ever mutilated anyone. Than5fully, the prophet had a

change of mind and later decided to forbid mutilation.6

In another famous incident with 9ewish people, after having already expelled two9ewish tribes from the city of "edina, the prophet orchestrated the execution of all theadult males of the last 9ewish tribe of the city and the ta5ing of all the property and the

F Ibn Isha/, :>:.G Ibid., >?6E?.

? Ibid., >?.

6 Ibid., >6.


24/46

women and children. The "uslim sources put the number of the 9ewish men who were

beheaded in one day anywhere between ?!! to !!.

Jn another occasion, the prophet and his companions were loo5ing for the hiddentreasure of a con/uered tribe. An individual was brought to "uhammad who was

supposed to 5now where the hidden treasure was located. The prophet threatened to 5illthe individual if he did not tell the "uslims where the treasure was. Hpon refusal to

cooperate, -The apostle gave orders to al'Qubayr b. al'Awwam, 7Torture him until youextract what he has, so he 5indled a fire with flint and steel on his chest until he was

nearly dead. Then the apostle delivered him to "uhammad b. "aslama and he struc5 off

his head.

Hpon con/uering "ecca, a number of individuals were ordered to be 5illed by the

prophet without any immunity. The crimes committed by the ma)ority of these people

were ma5ing -satirical songs against "uhammad or having insulted him during his

ministry in "ecca.1! Jne person who was fortunate enough to be pardoned was

Abdullah b. Sad. -The reason he "uhammadB ordered him to be 5illed was that he hadbeen a "uslim and used to write down revelationD then he apostati+ed and returned to

Curaysh. Since Abdullah was a foster brother of a close companion of "uhammad, hewas able to receive a hearing from the prophet and as5 for immunity. The prophet

unwillingly granted the immunity. After the pardoned person left, "uhammad said to his

companions, -7I 5ept silent so that one of you might get up and stri5e off his headO Jneof the Ansar said, 7Then why didnt you give me a sign, J apostle of 8odN $e answered

that a prophet does not 5ill by pointing. 11

To one of his commanders whom the prophet was sending on an -expedition, he

gave this advice, -*ight everyone in the way of 8od and 5ill those who disbelieve in

8od. =o not be deceitful with the spoilD do not be treacherous, nor mutilate, nor 5illchildren. This is 8ods ordinance and the practice of his prophet among you. 1:

Another assassination ordered by the prophet was regarding his uncle Abu Sufyan,

the leader of the pagan opposition in "ecca. "uslim volunteers traveled to "ecca tocarry out this mission. The assassination attempt failed, however. Jn the way bac5 to

"edina, one of the followers of the prophet encountered a one'eyed shepherd who

confidently claimed that he would never accept Islam. @e pic5 up the account from the"uslim assassin himself. As soon as the man was -asleep and snoring I got up and 5illed

him in a more horrible way than any man has been 5illed. I put the end of my bow in his

sound eye, then I bore down on it until I forced it out at the bac5 of his nec5.0 @hen I

got to "edina 0 the apostle as5ed my news and when I told him what had happened heblessed me.1>

Ibid., F?F.

Ibid., G1G.

1! Ibid., GG1.11 Ibid., GG!.

1: Ibid., ?6:.

1> Ibid., ?6FE6G.


25/46

The biography of the prophet follows this account with two more reports of

successful assassinations ordered by the prophet. Abu Afa5 had -showed his disaffection

with the apostle by composing a poem. -The apostle said, 7@ho will deal with thisrascal for meN whereupon Salim b. Hmayr 0 went forth and 5illed him.1F After this

assassination, a woman by the name of Asma b. "arwan -displayed disaffection and

also composed a poem against the prophet. -@hen the apostle heard what she had said hesaid, 7@ho will rid me of "arwans daughterN Hmayr 0 who was with him heard him,

and that very night he went to her house and 5illed her. In the morning he came to the

apostle and told him what he had done and he "uhammadB said, 7


26/46

his companions&, -#hase and 5ill him. So, I 5illed him. The (rophet then gave him the

belongings of the 5illed spy.:!

