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V

CEGEOGRAPHYUNITS1

&2

GEOGRAPHYENVIRONMENTS

G e o g r a p h y T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n o f V i c t o r i a I N C .

GEOGRAPHYENVIRONMENTSGEOGRAPHY

ENVIRONMENTS

VCEGEOGRAPH

YUNITS1&

2

VCE GEOGRAPHYUNITS1&2

G e o g r a p h y T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n o f V i c t o r i a I N C.

Geography Environments has been specifically written to

meet the needs of the VCE Geography 2006 Study Design,

Units 1 and 2. It incorporates text, case studies, data

and activities to help students and teachers develop an

understanding of the content and skills of Geography, and to

prepare them for success in their VCE assessments.

The accompanying Geography Environments CD-ROMcontains the entire text in PDF format for electronic use in

class or at home.

Also available in the New Perspectives series isResources

and Perspectives, VCE Geography Units 3 and 4.

AG

TA

WIN

NER

2013

AGTAAWARD

S

AUSTRALIAN

GEOGRAPHY

TEACH

ERS

AS

SOCI

AT

ION

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CONTENTS

Unit 1: Natural Environments

Chapter 1Essential skills 1

What is Geography? 3

Applying spatial concepts 3

Organising geographic data 13

Interpreting the instructional wording used in

Geography 16

Chapter 2Introduction to naturalenvironments 20

Characteristics of natural environments 21

A natural system 21

Inputs and outputs 22

Interaction between the spheres 23

Change in natural environments 26

Chapter 3Volcanic environments 30

Characteristics of volcanic environments 30

Global distribution of volcanic environments 31

Natural processes affecting the distribution of volcanic

environments 33

Factors affecting types of volcanic activity 35

Volcanic landforms 37

Changes in volcanic environments 41

Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland 46

Impact of the eruption 47

Impacts of volcanic activity 49

Student-assessed coursework 52

Chapter 4Victorias forestenvironments 54

Introduction 54

The natural system of forests 57

Geographic characteristics of Victorias forest

environments 60

Dynamics in Victorias forests 63

Characteristics of Victorias forests 65

Case study: Forests of the Otways 68

Changes to Victorias forest environments 70

Case study: Forests of the Strzeleckis 72Future of Victorian forest environments 77


Chapter 5Coastal environments 80

The coastal environment and the earths natural

systems 80

What is a coastal environment? 81

Types of coasts 82

The natural processes that shape and change coastal

environments 84

The landforms located in coastal environments 92

The nature, rate and scale of natural processes along

the coast 95

The human activities that shape and change coastal

environments 96

The nature, rate and scale of human activities along

the coast 98

The management of coastal environments 104

The sustainability of our coast 105


Glossary Natural Environments 110

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iii

Unit 2: Human Environments

Chapter 6Introduction to humanenvironments 114

Rural environments 115Urban environments 116

Changing human environments 117

Chapter 7Vietnam: a changing humanenvironment 124

Introduction 125

Where is Vietnam located? 125

The impact of history 126

Vietnams changing geographic characteristics 127

Vietnams changing population 129

Vietnams changing economy 131

Environmental conditions 133

A changing rural environment: The Mekong River

Delta 135

A changing urban environment: Hanoi 137

Tourism: a growth industry 140

Changing for the future 142


Chapter 8Melbourne: an urbanenvironment 146

Introduction 146

In the beginning 146

Physical factors influencing growth 147

At the centre: the CBD 149

Near the city centre: the IMZ 153

Docklands: large-scale change in the IMZ 156

In the suburbs 157

The ruralurban fringe 161

Melbournes future 164


Chapter 9Yarra Valley: a ruralenvironment 172

Geographic characteristics 172

Change over time in the Yarra Valley 176

Current land use 180

Managing change 185

Sustainability in the Yarra Valley 186

The future 187


GlossaryHuman Environments 190

Index 192

Acknowledgements 196

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CHAPTER 1ESSENTIAL SKILLS

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1| E S S E N T I A L S K I L L S | C H A P T E R O N E | 11

What is Geography? 3

Applying spatial concepts 3

Organising geographical data 13

Interpreting the instructional

wording used in Geography 16

Skills and Units 1 and 2

Competency in using geographic skills is

an essential component in achieving the

outcomes of Units 1 and 2. This chapter

covers many of these skills which are

referred to throughout this book.

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1

ey Knowledge andkillsDescribe and analyse data

ESSENTIAL SKILLS

Figure 1.1

River valley on the Forgotten

World Highway, New

Zealand (right)

Figure 1.3

Satellite image of Tropical

Storm Isidore (above)

Figure 1.2Hoodoos, Alberta, Canada

(right)

Figure 1.4

Street parking, Hanoi (below)

Figure 1.5

Vancouver, Canada (below)

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Activities

1. Use Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5. to identify one geographic feature found in

each of these examples of geographic data.

2. Select one figure to observe in greater detail. Use the questions of a geographic

detective to guide your observations of this piece of geographic data.

3. Identify one example of further secondary data, which would help you to better

understand the geography for each of figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5.

What is Geography?Geography is the study of patterns created by the interaction between natural and

human features on or near to the earths surface. Geography provides the skills to

describe, analyse and explain spatial relationships and informs your usage of these

skills to interpret the patterns created. The observational and research skills of

geographers allow analysis of the world we inhabit.

Geographic data comes in a variety of forms: as maps, satellite images,

photographs, videos, graphs and tables of statistics, text and diagrams. When

presented with a piece of geographic data, look for clues to help you to observe and

understand the knowledge it contains. To become a geographic detective use an

inquiry process or series of questions such as:

What can you observe?

Is it predominantly a natural or human feature?

Identify the features of the geographic data.

Where might it be located?Where is it in relation to other things?

What is its scale or size?

How is it being used?

What may have shaped it?

Does it appear to be changing?

How might it look in the future?

Geography makes use of data from a wide range of sources. Primary data can be

information that you have collected as fieldwork. Secondary data is collected and

often processed by someone else.

Primary data is obtained personally by going to a locationto make observations

and collect information. This primary data may be recorded as maps, sketches,

photographs, GPS logs, numbers of people, cars or density of vegetation, recording

movementpatterns and responses to interviews. Primary data collection is limited by

distancefrom and access to the research locationand the time available for multiple

visits to the fieldwork site. It is possible to collect primary data at a local park, beach,

farm or shopping strip, where you can easily gain access to observe and record

geographic data.

The use of secondary data, collected from sources such as the Internet, maps,

textbooks, reports and video footage, allows access to information that may

otherwise have been difficult to see first hand. Secondary data collection allows the

sourcing of global or regional statistics, information collected over a number of yearsor data collected at a larger scale than personal collection methods would allow. A

study of the impact of ecotourism on tropical rainforests would take many years to

research by personal fieldwork, but would be possible to achieve using secondary

sources.

Echuca

SheppartonRochester

Moama

Rushworth

Kyabram

Tatura

ToolambaElmore

Barmah

Stanhope

Strathmerton

Nathalia

Numurkah

Murchison

Tongala

Mooroopna

WarangaBasin

Riv

er

Murra

y

Goulburn

Campa

spe

River

Riv

er

LakeCooper

GreensLake

10 km0

N

Scale

VICTORIA

NEWSOUTH WALES

Barmah

State

Park

B75

B75

A39

A39

79

B400

B400

A300

A300

A300

Figure 1.6

Shepparton district map

Applying spatial

conceptsDescribing the geography of natural and human

environments and the processes that produce them,

can best be achieved by applying and using a range

of spatial concepts. The most commonly used spatial

concepts are location, scale, distance, distribution,

region, movement, spatial association, spatial

interaction andspatial change over time. Many of

these spatial concepts will be familiar to you already.

As a VCE geographer you need to show your

understanding of these concepts which should form

part of your geographical vocabulary. The spatial

concepts are closely related to each other and oftensupport each other. Throughout this book the spatial

concepts are printed in italics to help you to recognise

the appropriate usage of these terms.