Some people from the tribe of H5l came to the (rophet and embraced Islam. The

climate of "edina did not suit them, so the (rophet ordered them to go to the %herd of

mil5& camels of charity and to drin5 their mil5 and urine %as a medicine&. They did so,

and after they had recovered from their ailment %became healthy& they turned renegades%reverted from Islam& and 5illed the shepherd of the camels and too5 the camels away.

The (rophet sent %some people& in their pursuit and so they were %caught and& brought,

and the (rophet ordered that their hands and legs should be cut off and that their eyesshould be branded with heated pieces of iron, and that their cut hands and legs should not

be cauteri+ed, till they die.:1

The (rophet passed by me at a place called Al'Abwa or @addan, and was as5ed

whether it was permissible to attac5 the pagan warriors at night with the probability of

exposing their women and children to danger. The (rophet replied, -They %i.e. women

and children& are from them %i.e. pagans&.::

The above tradition, li5e many others, is also repeated in other collections of prophet

"uhammads sayings. In the second most authoritative hadithcollection, The Sahih of

Muslim, the chapter that discusses this particular saying is entitled, -(ermissibility of5illing women and children in the night raids, provided it is not deliberate. The author

then goes on to write, -It is reported on the authority of Sab b. 9aththama that the

(rophet of Allah %may peace be upon him&, when as5ed about the women and children of

the polytheists being 5illed during the night raid, said3 They are from them:>

@e will end this discussion with two more traditions from another collection, Sunan

A'u Dawud. Hnder a chapter entitled, -4xcellence of 5illing an infidel we read the

following saying. -Abu $arairah reported the Apostle of Allah %may peace be upon him&

as saying3 An infidel and the one who 5illed him will never be brought together in $ell.The "uslim translator of this wor5 adds the following footnote to this tradition, -This

means that a person who 5ills an infidel while fighting in Allahs path %i.e.jihad& will

have his sins remitted and forgiven, and will, therefore, go to (aradise. The infidel willinevitably go to $ell. Thus the man who 5illed an infidel will not be brought together in

$ell with him.:F

Another chapter in this collection is entitled, -(unishment of a man who abuses the

(rophet %may peace be upon him&. The author recounts the story of a "uslim man who5illed his slave and concubine by whom he had two children. Since she -disparaged the

(rophet, the slave owner, -too5 the dagger, put it on her belly and pressed it till heB

5illed her. Hpon hearing the reason for this murder, the prophet said, -Jh, be witness, no

:! Ibid., vol. F, 11E:.

:1 Ibid., vol. , G1E:!.

:: Ibid., vol. F, 1GEG.:> Abduhl Amid Siddi/i, trans. The Sahih of Muslim* vol >, F?EF6.

:F Ahmad $asan, trans. Sunan A'u Dawud%ew =elhi3 2itab ;havan, 1!&, vol. :,

?!.


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retaliation is payable for her blood. :G The next incident in the above chapter is reported

by Ali. -A 9ewess used to abuse the (rophet %may peace be upon him& and disparage him.

A man strangled her till she died. The Apostle of Allah %may peace be upon him& declaredthat no recompense was payable for her blood.:? Jnce again, the translator provides us

with the following explanatory notes3 -It is unanimously agreed that if a "uslim abuses

or insults the (rophet %may peace be upon him& he should be 5illed.0 even if a 9ew orany non'"uslim abuses the (rophet %may peace be upon him& he will be 5illed.0 The

punishment for abusing or opposing the (rophet %may peace be upon him& was death.:6

CONCLUSION

Miolence in Islam, whether in the form of terrorism, or the persecution of #hristians

and other minorities in the "uslim world, or capital punishment for an individual whoturns away from Islam, or death threats on Salman ushdie for allegedly insulting

prophet "uhammad, are not simply some isolated incidents or aberrations from the true

and peaceful religion of Islam. Such violence in fact goes to the very roots of Islam asfound in the Curan and the actions and teachings of the prophet of Islam himself. Jsama

bin Kaden /uoted some of the very same Curanic and hadithpassages that we have

documented here in order to provide religious )ustification of his actions.:

@e would li5e to conclude this section by referring to a program produced by*rontline and shown on (;S around the country entitled, -The Saudi Time ;omb. At

one point in this program we were told about the state sponsored religious education in

Saudi Arabia. According to *rontline, -approximately >G of school studies is devoted tocompulsory Saudi religious education. Jne of these textboo5s published in :!!! was a

collection of prophet "uhammads sayings, which was used by middle school students in

Saudi Arabia. Jne lesson is entitled, -The Mictory of "uslims Jver 9ews. According toa tradition from prophet "uhammad, -The last hour wont come before the "uslims

would fight the 9ews and the "uslims will 5ill them so 9ews would hide behind roc5s and

trees. Then the roc5s and trees would call3 oh, "uslim, oh, servant of 8odO There is a

9ew, behind me, come and 5ill him. Ki5e a good textboo5, the teachings of this sayingare summari+ed in several propositional statements such as3

L Its fate decided by Allah that the "uslims and 9ews will fight till the end of the

world.

L This $adith predicts for the "uslims 8ods victory over the 9ews.

:G Ibid., vol. >, 1:1FE1G.:? Ibid., 1:1G.

:6 Ibid., 1:1G.

: See the transcript of his video tape in the,ew ;or% Times, 1F =ecember :!!1, ;F.


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L 9ews and #hristians are the enemies of believers. They will never approve of the

"uslims, beware of them

% www.pbs.orgRwgbhRpagesRfrontlineRshowsRsaudiRetcRtextboo5s.html &.

Ideas have conse/uences. It has also become very clear for our world once again that

violent ideas have violent conse/uences. @e are not engaging in old #hristian'"uslimpolemics when we point out the prevalence of violence throughout the foundations and

thus subse/uent history of Islam. @e are only exposing the teachings in the most originaland authoritative sources of Islam. @e believe that it is essential for people of goodwill

around the world to 5now that underneath all the political, social, and cultural causes for

the rise of violence among "uslims, there is a religious foundation for violence deeplyembedded within the very worldview of Islam. The world needs to ta5e the challenge of

Islam more seriously than at any other time in the past.

Appendix ?BLACKISLAM

WITHSTACEYJACOBS

Islam is gaining its largest percentage of converts from the African'American

community. Jne of the dominate sects within ;lac5 Islam is called The ation of Islam,

whose current leader is Kouis *arra5han. A brief bac5ground of The ation of Islam willbe helpful in understanding its beliefs. It should be noted up front, however, that this

group is not considered to be a form of genuine Islam by orthodox "uslims since The

ation of Islam affirms the existence of a prophet after "uhammad. *urthermore, as the

following discussion will indicate, they deviate from orthodox Islam in a number of other

ways, including their view of 8od.

I. BACKGROUND

KJHIS*AA2$A


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@hen "uhammad died in 16G, his son, @allace =een, who sought unification

between the ;lac5 "uslims and orthodox Islam, succeeded him. Although he initially

supported =eens leadership of the group, this proposed trend was unacceptable to Kouis*arra5han. *arra5han was the leader of the $arlem "os/ue at the time and was

essentially second in command in the ation at that time. *arra5han preferred the

teachings of 4li)ah "uhammad, and in 166 bro5e from the ;lac5 "uslims, returning tohis mentors teaching. $e started the faction that bears the name -ation of Islam %a

name also used by 4li)ah "uhammad&. #onse /uently, the ;lac5 "uslims of @allace

=een )oined orthodox Islam and are now 5nown as the American "uslim "ission %orAmerican "uslim Society&, where they have laid aside much of the racial hatred

perpetrated by 4li)ah "uhammad, allowing whites to )oin the group as well.