Figure 1.7

Sample of scaleformats

Kilometres

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1

Location

Natural and human features are located, found or

placed on the earths surface. Each place has an

absolute location and a relative location. An absolute

location is the accurate pinpointing of a specific place.

Using coordinates, an accurate measurement for an

absolute location can be calculated. For example, the

house you live in has a number in a particular street

and suburb. Maps are used to identify a place by

calculating its absolute location, for example, when you

use a street directory with grid squares, a topographic

map with grid references (six-figure) or an atlas with its

parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. If you

are given the following information about the

locationof a city, latitude 37 50S and longitude

145 0 E, using an atlas or online search tool, you

could quickly identify these as the coordinates for the

specific locationof Melbourne, Victoria.

The relative location of a place is measured by thedistance and direction from one place to another. For

example in figure 1.6, Echuca, in Victoria (a region),

can be identified as being located a distance of 70

kilometres north west of Shepparton, a distanceof 30

kilometres north of Rochester and on the southern bank

of the Goulburn River (a landmark). The use of place

names, landmarks and regions helps to specify the

relative location of one place by comparison with the

locationof another.

2368mMt. Matabia

2963mMt Ramelau

2427mMutis

Dili

Ngerulmud

AUSTRALIA

PALAU

PAPUA

NEWGUINEA

INDONESIA

MALAYSIA

BRUNEI

EAST TIMOR

Bandar Seri Begawan

PHILIPPINES

Labala

Latuna

KalabahiTutuala

Lospalos

Lautem

Baucau

Baguia

Uato-LariViquequeBarique

Fatuberliu

ManatutoDILI

Aileu

Same

Betano

LiquicaMaubara

Ermera

Suai

Maliana

BaliboAtapupu

Atambua

Besikama

Kefamenanu

Pante Makasar

Nitibe

Barati

Kupang

Pepela1000 km0

N

Scale

100 km0

N

Scale

Timor Sea

Java Sea

SeaTimor

Savu Sea

Ombai

LoesRiver

Stra

it

StraitWetar

Oecussi

West Timor

INDONESIA

TIMOR

EAST

EASTTIMOR

Atauro

Lomblen Pantar

Alor

Roti

Timor

Semau

Scale

Scale is the size of something in relation to something

else. On a map, scale is used to represent the

comparative size of the actual regionof the earths

surface with the reduced size used to fit the same

regiononto a map page. You would be unlikely to find

a piece of paper large enough to draw an actual sized

map of your school. The skills of a cartographer allow

a region of the earths surface to be drawn to a size or

scale, which fits a page or into an atlas. Map scales

are expressed in words, by a line as a linear scale or by

a fraction or ratio. The scale in this sense allows you

to express distance in kilometres and area in square

metres. Examples to show various ways of expressing

scale can be seen in figure 1.7.

A large-scalemap represents or depicts a small

regionof the earths surface in some detail. If a map

illustrates a larger regionbut contains less detail it is

called a small-scalemap. In figure 1.8 the enlarged mapof the island of Timor would be described as being a

larger-scaledmap when compared to the regionalmap,

which would be considered to be a smaller-scaledmap.

Geographers also use scale to describe the size of

a region being studied. A resource or phenomenon

may be studied at a range of scales. A local scaleis a

small region, for example a shopping centre or a farm.

A regional scale covers a larger area, for example

Gippsland or Melbournes metropolitan area. A national

scale relates to an entire country. An international

scale allows for a study to extend over the borders of

two or more nations. The Christchurch earthquakes

Figure 1.8

Small-scaleand large-scale

maps of Timor

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of 2011 occurred at a local scale. The impact of

the earthquakes was at a national scale, whereas

the rescue and relief effort was carried out at an

international scalesince recovery teams came from

Australia, USA and Japan. The messages of supportand media interest in the earthquake were of a global

scale. The global scale does not have to cover every

location or region on earth, but it covers a significant

proportion of the earth or has representation on or

from most continents.

19

10

10

17

40

40

10

8

101

124

140

145

148 120

104

198

114

118

75

77

77

97

91

77 27

2255

59

58

54

93

95

76

59

6831

57

49

69

56

81

73

87

72

8948 40

4846

26

304332

134

103

127

168

84

82

94

29

100

110

126 109

145

100127

119

129

187

153

148

133

72

71

55

63

Benson

Safford

DouglasNogales

Yuma

Tucson

Casa Grande

PHOENIX

Springerville

Clifton

Show Low

Holbrook

Chinle

Flagstaff

PageFredonia

Williams

Topock

Ehrenberg

Kingman

BoulderCity

Seligman

Gila Bend

Lukeville

Wickenburg

Prescott

Sedona

Payson

Globe

Florence

Grand Canyon Village

Colo

rado

Colo

rado

Riv

er

Riv

er

Lake Powell

Lake

Mead

Distance in kilometres72

N

0.5 1 1.5 2 hrs

Leongatha

Moe

Morwell

Yarram

MELBOURNE

Dandenong

Warragul

Traralgon

Sale

Leongatha

Moe

Morwell

Yarram

MELBOURNE

Dandenong

Warragul

Traralgon

SaleM1

Figure 1.9

The road distancesbetween

the major cities and towns

in Arizona, USA

Figure 1.10

The time that it takes to

cover the road distance

between Melbourne and

Sale

Distance

Distanceis the space between different locations

on the earths surface. If you travel along or pace

the distanceusing a measuring tape, pedometer or

odometer you can measure the distancebetweenplaces. Distanceon a map can be calculated by

reference to its scale; itcan be also measured digitally

byuse of online, mapping measurement tools or

GPS data. This absolute or linear distanceis usually

expressed in metres or kilometres. Figure 1.9 illustrates

the road distancesbetween the major cities and

towns in Arizona, USA. This map relies on annotations

to illustrate accurate distancesrather than the

interpretation of a scale.

Distance can also be expressed in time, for example

the time that it takes to travel from one place to another,or the cost or convenience of this trip. Figure 1.10

indicates the time that it takes to cover the road

distancebetween Melbourne and Sale. This form of

expressing distance is known as relative distance. In

peak hour traffic it may take 30 minutes to cover a

distanceof 5 kilometres, whereas the same distancemay

only take 10 minutes when the traffic is much lighter.

Distribution

The arrangement of objects or features on the earths

surface is known as distribution. At a local scale,houses located along a road are described as being

distributed in a linear pattern. At a regionalscale

dense forest may be randomly distributedthroughout

an area, although it may be spatiallyassociated with

steep mountain slopes. Figure 1.11 (page 6) shows

diagrammatically that the pattern the location of

objects make on the ground can be described as being

clustered, dispersed, linear, radial or random in nature.

Figure 1.6 (page 3) shows that Shepparton is one of a

number of small and medium-sized settlements, which

are evenly dispersed or evenly distributedwithin the

regionsouth of the Goulburn River.

Distributionpatterns are best identified through the

use of geographic media, such as maps, graphs and

Geographic Information Systems data (GIS). A common

technique employed to describe patterns uses the cue

of PQE.

P general pattern

Q quantification

E exceptions

When you first look at a piece of geographic media,

there is generally something that you notice about the

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1

overall pattern of the data. The initial description is of

the general pattern, where most of the phenomenon

is located. For example, most of the worlds tropical

rainforests are locatedon land which straddles the

equator. Quantification is the adding of statistics to

give specific detail to the general pattern and to definethe pattern more closely. To quantify it is common

to name a specific regionor countries and provide

examples of the pattern using statistics derived from

the geographic media. For example, the largest regions

of tropical rainforest are found in South America, Africa

and South-East Asia. The worlds largest rainforest is

the Amazon in South America; it is 4 million square

kilometres in size. There are often instances where

Clustered Dispersed Linear Radial Random

Figure 1.11

Distributionpatterns something does not fit the overall pattern, and these

are known as the exceptions. These exceptions need to

be identified, usually by their locationor by outstanding

levels of production and quantified. For example, the

Daintree Rainforest in northern Queensland is an

exception to the general pattern, as it is locatedalmost1500 kilometres south of the Equator.