An example in microcosm of current ation of Islam rhetoric is well summari+ed by

Sidney Ahlstrom inA #eliious History of the American +eo!le3

TheirB eschatology teaches that 8od has comeD there is no life after this lifeD heaven and

hell are only two contrasting earthly conditionsD the hereafter %which will begin to appear

about A.=. :!!!& is but the end of the present -spoo5 civili+ation of the #aucasian

usurpers, including the #hristian religion. It will be followed by the redemption of the

;lac5 ation and their glorious rule over all the earth %16:, p. 1!?&.

Jstensibly, the message of the ation of Islam %as presented by *arra5han at the

"illion'"an "arch& is one of social atonement and reconciliationD it is a call for the

blac5 community to strive for moral and ethical superiority. *arra5han called theaudience to give up drugs, prostitution, and violence, and to commit to improving

themselves -spiritually, morally, mentally, socially, politically, and economically %1G&.

These are laudable concerns that should transcend race. If lower crime rates, highereconomic productivity, and an over'all improvement in the /uality of life for African'

Americans result from the efforts of *arra5han, then all people will have reason tore)oice.

In his "illion'"an "arch speech, *arra5han argued that the Hnited States is rotten atits very foundation because it has been characteri+ed from the beginning by white

supremacy. *or example, he said3

The Seal and the #onstitution of the Hnited StatesP;T;B reflect the thin5ing of the

founding fathers, that this was to be a nation by @hite people and for @hite people.

ative Americans, ;lac5s, and all other non'@hite people were to be the burden bearers

for the real citi+ens of this nation %1G&.

8iven this, the official beliefs of the ation of Islam can be examined in order to

more clearly see what is presently the basis of its fundamental doctrine.

II. WHATBLACKMUSLIMSBELIEVE


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%Ta5en from -The "uslim (rogram section of The 8inal 1allonline edition&

1. @4 ;4KI4M4 in the Jne 8od @hose proper ame is Allah.

:. @4 ;4KI4M4 in the $oly Curan and in the Scriptures of all the (rophets of

8od.

>. @4 ;4KI4M4 in the truth of the ;ible, but we believe that it has been

tam!ered with andmust be reinterpreted so that man5ind will not be snared by the

falsehoods that have been added to it.

F. @4 ;4KI4M4 in Allahs (rophets and the Scriptures they brought to thepeople.

G. @4 ;4KI4M4 in the resurrection of the deadPnot in physical resurrectionP

but in mental resurrection. @e believe that the so'called egroes are most in need

of mental resurrectionD therefore they will be resurrected first.*urthermore, we believe we are the people of 8ods choice, as it has been written,

that 8od would choose the re)ected and the despised. @e can find no other

persons fitting this description in these last days more that the so'called egroesin America. @e believe in the resurrection of the righteous.

?. @4 ;4KI4M4 in the )udgmentD we believe this first )udgment will ta5e place as

8od revealed, in America.

6. @4 ;4KI4M4 this is the time in history for the separation of the so'called

egroes and the so'called white Americans. @e believe the ;lac5 man should be

freed in name as well as in fact. ;y this we mean that he should be freed from thenames imposed upon him by his former slave masters. ames which identified

him as being the slave masters slave. @e believe that if we are free indeed, weshould go in our own peoples namesPthe blac5 people of the 4arth.

. @4 ;4KI4M4 in )ustice for all, whether in 8od or notD we believe as others,

that we are due e/ual )ustice as human beings. @e believe in e/ualityPas a nation

Pof e/uals. @e do not believe that we are e/ual with our slave masters in thestatus of -freed slaves. @e recogni+e and respect American citi+ens as

independent peoples and we respect their laws which govern this nation.

. @4 ;4KI4M4 that the offer of integration is hypocritical and is made by thosewho are trying to deceive the ;lac5 peoples into believing that their F!!'year'oldopen enemies of freedom, )ustice and e/uality are, all of a sudden, their -friends.

*urthermore, we believe that such deception is intended to prevent ;lac5 people

from reali+ing that the time in history has arrived for the separation from thewhites of this nation.

If the white people are truthful about their professed friendship toward the so'

called egro, they can prove it by dividing up America with their slaves. @e do


31/46

not believe that America will ever be able to furnish enough )obs for her own

millions of unemployed, in addition to )obs for the :!,!!!,!!! blac5 people as

well.

1!. @4 ;4KI4M4 that we who declare ourselves to be righteous "uslims, should

not participate in wars which ta5e the lives of humans. @e do not believe thisnation should force us to ta5e part in such wars, for we have nothing to gain from

it unless America agrees to give us the necessary territory wherein we may havesomething to fight for.

11. @4 ;4KI4M4 our women should be respected and protected as the women of

other nationalities are respected and protected.

1:. @4 ;4KI4M4 that Allah %8od& appeared in the (erson of "aster @. *ard"uhammad, 9uly, 1>!D the long'awaited -"essiah of the #hristians and the

-"ahdi of the "uslims.

1>. @4 ;4KI4M4 further and lastly that Allah is 8od and besides $I" there is no

8od and $e will bring about a universal government of peace wherein we all canlive in peace together.

III. VIEWOFGOD

*AA2$ASMI4@J*8J=

Although the wording is monotheistic, -Jne 8od, the language used to describe 8odand his prophets can be interpreted variously as pantheistic, dualistic, and polytheistic,

and even panentheist %process theology&. ;lac5 apologists, =r. 9erry ;uc5ner claims3

-The ation of Islam is a polytheistic religion. Several references in their literature pointto a belief in many gods, and there is a council of :> scientists'gods who write history.

Jne of them,


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Ki5e human beings, 8od was formed out of dar5ness. -The dar5ness out of which

8od created $imself has no e/ual, except in the triple dar5 ness of the womb of the

female. 8od made her womb a replication of the womb out of which $e came. $ence,-If light is in the essence of the cell, energy is there, intelligence is there. 8od formed

$imself in the dar5ness. $e had to overcome the dar5ness. So, -@hen $e %8od& comes

into existence, $e comes into existence a light of $imself, coming up out of the dar5nessDthis is the way we come into existence, bearing witness to $is origination. $e continues,

-$e was a light of $imself in dar5ness. So here we have a duality. $is light coming up

out of dar5ness. $e was life in the midst of death. =eath, in this sense, is described asinanimate matter having no purpose or function.>

*arra5han also spea5s of human beings as having a -divine essence, a gold that

needs purifying. -@hen we are purified, we will become the eternal transmitters of 8ods

divine spirit and wisdom, thus ma5ing us 0 the true house of 8od.

$e falls short, however, of absolute pantheism, claiming we are an -image of 8od.

-@hen we use the term image, it means that we are li5e 8od in form, appearance andsemblance. @e are a counterpart, a copy, a type, an embodiment.0 It means to mirror or

reflect.F

If 8ods self creation is ta5en literally, then one is left with the logical absurdity that8od created himself out of nothing. 8iving the benefit of the doubt that 8ods -self

creation is an eternal process, the best twist one can give to *arra5hans view is a form

of process theology %panentheism&.

Ki5ewise, if the -council of the gods is ta5en as finite creatures of the one eternal

and unbegotten 8od, then a semblance of monotheism may be retained. If, however, the

supreme 8od %Allah& is )ust one superior 8od among the other finite gods, then*arra5hans view reduces to henotheism, a form of polytheism such as the 8ree5s had inQeus. Kac5ing a systematic theology or metaphysic, *arra5han does not provide the

means to frame a coherent view of 8od in terms of the traditional categories.

GLOSSARY

Alla: "uslim name for 8od.

> Ibid.

F Ibid.


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A!" Ba#$: A rich and respected merchant of "ecca, one of the first converts to

Islam, and a close friend and companion of "uhammad. According to the Sunnis he

was the first "uslim #aliph.

A.H.%AfterHijrah&, abbreviation for the years in "uslim calendar after the flight of

"uhammad %in ?:: A.=. &D used to divide time, as A.=. is for #hristians.

A%a&:=aily call to prayer by the muessinfrom the mos/ue.