Figure 1.12

Topographic map of

Castlemaine

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Activities

1. Using figure 1.9 calculate the distance between

Phoenix and Flagstaff

Phoenix and Yuma via Casa Grande

Phoenix and Sedona.

Explain why the last of these calculations may be less accurate than the previous two?

Use figure 1.12 to answer questions 2 to 6 below.

2. Describe the location of Castlemaine in terms of its absolute location and relative location.

3. a. What is the distance and direction by road from Elphinstone to Castlemaine?

b. How long would it take to travel by road from Elphinstone to Castlemaine, if the average speed you are able

to travel is 90 kilometres per hour over this distance?

4. Locate and name a road along which there is a linear distribution of houses.

5. Describe the distribution pattern of the rail system from Castlemaine.

6. Water supply to the area for agricultural purposes is provided at a variety of scales.

Describe the distribution of the water resources.

7. Use your atlas to identify maps which illustrate examples of clustered, dispersed, linear, radial or random

distributionpatterns. Write a sentence for each example to describe the nature of each distributionpattern that

you have identified.

Region

A region is an area of the earths surface that contains

one or more common characteristics that distinguish

it from other areas. Regions are classifications most

commonly made by people to define or separate one

area from another area. In some instances there are

clearly definable regions of the natural environment,

such as the drainage basin of the Murray-Darling Basin,

where the direction of water flow determines the

boundary of the region.

There are regions within regions depending on

the scale of the study being undertaken. In primary

school you learnt the eight key political regions of

Australia, when you had to name and map the States

and Territories of Australia. The States are further

divided into regionsof local government, which areeven smaller political jurisdictions. Victorias Indigenous

language groups can be mapped as distinct regions

as shown in figure 1.13. Regionsmay be classified as

having similar physical characteristics such as climatic

zones, vegetation or topography. Regionsmight have

social similarities such as language, population density,

wealth or religion or political similarities such as a

large proportion of voters in an electorate supporting a

particular political party.

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1

0 100 km

N

Scale

Ngarigo

Jardwadjali

Ngargad

Buandig

Bindali

Gunditjmara Djargurdwurung

Giraiwurung

Djabwurung

Djadjawurung

Gadubanud

Gulidjan

Wathaurong

Boonwurrung

Woiworung

Ngurraiillam

Taungurong

Waveroo

Kurnai

Bidwell

Jaltmatang

Meru

Baraba Baraba

Yorta Yorta

Wemba Wemba

Nari Nari

Madi Madi

Latje LatjeDadi Dadi

Wadi Wadi

Wiradjuri

Wergaia

MELBOURNE

Figure 1.13

Victorias Indigenous

language regions

300 km10050 2000

Scale

N

FRANCE

SPAIN

ITALY

SWITZERLAND

GERMANY

PORTUGAL

45N

10W 5W 0

5E

Santiago de Compostela

Sarria Leon

Burgos Logorno

PamplonaRoncesvalles

St-Jean-Pied-de-Port

Bordeaux

Potiers

Paris

Vezelay

Tolouse

Le-Puy-en-Velay

Arles

Atlantic Ocean

Bay o f

Biscay

Gulf of

Lion

MediterraneanSea

Figure 1.16

The route taken by pilgrimsalong the Camino de

Santiago Frances

Figure 1.15

Movementof wind and waves, Twelve Apostles, Victoria

Figure 1.14Route network showing the

movementof Easyjet aircraft

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Activities

1. a. The Camino de Santiago is a trail taken by pilgrims for over 1000 years. Use

figure 1.16 to describe the patterns of movementtaken by pilgrims along

the Camino Frances section of the trail. (Camino Frances means The French

Way.) In your description identify the possible starting points in France and

the end point of Santiago de Compostela.

b. Identify the regionwithin which this movementof pilgrims occurs.

c. What is the distanceof this pilgrimage if the starting point is Paris, France?

d. The locationof the route of this pilgrimage has not changed over time. How

might the actual trail or path have changed?

2. Draw a simple sketch of figure 1.15 and on it clearly label and indicate the

direction of at least three possible examples of movement and two ofa possible

change over time.

3. Investigate the way that movementpatterns are illustrated in your atlas. Make

note of the methods applied to illustrate movementand comment on their

effectiveness.

Movement

Movement is the change in location of phenomena,

such as people, resources and ideas, between places

across the earths surface. It might involve the change

in location of goods, services, water, money, energy,education and technology. Movement can be people

travelling between locations, for example along

roads or flight paths, and it can also be the movement

of water between a rivers source and its mouth.

Movement might follow a purpose-built or pre-arranged

route, such as a power transmission-line, a railway

track, a telephone line, a freeway, a pipeline, a ski run

or a tour-bus itinerary. Movement may also be more

random in nature, such as seeds being dispersed by

the wind, backpackers wandering throughout Europe,

the smoke from forest fires, a locust plague or the

movement of wind and waves (figure 1.15).

Movement is greatly affected by the scale or size of

the material being shifted and the distance between

locations. If there is a direct route such as a freeway

between two locations, a very large volume of traffic

can be moved. If there is only a small car ferry linking

an island to the mainland, the volume of movement

between these locations is limited by the capacity and

frequency of the ferry. Movement is often identified on

a map by arrows showing the direction of flow. Figure1.14 shows the movementof Easyjet aeroplanes from

Gatwick to destinations in Europe.

Interaction at localfishing spots

Landing of small craftLocal beach

Town Car park

Interactionbetween car parksand walking tracks

Interactionbetweenpaths andbeach

DriftwoodHigh tide marks

Figure 1.17

Spatial associationbetween

tourists and the Piazza San

Marco, Venice

Figure 1.18

Annotation of a coastalscene to show spatial

association

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1

Figure 1.19

A view of the Ovens Valley in

northern Victoria

Activities1. Identify two examples of spatial associationin

figure 1.18.

2. Use your atlas maps at a variety ofscalesto

identify and describe four examples of a strong

spatial associationand four examples of a weak or

no spatial association.

Spatial associationSpatial association is the association or connection

that can be made between the distributionpatterns

of two or more geographic characteristics. Spatial

association can occur between two natural geographic

characteristics or features of the earths surface.

For example, there is a strong spatial association

between regions of the earths surface that receive

less than 250 millimetres of rainfall annually and the

occurrence of desert environments. Spatial association

can occur between the human activities that take

place on the earth. Most modern cities see a strong

spatial associationbetween the distributionof regions

of highest population density with the occurrence of

high-rise or multi-level apartment buildings. A spatial

association can also occur between the distributionof a

natural geographic characteristic and a human activity.

For example there is a strong spatial association

between high mountains, the frequency of snowfall and

the development of facilities for snow sports.

The area over which a spatial association between

two distributions takes place can be viewed at a rangeof scales: local, regional, national or global. Throughout

this text there are many references made to spatial

association at a variety of scales. Spatial association

can be observed when doing fieldwork or identified in

photographs; figure 1.17 shows that there is a strong

spatial associationbetween tourists, signs and safety

barriers to manage tourists, souvenir stalls and the

Piazza San Marco in Venice. Figure 1.18 shows that

there is strong spatial associationbetween the high

tide mark and the locationof driftwood.

Spatial associationis most readily recognised

on a map or between maps, when two geographic

characteristics are mapped as a distribution in the

same place. The use of map overlays or GIS map layers

can help to identify a spatialassociation.

Geographers are concerned about the degree to

which a spatial association may exist: they identifya strong spatial association, a weak spatial

association or say that there is no evidence to show

that any spatialassociation exists. A strong spatial

association exists when the connection between the

two patterns being described is closely tied together.