Aa%:The oneness of 8odD the negation of any other number. The denial that 8od

has any partner or companion associated with him.

Al':The son of Abu Talib, the first cousin of "uhammad, who married *atimah, the

youngest daughter of the (rophet. $e is recogni+ed by Shiite "uslims as the true

successor of "uhammad, from whom come the succession of Imams. $e is the

fourth #aliph according to the Sunnis.

Al():%See Sadaa.&

A*'%a:A statement of religious belief, a creedal affirmation.

A+a,:A verse of the Curan.

-A+')a:The third wife of "uhammad and daughter of Abu ;a5r.

Ba'$a:A estorian mon5 who lived in ;asrah on the caravan routes and was a

strong influence on "uhammad.

Ba$a#a:A blessing.

B')('lla:An Arabic phrase meaning -In the ame of Allah.

Cal' /Kal'0:Title of the spiritual and political leader who too5 over after

"uhammads death.

D11&:"uslim religious practice, such as, reciting the creed, praying, fasting, andgiving alms, as distinct from a belief %iman&.

Da22al:ame for anti'#hrist who will appear at end of time.

Fa,'(a:The daughter of "uhammad by his first wife.

Fa,3a: A religiousRlegal )udgment.


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F'41 P'lla$):The chief religious duties of "uslims, namely, to recite the creed

%shahadah&D to pray %salat&D to fast %sawm&D to give alms %$a%at&D to ma5e the

pilgrimage %hajj& to "ecca at least once in their lifetime.

Fa,3a:An expert legal opinion of Curanic law.

Ha%',:Kiterally, a storyD an oral tradition later written down of what the prophet

supposedly said %sunna&, did, or approved ofPsomething said or done in his

presence.

Ha5'6:Jne who memori+es the Curan, a professional reciter.

Ha22:(ilgrimage to "eccaD one of the *ive (illars of Islam.

H'2$a:"uhammads flight from "ecca to "edina in A.=. ?::, thus the date used by

"uslims to divide time before and after, as #hristians use ;.#. and A.=.

Ha&'5:An original monotheist, such as Abraham, who holds a prominent position

among the prophets.

H"$'%pl. hurin&3 A damsel or maiden in (aradise.

I!'%a,:=evotional worship involving performing ones primary duties and good

deeds.

I!l')%from dia'olos&3 A Curanic name for Satan.

I2(a:#onsensus of "uslim legal scholars introduced in the eighth century tostandardi+e legal theory and practice, as opposed to ijtihad%-to endeavor or -exert

effort&, the individual thought of the earlier period.

I2,'a%:(rivate opinion, as opposed to ijma, or consensus held by "uslim scholars.

I(a(:A leaderD a person considered by Sunni "uslims to be an authority in Islamic

law and theology. A 5ind of "uslim pope in Shiite Islam. Shiites accept thesuccession of Imams. After the twelfth century the imamwent into hiding when the

source of authority was transferred to the ulama, who were considered collectively to

be the representatives of the hidden Imam.

I(a&:A "uslim belief, such as, in 8od, angels, prophets, Scriptures, and final

)udgment, as distinguished from "uslim practices %deen&.

I2a6:"iraculousness %see muji$a0.


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I&2'l:The ew Testament 8ospels as originally revealed by 8od, but not, as many

"uslims believe, the subse/uently corrupted text 5nown as the ew Testament by

#hristians.

I)a:Arabic word for 9esus.

I)la(:The religion revealed to "uhammad, meaning -submission %to the will of

Allah&.

I)(a1l:The first son of Abraham by his wifes handmaid, $agar. "uslims believe

Ishmael, not Isaac, was the son of 8ods promise to Abraham.

I)(a:(reservation, in particular, the preservation of the prophets from all sin or at

least from all ma)or sinsD their impeccability.

I)&a%:A chain of authorities through whom a tradition has been handed down from

the days of "uhammad.

J'a%:Sacred struggle with word or sword in the cause of AllahD a holy war.

J'&&:Spirits created by 8od, some good and others evil.