An example is that in mountainous regionsthere is a

strong spatial associationbetween the location of road

and rail links and flatter valley floors. If two factors

are both low in frequency the connection between one

characteristic occurring and the other characteristic

occurring is also described as strong. In Australiathere is a strong spatial associationbetween regions

with very little rainfall and low population densities.

A weak spatial association can be described as

when one characteristic is high in frequency and the

other characteristic is lower in frequency, but the two

characteristics can still be identified at a location. In

Australia there is a weak spatial associationbetween

regionswith over 1600 millimetres of rainfall each year

and regionsof high population density. To explain this

weak spatial association, there are several relatively

large settlements such as Darwin and Cairns within this

rainfall distribution, but there are places such as the

east coast of Tasmania or Cape York, which have very

few settlements at all. The non-existence of spatial

association refers to when one characteristic is present

but the other characteristic is not present; for example,

there is no spatial associationbetween regions where

rice can grow and polar climates.

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Spatial interaction

Spatial interaction is the relationship between

phenomena (such as people, resources or ideas) and

the degree to which they influence each other or the

patterns that they form on the earths surface. Ability

to recognise a spatial interactionoften grows from a

study of spatial association, but two things that interact

with each other may not occupy the same space. Most

spatial interaction involves movement. Both movement

and spatial interactionrequire a shift in location,

linkages or influence between locations. Things that are

located closer together usually have a stronger spatialinteractionbetween them than anything separated by a

great distance.

An example of two phenomena that are close in

distance having a significant impact or high degree

of spatial interaction between them are Melbournes

Central Business District (CBD) and the Docklands

Stadium, apartment and commercial precinct that

are linked by Southern Cross Railway Station. The

walkway/promenade across the railway line allows

a high degree of spatial interactionbetween these

locations(this can be seen in figure 1.20). Football

fans, workers from the CBD, tourists and residents are

able to movebetween the two locationsand spatially

interact with each other and the facilities available

in each place. This spatial interactionproduces the

consequence of crowding or uneven usage patterns for

this resource. This movementof people especially

before and after a match or concert, or when people

seek access to car parks on work or game days also

involves Southern Cross Railway Station. The rail

network allows for spatial interaction between thisentertainment and commercial precinct and the greater

urban area of Melbourne and beyond.

Figure 1.20

Southern Cross Station looking towards Melbourne CBD

Figure 1.21

Map of Melbourne, circa

1860s

Figure 1.22

Part of the small town of

Audierne, northern France

The intensity of the spatial interactionis usually

described as having a high or low degree of

connectivity. There is a high degree of spatial

interactionbetween Australia and China, resulting in

the movement of wealth and minerals and with China

influencing and sometimes financing infrastructure

projects within the mineral production regions of

Australia. Australian tourists have a high level of

spatial interactionwith warm beach environmentssuch as Bali, but show a much lower degree of spatial

interactionwith cold or inaccessible places like

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1

Activities

1. On a simple sketch, clearly identify, through use of

labels and arrows, one or more examples of spatial

interactionin three of figures 1.1, 1.3, 1.16, 1.17,

1.18 and 1.22.

2. Compare figure 1.21 with a modern map of

Melbourne in an atlas or street directory. Identify

and describe four examples of the spatial change

over time.

3. Describe an example of spatial change over time

that has occurred within your local community

within your lifetime.

Patagonia, South America. This spatial interactionhas

resulted in many Australians owning and operating

tourist-related businesses in Bali but not in Patagonia.

The returning tourists may also be influenced to try to

recreate a Balinese garden or seek out Balinese-stylerestaurants or art galleries in Melbourne.

Spatial change over time

Spatial change over time refers to the degree to which

a regionhas changed its geographic characteristics,

features or patterns over a period of time. Change to

the natural and human environments occurs at varying

rates at different times, and may be considered at

different scales. Some of these changes are made in

the short term, such as the number of people sitting in

the stands during a football game or the movement ofcars through an intersection. Long-term spatial changes

can occur more slowly, such as the development of a

meander on the Mekong River or the changing height of

the Himalayas.

Spatial change over time can be identified through

a variety of geographic media such as photographs,

satellite images, archaeological digs or radiometric

dating to establish the age of geological landforms.

Different editions of an atlas, a street directory or

a topographic map of the same regioncan reveal

significant change.In figure 1.21 the old map of Melbourne shows that

the style, accuracy and content of maps has changed

over time. If you compared this 1860s map to one in

the most recent street directories or atlases, you would

discover that although some features remain the same,

many have changed and many new features have been

added.

The local environment may experience changing

land use, clearing of indigenous vegetation, building of

dams and reclaiming of coastal land. The development

of features of the human environment may include

the building and decommissioning of transport routes,

the expansion or decline of settlements and the

development of agricultural infrastructure. Figure 1.22

(page 11) is part of Audierne, a small town on the

Brittany coast of northern France. Its character has

been preserved by only permitting new and renovated

buildings to be in the style of the past. Preserving

examples of the old landscape is evidence of how this

town haschanged through time. A series of maps or

photos can readily identify change over long periodsof time. Short-term spatial change over time, such as

documenting the seasonal change of vegetation cover

or the impact of a tsunami on a coastal region, is best

identified through the use of satellite imagery.

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Organising

geographic dataTo make sense of what is a large, complex and often

seemingly chaotic world, it helps to use organising

concepts to focus your views and to provide a framework.

Describing geographic

characteristics

Geographic characteristics are features and influences

identified in the natural and human environment which

can often be described using spatial concepts such as

Key Knowledge andSkills

Identify and describe the

geographic characteristics

of environments.

Analyse and explain data

about the geographic

characteristics of

environments.

Average rainfall and temperatures in

Juneau, United States of America

15 200

150

100

50

0

10

5

0

-5

Month

TemperatureC

Rainfallinmillimetres

Temperature C Rainfall in millimetres

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 1.23

Climate graph (left)

200 km0

N

Scale

135W140W

55N

International boundary

Highway

Railroad

Ferry

Pacific Ocean

Whitehorse

Yakutat

Fraser

Haines Junction

Carcross

Skagway

Juneau

Angoon

AdmiraltyIsland

BaranofIsland

Princeof Wales

Island

Petersburg

Wrangell

Ketchican

Prince Rupert

Hyder

Haines

Sitka

Teslin

Lake

Figure 1.24

Regional map (left)

Figure 1.25

The Tidewater Glacier

Figure 1.26

Cruise ships

location, scale, distance anddistribution.Geographic

characteristics include natural features such as

topography, natural vegetation and climate, and human

features such as dams, plantations, buildings and

roads.As a geographer you interpret evidence in such

a way that you are able to describe and explain the

geographic characteristics of a location.A geographic

characteristic is something that helps to identify a

place as being the same or different to another place.

The geographic characteristics of the Tidewater

Glacier, seen in figure 1.25, are the features and

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1

influences that can be identified in that environment.

These include its location, height, the distanceover

which the glacier travels, its topography, the roads and

trails which may allow access, and the distributionand

density of snow and ice, and whether it is advancing orretreating.

Activities

1. Use the clues included within figures 1.23 to 1.30

to identify the regionallocation and describe its

natural and human geographic characteristics.

2. Select a regionfrom a different continent to

compare with the regionyou described in

the activity above. Use the Internet and your atlas

to collect a range of geographic data to illustrate

its geographic characteristics. Test your data on

other members of your class to see if they are able

to identify the specific locationof your regionfrom

the geographic characteristics you have provided.

Figure 1.30

Collage of headlines relating to this location

Figure 1.27

Early settlers hut

Figure 1.28

Wilderness

Figure 1.29A first peoples

totem

Describing and interpreting

graphs

Graphs can also be described by using the PQE method

(see describing distribution patterns on pages 5 to 6).

Identification of the general pattern shows that you

understand the graphed relationship. You might identify

significant pieces of quantification, such as, for

example, from a population profile of Vietnam, that 65

per cent of the population are under 30 years of age.

This quantification shows that you understand the

scales on the X and Y axes of the graph and

strengthens your answer. An exception may be that(again using a population profile) there are many more

females than males between the ages of 20 and 30

Gold,salmon,forests!

10,000sum

mertour

ists

perdayin

Ketchik

an

Purchasedfrom

Russiain1867

Astatecapitalcitywithnoroadaccess

Winteraveragemaximumtemperaturesof-2degreesCelsius

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years. This is not a general pattern but an anomalous

piece of data or an exception to a general pattern.

A simple acronym to help with the interpretation of

graphs may be the use of SALTS.

Scale(as in a consistent scaleon each axis), Axes(both clearly labelled), Legend (when there is more

than one data set illustrated by the graph), Title (with

a clear wording which reflects the relationship being

graphed) and Source (or producer of the data being

used).

Identifying geographic factors

Human activity and natural processes can be

classified or viewed in terms of geographic factors.

These social, historic, economic, environmental and

physical, political and technological factors (knownby their acronym as SHEEPT factors) are responsible,

or partially responsible, for determining the

characteristics of natural and human environments and

the ways that we might view them.

Social factors

Social factors are the features and values of

particular societies. They include attitudes, religion,

language, work skills, cultural norms, population

structure and ethnicity. Religious influences on a

society may encourage large families. Gender normswithin a society may result in most farm work being

traditionally undertaken by women in Africa or by men

in Australia or North America.

Historic factors

Historic factors are evident when past actions

or thinking may have influenced the present

characteristics of a natural or human environment. The

road patterns that dominate many cities are inherited

from past access decisions, and often built to fit the

less frequent, horse-drawn transport of its time.

Economic factors

Economic factors are the activities linked to the

creation and spending of money. Employment,

income, costs of goods and services, balance of trade,

government and non-government spending are all

economic factors. An economic factor may impact

on the natural environment in terms of economic

rationalism. If a national park has a monetary value

placed on its existence, a government might try to sell

or lease its assets to provide for the cost of upkeep.

Environmental and physical

factors

Environmental factors are the characteristics

of a natural or human environment. The natural

factors are often referred to as physical factors,and include the shape of the land, drainage, soils,

indigenous vegetation and climate. A human, highly

built environment such as New York City may have

little about it that is identifiably natural, except its

topography, coastline and atmosphere. General

features of the human environment include structures

such as roads, buildings, mines, farmland and wind

farms.

Political factors

Political factors are the work of individuals,government agencies and non-government

organisations which shape natural and human

environments. Political influence can protect an

environment, as easily as it can destroy it. Policy,

legislation, planning permission, election promises,

trade deals and protest activities are all political

actions that can greatly influence the state of the

environment. Political factors have had a great

influence on Vietnam (Chapter 7), for example.

Technological factorsTechnological factors show the global influence

of developments in science, engineering and

communications. Our ability to be able to do things

and to think and act to promote sustainability is

underpinned by technological developments. Can

you think of several ways our towns and cities would

function differently without electronic technology?

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1

1. Which factors have been responsible for

threatening the future survival of the mountain

gorillas?

2. Rank these factors in your order of importance.

Justify your ranking.

3. Explain which factor/s may be the most successful

means of protecting these gorillas into the futureand why.

Interpreting the

instructional wording

used in GeographyThe following instructional terms are commonly used

in Geography examination questions, as fieldwork and

practical task instructions and for class activities. Use

them as a check to help you to understand the meaning

of terms and how to approach a particular task.

Analyse Show the essence of something by breaking it down and

critically examining the relationship between each part.

Classify Make clear or simplify facts, opinions, issues or arguments.

Compare Show the similarities and differences when you compare two

events, theories, features or processes.

Contrast Show the differences between two or more processes, features

or things.

Describe Say what something is like by using information from available

data.

Discuss Investigate to show whether you understand a situation and,

where appropriate, both sides of an issue or event. Include the

strengths and weaknesses of the available data.

Evaluate Weigh up and interpret a statement, viewpoint or situation.

Explain Give reasons why a situation exists or a process occurs.

Identify Establish the nature of a situation by distinguishing its features

and naming them.

Justify You will be expected to use examples or find sufficient evidence

to show why (in your opinion) a viewpoint or conclusion is

correct.

Outline Summarise the main events of a situation.

Predict Suggest what may happen based on evidence gathered.

Quantify Use numbers or statistics to describe a phenomenon.

Rank Arrange factors or elements according to their importance.

Suggest Present a hypothesis about a particular situation.

Figure 1.31

Mountains gorillas in Rwanda. Rwandas famed mountain

gorillas have been trapped in a war zone for many years but

they have managed to survive. There have been incursions

into their park by armed rebels, human spread of disease,

loss of habitat, poaching, government instability and pressure

from landless local farmers to clear land for crops. Even

with a rapidly increasing local population, the prospect for

the survival of the gorillas is improving as this regionmoves

toward a fragile peace. Despite initiatives such as improved

education, increased tourism and rangers patrolling the

forests borders, park authorities still find protecting the

gorillas an ongoing challenge.

Activity

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UNIT 1NATURAL

ENVIRONMENTS

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19

Chapter 2 Introduction to natural

environments 20

Chapter 3 Volcanic environments 30

Chapter 4 Victorias forest

environments 54

Chapter 5 Coastal environments 80

Areas of Study

1. Characteristics of natural

environments

2. Changes in natural environments

Outcome 1

On completion of this unit the student

should be able to describe the geographic

characteristics of at least two natural

environments, and explain how they are

developed by natural processes, including

extreme natural events.

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student

should be able to analyse and explain the

changes in natural environments due to

natural processes and human activity.

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| I N T R O D U C T I O N T O N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S |2

INTRODUCTION TO

NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

Figure 2.1

Some of the earths natural

environments

Geography focuses on the spatial distributionof natural

phenomena and the interaction of humans with the

natural world. By studying Geography we endeavour

to understand and explain the natural world in which

we live, and the natural environments found there. The

photographs in figure 2.1 show some of the earths

many thousands of natural environments. You can

probably think of quite a few more different natural

environments.

The natural environment of a particularlocationismade up of all the natural components and conditions

found there, Non-living components such as landforms

of mountains and valleys, water features such as

rivers, geological features such as rocks and soils,

as well as the atmospheric features of sunlight

and heat, rain and snow, make up the physical part

of the environment. Living things, such as plants,

animals, fungi and bacteria, make up the biological

part of the environment. It is the inter-relationship of

these features that produces the variety of natural

environments that you will examine in this unit. People

also have a special role in a natural environment andthis, too, will be discussed.

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| U N I T O N E | N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R T W O | 21

Characteristics of

natural environmentsIn this unit you will investigate the geographic

characteristics of natural environments. You will

discover that there are many different natural

environments on earth. Some are dry with very hard

soils. Some are wet with very thick soils. Some

environments are hot while others are cold. Some

are hilly while others are flat. Some are regularly

inundated with water while others are on high, rocky

ground. Some have rivers of water, while others have

rivers of slowly moving ice. Some are influenced by

their coastal locations. Some are heavily forested,

while others are sparsely vegetated.These geographic characteristics of natural

environments can be grouped into broad categories

such as climate, topography, natural vegetation and

soils. These characteristics in different combinations

help determine the uniqueness of locationsacross our

planet like the ones in figure 2.1.

Gases surrounding

the earth

Living and non-living

organic matter

Rocks, minerals

and soil

Water components

A natural systemA system is any ordered, interrelated set of things. A

major natural system is made up of combinations of

geographic characteristics of four components: thebiosphere, the lithosphere, the atmosphere and the

hydrosphere. These are referred to as the four spheres.

The earths four spheres

The biosphere is the part of the earths atmosphere,

hydrosphere and lithosphere that contains and

supports living and non-living organic matter.