J'6+a:Tax paid by 9ews and #hristians to "uslim rulers, as opposed to pagans who

were forced either to accept Islam or die.

Ka!a:A cubical stone building in the court of the mos/ue at "ecca that is called the

-$ouse of 8od, toward which "uslims turn in prayer. This building contains the

blac5 stone supposedly given by Adam to 8abriel and used by Abraham whoallegedly built the 2aba with his son Ishmael. This blac5 stone has been 5issed by

"uhammad and "uslims since his time.

Ka%'2a:"uhammads first wife and first to believe that his message was from 8od.

Kal'5a:8ods trustee on earth %i.e., man&.

Ka5'$:An unbelieverD the opposite of a believer, mumin.

K"5$:Infidelity or apostasy.

Kala(:Speech. It is used of the @ord of 8od, and later of scholastic theology that

discussed theology rationally.

K7$a&:%See Curan.&


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Ma%':-The guided one, or coming world leader of righteousness. Sunnis wait for

the first one to appear and Shiites believe the last Imma, who disappeared in A.=.

6F, will someday reappear as the "ahdi.

Ma&)"#:The abrogation of an earlier revelation %see asi5h&.

M188a:The birthplace of "uhammad located in Saudi Arabia, considered the most

holy city by Islam. It must be visited at least once in a lifetime by all "uslims who

are physically and financially able.

M1%'&a:The second most holy city of Islam %after "ecca&, previously named


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Qa%a$:The determination of all things by 8od, his decree of good and evil.

Q'!la:The point "uslims face in prayer, toward "ecca.

Q"$a& /K7$a&0:;elieved by "uslims to be the full and final revelation of 8od to

man5ind, conveyed to "uhammad by the angel 8abriel over a twenty'three'yearperiod and corresponding perfectly to the eternal original in heaven.

Ra(a%a&:The ninth month of the "uslim lunar year now devoted to fasting, when

the Curan was supposedly brought down to the first heaven.

Ra)"l: An apostle, one who brings a message or revelation from 8od. "uslimtradition lists 1:F,!!! prophets. ;ut the most prominent prophets are five %or six&3

"uhammad %the Apostle of 8od&, oah %the (reacher of 8od&, Abraham %the *riend

of 8od&, "oses %the Spea5er with 8od&, and 9esus %the @ord of 8od&. Some also

include Adam %the #hosen of 8od& as the sixth person in the list. "uhammad is

believed to be the last and final prophet with the full and final revelation of 8od inthe Curan, the -seal of all the prophets.

Sa%a*a:#harity, almsgiving to the poor and needy. "uslims are obligated to giveone fortieth %:.G percent& of their income in alms.

Sala(:(eaceD a greeting of peace.

Sala,:(rescribed five daily prayers, one of the8ive +illarsof Islamic faith. "uslims

are re/uired to say 16 complete prayers each day. They may pray individually or

collectively. Jn *riday at noon "uslims are re/uired to gather at the "os/ue to pray.

Saa%a:Kiterally, -to bear witness, which is done by reciting the creed, -There is

no 8od but Allah, and "uhammad is $is messenger. Saying this sincerely is all that

is necessary to become a "uslim.

Sa'%:A witness, and then a martyr who has born witness by his death.

S'$#:Association, in particular the association of any other with 8od, so as toimpugn his absolute uni/ueness.

S'',1):The ma)or Islamic sect that believes, in contrast to Sunnis, that

"uhammads son'in'law, Ali, was the true successor to "uhammad in the leadershipof the Islamic community.

S'$a,or SeeratB3 Kiterally, the bridge over hell. "etaphorically, the narrow path to

heaven.

S"55'):The mystical wing of Islam that renounces worldly attachments, sees 8od in

all things, and strive for union of their beings with 8ods. In contrast to orthodox


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Islamic monotheism %8od created all&, they tend toward pantheism %8od is all&. Some

have virtually deified "uhammad, something considered anathema by orthod

Geisler Norman & Saleeb Abdul Answering Islam 14

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