The lithosphere is referred to as the earth. It

comprises the strong, rigid parts of the earth, as

well as the liquid rock of lava and loose sand and

soil.

The atmosphere is composed of the gases

surrounding the earth. It is commonly referred to as

the air above us. The lower layer, the troposphere,

extends about 8 kilometres above the earths

surface, and is composed of nitrogen and oxygen.

Within this layer, most living things exist.

The hydrosphere is composed of the water

components of the earth, such as oceans, lakes,

rivers, groundwater, glaciers, snowfields and ice-

caps.Figure 2.2

The earths four spheres that

form natural environments

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Where these spheres meet there is a series of

surfaces. The connection between the four spheres can

be shown as a diagram, figure 2.2.

The relationships between these spheres produce

a particular natural system. For example, the forestenvironment in figure 2.3 is the result of the hot

and humid weather and climate (atmosphere)

providing sufficient moisture (hydrosphere) to allow

plants (biosphere) to grow densely from the ground

(lithosphere). It is possible to identify different natural

systems within this large system: within the crowns

of the trees, another at the base of the trees and yet

another within the leaf litter and upper layers of the

soil at ground level. Within each of these natural

systems, the relationships between the spheres will be

quite different. There may be higher moisture content

in the leaf littler, or it could be quite dry. The amount

and type of animal, bird and insect life in the crown

may be very different to that at ground

level. Therefore the geographic

characteristics of each

natural system will

be different.

Figure 2.4

Inputs, components and

outputs

Pr o c

e s ses

Pr

o c e s se

s

Inputs Ou tpu ts

Matter is recirculated or recycled

Co m po nent s

Inpu t s ent er t he a rea a nd int era c t w it h t he c o m po nent s t o genera t e pro c es s es w hic h,in turn, can inf luence other components to create the outpu ts that leave the system.

Inputs and outputsA natural system is not simply a collection of parts or

components from different spheres. A natural system

functions because of a combination of inputs, processesand outputs that interact with each other together with

the components that make up the natural system. The

inputs to any natural system come from one or more of

the spheres, and the processes that operate do so as a

result of the interaction between them.

The following key terms should be understood in any

study of a natural environment.

Inputs. Items or forces that enter the system, such as

wind or precipitation.

Components. The material things that make up a

natural system. These can be best defined in terms of

the four spheres. Components can be considered to

be specific, for example an environments vegetation,

rocks, water and air.

Processes. The methods of operation or types of

actions within a system by which energy or matter are

movedinto, around or out of a system; for example

weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition,

evaporation, photosynthesis.

Outputs. Matter or energy leaving the natural system,

such as the sediments carried by a river, or watervapour ascending into the atmosphere above an ocean.

In figure 2.4, inputs enter an area and interact

with the components to generate processes, which

in turn can influence other components to create the

outputs that leave the system. The shape of the land or

landforms, such as mountains, valleys and plains, are

some of the outputs created by processes in natural

systems. Other outputs, such as sediments and water,

might become inputs for another system. For example

sand that is washed on and off an off-shore bar of a

Figure 2.3

A tropical rainforest

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coastal system is being recycled by the process of

wave action. The sand is both an input as it is washed

onto the bar, and an output as it is washed off the bar.

In a desert system the input of wind from the

atmosphere enters the regionand interacts with therocks of the lithosphere. This input helps the process

of erosion to occur, with the rocks blasted by sand-

laden wind. Much of the sand will be blown out of the

region (as an output) but some is blown and deposited

(process) within the region as a sand dune. At a later

time, even this sand could be movedout of the region

by natural processes.

Activities

1. Look at the natural environments in figure 2.1 on

page 20. What features distinguish them from each

other?

2. Which is the odd one out in each of the following

collection of words about inputs and outputs?

a. atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, erosion,

lithosphere

b. weathering, erosion, deposition, evaporation,

rocks

c. mountains, plains, rivers, valleys, deltas.

3. Select one of the environments shown in figure

2.1. on page 20. Make a sketch outline of its main

features. In one colour label each of the four

spheres. In another colour, label where different

processes are likely to be taking place. With a third

colour, label specific features formed by processes

that are outputs. Complete your work with a title

and a key.

Figure 2.5

A desert system, central

Australia

Interaction between

the spheresThe interaction that occurs between the spheres of

natural systems makes the earths natural environments

dynamic. The processes that occur between the

spheres are always operating.

Interaction in a natural system refers to the

connection between two or more components, as a

result of the processes that operate between them. The

extent to which all spheres interconnect will depend

on the environment being studied. As geographers, it is

important to explain why differences occur where they

do, both within and between natural systems.

A study of oceanography would be dominatedby the hydrosphere; geology is dominated by the

lithosphere. A coastal system, however, would involve

interaction between all spheres: waves (hydrosphere),

beach or coastline (lithosphere), wind, rain and heat

(atmosphere) and dune plants (biosphere). The coastal

system would have inputs from one system to another

with processes of interaction. For example, there could

be erosion caused by the interaction between moving

water and the land.

A desert system, as in figure 2.5, would be

dominated by three of the spheres. The atmosphere

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Figure 2.6

The cycling of matter

through a forest system

involves the sun that creates the energy to influence

weathering, wind action and the low, unreliable rainfall.

The lithosphere is significant as vegetation is sparse

and landforms appear bare. The plants and animals

of the biosphere interact with the lithosphere and thetype of input from the hydrosphere. Plants and animals

are highly specialised, being adapted to the heat and

lack of water. The hydrosphere appears to be almost

non-existent because of the low rainfall. However, it

is critical in allowing life forms to exist and probably

plays a very significant role in weathering and erosional

processes. During rare periods of heavy rainfall water

can become part of the major processes of erosion

and deposition, as well as the revitalisation of the

biosphere.

Energy and cycling of matter

Energy is the ability to do work. In order for processes

to take place within a natural system, there needs to be

a flow of energy between components. The energy of

water running across the ground flows from the water

to the land, and is used in the process of erosion. The

energy of wind blowing across the ocean generates

waves, which are an indication of the energy flowing

in the water. The flow of energy through ocean waves

gives them the ability to do work. When the waves

approach the coast, this energy is released as crashingsurf, and waves gain the ability to erode cliffs and

beaches. Pages 11 to 12 examine the effects of this

process of spatial interactionin greater detail.

The energy within a system provides the power to

carry matter through the system. Erosion produces

matter such as rock particles and sand from coastal

cliffs, for example, and the water transports and

deposits this matter in the ocean. It may be depositedas a sand bar or transported out of the system. This

movement of matter through a system is known as

cycling of matter.

Figure 2.6 shows a typical forest water cycle. There

are inputs of water into the soil from rainfall and the

river. Water is transported throughout the soil layer and

also enters the groundwater layer below the soil. The

roots of the trees absorb water, which then travels up

the trunks into the leaves, and out through microscopic

holes in the leaves as water vapour or transpiration.

During heavy rains and floods, there is a major input

of water, resulting in greater infiltration into the

groundwater. Some water flows out of the system via

the river. Transpiration and river flow are the outputs.

In a river system sediments can be deposited in the

river itself in times of low-energy flow. When there is

high-energy flow, some or all of the sediments will be

eroded and transported to another location,which may

be out of the river system. Through the processes of

erosion, transportation and deposition, the sediments

are being cycled through the system.In desert regions, wind-blown sand (matter) can be

deposited as a sand dune. During a windstorm some of

this sand is picked up, blown and deposited elsewhere,

thus cycling the matter through the desert system.

Evaporation

Transpiration

Water table

Infiltration

Runoff

Rainfall

Input from

floods

Uptake by roots

Groundwater

Soil River red gum Yellow box Cypress pine Flood Flow of water

River

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Activities

1. Produce a diagram of a natural system showing the

various inputs, components, processes and outputs

that would help describe one of the environments

in figure 2.1 on page 20.

2. Describe how energy can take different forms and

do different things in:

a. a desert environment b. an ocean environment

c. a river environment.

3. Use examples to explain the difference between

cycling of matter and recycled matter in a natural

system.

4. Movement and spatial interactionare two spatial

concepts. Discuss with another class member how

each of these concepts could be seen to bring about

change in each of the natural environments shown in

figures 2.7 and 2.8.

In a beach system, sand can be blown or transported

from the beach inland to add to sand dunes. Another

time this same sand may be washed back or blown

back to the beach. Sand can be transported out to

sea, deposited as a sand bar and then washed back toits place on the beach. Matter that is returned to its

original place in the system is said to be recycled.

The natural processes affecting the above natural

systems change the landforms and hence the landscape

of a region. Changes occur to environments within

these natural systems. In a river system, erosional

processes can undercut a riverbank, causing slumping

and widening the river channel. Over a long period

of time rivers, like the one in figure 2.10 on page 26,

can wear down rapids and waterfalls to a more gentle

gradient.

Figure 2.7

Part of New Caledonias eroding coastline

Figure 2.8Wild elephants in Southern

Sri Lanka

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Change in natural

environmentsNatural changes

Natural processes involve the breakdown of rocks

through weathering (see figure 2.9), the erosion,

transportation and deposition of materials by running

water (figure 2.10), or by the sea, ice and or the wind.

Natural processes also include ecological processes,

such as the development of soils, plant life and

all their linked life forms including insects, birds,

reptiles and other creatures. Natural processes have

Figure 2.11

The distributionof some of the earths major landforms

Figure 2.9

Weathering of granite

boulders at Squeaky Beach,

Wilsons Promontory. This

is a long-term process that

produces a spatial change

over timeat a local scale.

Figure 2.10

Waterfalls in southern Sri Lanka

produced an immense number of natural environments

including wetlands, deserts, mountains, coasts, oceans,

meanders, deltas, rainforests, grasslands and coral

reefs. The distributionof some of the earths major

landforms developed by natural processes and the basisof its natural environments is shown in figure 2.11.

If changes to inputs occur, the natural system will

begin to make adjustments to balance these changes.

The operation and appearance of the natural system and

the environment it produces will begin to change. New

features may be identified and a new set of processes

may become dominant. In other words, change has

taken place in the natural system and environment.

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Most natural processes take many decades,

sometimes millions of years, to substantially change

the characteristics of an environment. Others, like those

associated with hazards such as cyclones, floods or

earthquakes (see figures 2.13 and 2.14) can bring aboutchange more rapidly.

As a result of the continual processes that operate,

a natural system is always undergoing some form of

change. These changes to natural systems vary with

time and space. Some changes can be observed over

the length of time and within the space that fieldwork

is conducted (see figure 2.12). Examples include the

spatialinteractionbetween sea water and the coastal

cliff face and the movementof sand in the swash zone

on a beach face, or the rise of a river within a few

hours.

These minor spatial changes over timewithin a

natural system reflect an adjustment to the energy

available. During periods of low rainfall, rivers

discharge a small volume of water held within their

bed and bank. After heavy rainfall, the extra energy

from the increased water flow can cause erosion of the

rivers banks.

Other changes can only be explained in terms of

geological time. Some changes are caused by the

slow movementof the earths plates and take millions

of years to produce substantial change. Southern

California today has a warm and dry climate, but the

part of southern California west of the San Andreas

Fault is being carried northward by the movement

of the Pacific Plate. In ten million years that part of

California will have moved a thousand kilometres to the

north, and the climate that regionexperiences will be

cooler and wetter than at present.

Other long-term changes can be caused by variations

in the earths climate. During the last Ice Age, which

ended approximately 8000 to 12 000 years ago, the

Figure 2.14

Floodwaters near Bridgewater, January 2011 (left). Flood watershave great amounts of energy that can move soil, rocks, undercut

the banks of rivers and creeks in a short period of time.

Figure 2.13

Natural hazards can change

an environment in a short

period of time (right).

earths climate was colder and wetter.

Thick, slow-moving ice sheets covered

large parts of present-day land and

sea masses nearest the poles. Since

then, the earth has become warmerand drier, although there have been

short sequences of colder and wetter

periods. As a result, the earths

environments with their plant and

animal life have also changed.

Change can occur at different

scales as well as at different times.

The level of a small creek or river

can rise rapidly after heavy rain in a

local region. Local floods and possible

destruction of fish and bird habitatsmay result (figure 2.14). However, this

flooding may have little impact on the

larger river system into which it flows.

Widespread heavy rain over a larger Figure 2.12

After long-term erosion and

weathering, together with

compaction due to human

foot traffic, London Bridge on

Victorias south-west coast

changed dramatically in afew hours in 1990.

regionon the other hand can overwhelm river systems

and bring flood waters to areas where the amount

of rain was low. The movementof flood waters from

southern Queensland for example, may take several

weeks to reach further inland to Lake Eyre or further

south to the Menindee Lakes of New South Wales and

the Murray River.

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The series of adjustments to change made by any

natural system is an indication of the system trying

to balance fluctuations in energy and inputs between

processes and outputs. The state of balance or stability

within a natural system is referred to as its dynamicequilibrium. However, because a system is constantly

adjusting, a true equilibrium in never achieved.

Changes due to human activity

There are many thousands of examples where people

have caused changes to natural environments by

changing the components and even the process of

natural systems. For example, a forest or grassland can

be changed into farmland or a new suburban housing

estate in just a few months or a few years. You can see

this process of change occurring in figure 2.15.Some other large-scaleand small-scale changes to

natural environments by human activity include:

The control of water by building dams across rivers

together with the construction of irrigation

channels and drains has allowed people to alter

original vegetation remains. In Australias

Murrumbidgee regionof New South Wales, the

natural environments of trees, grasslands and

wetlands were converted by European settlers in the

1840s to grazing land and later into a combination ofgrazing land and dryland crop farming. The

availability of irrigation water became more

widespread after the 1950s and has led to further

changes to the natural systems of the region.

Desertification, the process by which regions

experience increasingly arid conditions, has been

particularly noticeable in the Sahel regionof Africa.

This process is most probably a combination of

several factors, some natural, some human: natural

climate fluctuations, increasing size of cattle andgoat herds eating the sparse vegetation, as well as

the continued collection by people of wood from

trees and scrub for fuel.

Figure 2.15

A new housing estate

near Berwick changes the

existing natural system.

Figure 2.16

Part of the Irrawaddy River Delta, Burma

regionswith plains

and long, growing

seasons into intensely

cultivated farmland.

The Ganges Plains of

northern India and the

Irrawaddy River Delta

of Burma (see figure

2.16) are two

examples. In these

regions, the natural

drainage networks

have been modified

and little of the

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Activities

1. Use specific examples to show the link between change in a natural system and:

the energy within the natural system, and

human activity.

2. a. For each of the following, give an example from the text of a natural

environment that has changed:

very rapidly

very slowly

over a small scale

over a large scale.

In each example identify the processes involved and the outcomes.

b. Discuss in class other examples of natural environments that have

changed, and then produce a further set of examples that fit each of the

categories in 2(a).

3. What is meant by the term dynamic equilibrium? Why is a true dynamic

equilibrium never reached?

4. Discuss how human activity is able to change the features of a gently sloping

plain, as in figure 2.16, as well as a locationwith hostile climates or steep

topography.

5. To what extent could the floodwaters in figure 2.14 alter the processes of a

natural system in;

the short term of several weeks

the long term of several years.

6. The area in figure 2.16 is now largely a human-controlled environment. What

evidence is there of natural environment components and processes remaining?

In the largest urban areas, air pollution is a

common characteristic. Gases emitted by

industrial processes and motor vehicles do not

occur naturally. One World Health Organization

estimate is that Cairos (Egypt) atmosphereis so polluted that exposure to it all day is an

equivalent of smoking a packet of cigarettes a

day. Airborne pollutants may remain suspended

in the atmosphere for a long time, be carried long

distancesand drift towards the ground, often as

acid rain, or fall to earth near the emission site as

ash or soot. Air pollution has a health as well as

an aesthetic impact, and contributes to changes in

natural environments.

At a local scale, pollution of rivers, lakes andcoastal areas by urban stormwater, or runoff from

buildings, streets and footpaths is caused by

major flows during and following rain. Stormwater

that is not treated before it enters waterways

can contain litter, dust, soil, oil and grease from

roads, garden waste and fertilisers, chemicals and

excess nutrients from animal faeces. This pollution

can kill fish and other aquatic animals. It can

lead to a build-up of toxins in these creatures, or

entangle them, as well as cause unsafe recreation

conditions for people.As a natural environment changes, its plants and

animals must adapt to the changes or become extinct.

Slow changes give living things time to adapt by the

process of evolution over many generations. Fast

changes, such as clearing of vegetation and replanting

it with exotic species, usually do not give living things

time to adapt, so they must move elsewhere or become

extinct. Human activities can disrupt the processes

that are pushing a natural system towards equilibrium,

Processes then adjust to attempt to achieve a new

equilibrium in the changed environment.

Sometimes natural processes produce natural

environments that discourage human activities. Cold,

steep and/or dry places are generally hostile ones to

many human activities. Some of these places remain

with little, if any, human activity and are considered

as wilderness areas. However, if these wild places

have a valuable resource, such as a mineral, a tourist

attraction or a defence location, human activities can

increase and subsequently change the geographic

characteristics of a place. Many of Australias miningcentres, such as the Pilbara of north-west Australia

or western New South Wales, are located in regions

generally considered hostile to people. The lure of high

wages helps makes these places more attractive to

people.

Questions arise from the fact that changes causedby people to a natural system do alter the systems

operation. Should people interfere with natural

systems? Should human interaction with a natural

system be restricted? And if so, by whom?

In the following chapters of Unit 1 you will be

considering several examples of natural environments.

You will analyse in greater detail the operation of

these. They will provide you with a structure for

considering other natural environments, and the nature

of change caused by the interaction between natural

processes and human activities over space and time.

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13 | V O L C A N I C E N V I R O N M E N T S |

VOLCANIC ENVIRONMENTS

utcome 1n completion of this unit the

udent should be able to

scribe the geographic

aracteristics of volcanic

vironments and explain how

ey are developed by natural

ocesses.

utcome 2n completion of this unit the

udent should be able to

alyse and explain the

anges in volcanic

vironments due to natural

ocess and human activity.

ey Knowledge andkillsGeographic characteristics

of volcanic environmentsDistributionof volcanic

environments

Natural processes and

factors that create volcanic

environments

Figure 3.1

The interaction of natural systems in volcanic environments, Mt Merapi, Indonesia, 2010

Characteristics of volcanic

environmentsThroughout history volcanoes have held a fascination

for people. For hundreds of years an environment may

be dormant and then suddenly become transformed into

a spectacular and often devastating eruption. Although

vulcanologists have improved their knowledge of why

and how volcanoes erupt, they are still unable to predict

the timing of an eruption and its immediate effects.

Geographers are interested in the how and the why ofvolcanic eruptions, together with the impacts on both

the people and the environments which surround them.

A volcano is a natural feature formed when molten

material, known as magma, rises up from deep within

the earth and erupts onto the surface or is ejected, if in

a mostly gaseous state. Once the molten material flows

onto the surface it is then known as lava. Typically, a

volcano has a conical shape and a crater (as shown in

figure 3.1) but this is not always the case. The various

types of volcanoes are discussed later in this chapter.

The underlying cause of volcanic activity is the

structure of our planet which is shown in figure 3.2. The

thin outer layer or crust is broken into a mosaic of

oceanic and continental plates (see figure 3.4). Beneath

the crust lies the mantle, the upper portion of which

provides the source of the magma. The mantle beneath

the crust can, over a period of thousands of years, flow

like a very viscous (sticky) liquid as a result of the

increase in the earths temperature with increasing

depth. Huge convection currents generated bydifferences of temperature in the mantle cause the

tectonic plates to move at a rate of from

2 to 60 millimetres per year. Volcanic activity occurs as

a result of this movement of the earths plates.

Volcanic environments involve relationships between

all four natural systems as shown in figure 3.1. Volcanic

eruptions are dominated by the lithosphere. The nature

of the magma affects the type of eruption and the

material erupted, which in turn influences the shape of

the land and the type of soil that will develop after the

eruption. The drainage of an area, the hydrosphere, can

be totally disrupted by an eruption, and the plant and

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| U N I T O N E | N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R T H R E E | 31

animal life of its biosphere destroyed. Large eruptions

will throw gases and ash into the atmosphere. This

can have an impact on local and global climates,

by reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching

the earths surface, lowering temperatures in the

troposphere and changing atmospheric circulation

patterns.

Upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core liquid iron

and nickel

Inner core

made of iron

Oceanic and continental crust

Lithosphere

Asthenosphere

Convection currents move

semi-molten material in the mantle

Figure 3.2

The structure of the earth

Global distribution

of volcanic

environmentsThe distributionof major volcanic features is shown

in figure 3.3. There is a strong linear pattern to this

distributionwith a particular concentration of volcanic

features around the Pacific regionwhich is known asthe Pacific Ring of Fire. The distributionof volcanic

features has a strong spatial association with the

distribution of the earths plates as shown in figure 3.4.

Figure 3.3

The global distributionof

major volcanic features

Mount St HelensMount Rainier

Mauna Loa

Hawaiian IslandsParicutinPopocatepetl

Chimborazo

Nevada del Ruiz

MontserratMt Pele

Galeras

Aconcagua

Etna

Vesuvius

TeideSantorini

Nyiragongo

Deccan

Plateau

ColumbiaPlateau

East AfricanRift Valley

Tristan da Cunha Ruapehu

Krakatoa

Toba

Eyjafjallajokull

Mayon

Ulawun

Merapi

Unzen

Sakurajima

Avachinsky-Koryaksky

Fuji

Kilauea

Katmai

Pinatubo

N5000 km0

Equatorial Scale

Equator

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

EUROPE

AFRICA

ANTARCTICA

SOUTH

AMERICA

NORTH

AMERICA

PlateauPacific Ring of Fire

Major active volcanoRuapehu

Ocean

Atlantic

Ocean

Indian

Pacific

Ocean

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13 |

V O L C A N I C E N V I R O N M E N T S |

It is in the vicinity of the plate boundaries that most of

the earths major earthquakes, volcanic activity, and

folding and faulting of rocks occur.

The distributionof active volcanoes may change

over time. The term active usually refers to a volcanowhich has erupted during the last few hundred years.

For example, although mainland Australia currently has

no active volcanoes, between 5 million and

10 000 years ago, the eastern part of the continent

experienced widely distributed volcanic activity. In

Victoria, active volcanoes died out over 7000 years

ago. Figure 3.3 shows the current distributionof

active volcanoes worldwide. Volcanoes that have not

erupted for up to 10 000 years are considered dormant.

Extinct volcanoes are ones that have not erupted for

more than 10 000 years.

Figure 3.4

Distributionof the earths

tectonic plates

Activities

1. Describe the distribution of the major active

volcanoes shown in figure 3.3.

2. Refer to figures 3.3 and 3.4 and read the followingstatement: Volcanic features have a strong spatial

associationwith plate boundaries.

a. Provide two pieces of supporting evidence for

this statement.

b. Provide two pieces of rejecting evidence for this

statement.

c. Suggest reasons for your answers to both (a)

and (b) above.

3. The earths tectonic plates may be either oceanic or

continental crust. The continental plates extend into

the oceans, as they include the continental shelves

surrounding the continents. Name and locatetwo

examples of each type of plate.

4. Research the name and location of a volcano whic

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