The Restless Earth

Section A

Specification

Plate TectonicsThe Earth is NOT one big solid ball. There

are several layers to the Earth that you need to know about.

Crust Mantle

Outer Core

Inner Core

The CrustThe crust is the brittle outer layer of the Earth that

cooled against the atmosphere when the Earth was formed. It’s the part that we live on.

The crust is split up into large pieces called tectonic plates so the crust is like a huge jigsaw, where the pieces all fit together.

The plates are constantly moving around, caused by convection currents in the mantle below, this causes a variety of events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.

There are 2 different types of crust:• Oceanic• Continental

Oceanic Continental

Newest Oldest

Denser (Heavier) Less Dense (Lighter)

Thinner Thicker

Basaltic rock Silicic rock

The MantleThe Mantle is a huge layer of molten and solid rock

beneath the crust. Towards the top of the mantle, the rock is very hot

and is partially melted and carries the overlying plates, moving them around, a bit like a slush puppy (but very hot.) This molten rock is known as magma, and is erupted as lava via volcanoes.

The lower mantle is very much solid rock as it’s been compressed due to increasing rigidity and pressure.

The Outer CoreThe outer core is LIQUID and is very hot. We

know that the outer core is liquid because only certain earthquake waves can pass through them. P-waves (primary waves) can travel through both solids AND liquids.

S-waves (secondary waves) can only travel through SOLIDS, so therefore cannot pass through the liquid outer core.

The Inner Core

The inner core is extremely hot and is very dense. It is a solid ball of very dense metals such as nickel and magnesium, thought to be a cause of the earth’s magnetic field and gravitational pull.

Plate BoundariesWhere tectonic plates meet, is known as a plate

boundary. There are several different types of plate boundary that you need to know about.

Destructive – where plates move TOWARDS each other.

Constructive –where plates move AWAY from each other.

Conservative –where plates move ALONGSIDE each other.

Destructive Plate BoundariesDestructive plate boundaries are when plates are

moving TOWARDS each other. This type of plate boundary DESTROYS crust, as it is destructive.

This usually happens between continental and oceanic crust, where the oceanic crust SUBDUCTS (pulled down) because it is denser (heavier) underneath the continental crust into the mantle, and is destroyed.

The point where the oceanic crust is subducted is known as the subduction zone. There is a lot of friction bewteen the plates and pressure builds up and is released as an earthquake sometimes causing tsunamis.

1. Oceanic Crust

2. Continental Crust

6. Molten rock erupted by a volcano.

3. Subduction Zone

5. Oceanic crust is melted and destroyed by the mantle.4. EARTHQUAKE! Caused by

friction and release of pressure by the 2 plates.

ExampleAn example of a destructive plate boundary

in the world today would be along the west coast of South America, where the Nazca (Oceanic) plate is subducting under the South American (Continental) plate.

Constructive Plate Boundaries

Constructive plate boundaries are where tectonic plates are moving AWAY from each other. This usually occurs between two oceanic plates moving away from each other.

As the plates move away, a gap forms in the crust, and rising magma from the mantle fills this gap, cools, solidifies and new crust is formed. New crust is formed or CONSTRUCTED. This is why oceanic crust is younger and the newest rock.

Underwater chain of volcanic mountains formed by the build up of hardened rock.

ExampleA real life example of a constructive plate boundary

is not too far from us!In the middle of the Atlantic Ocean is a constructive

plate boundary where the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate are moving away from each other, and a chain of underwater volcanoes has formed, known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

One of these volcanoes has surfaced as a volcanic island, known as Iceland! So the UK and the rest of Europe are moving away from North America.

Conservative Plate Boundaries

Conservative plate boundaries are when 2 plates are moving along side each other, often at different angles and speeds.

As one plate moves faster than the other the plates jam together due to friction and pressure builds up and is then released as an earthquake as the plates continue to move.

Earthquakes are very common at these types of plate boundaries.

Moving in the same direction at different angles and speeds.

Continental plates moving past each other in the opposite directions.

VolcanoesVolcanoes are windows into the centre of the earth

below the crust. There are two types of volcanoes that you need to know about;

• Composite• ShieldVolcanoes are responsible for thousands of deaths

around the world every year and are the closest thing humans have to getting inside the earth.

Composite VolcanoesComposite volcanoes are the large mountainous cone shaped

volcanoes that we typically think of when imagining a volcano.

These volcanoes are built up of layers and layers of “strata” which is hardened lava that’s cooled and formed rock. The craters are from where the lava erupts.

The lava is usually very viscous (sticky) so poses as little threat to humans however, these volcanoes can be highly destructive as they are very explosive due to high gas content because of viscous lava.

They produce lots of ash (fine grained particles of rock) which causes buildings to collapse and suffocation.

Where Are They? Composite volcanoes are usually along

destructive plate boundaries such as Mount St. Helens in Washington, North America or Mount Pinatubo of the Philippines.

Side vent

Magma chamber

Layers of ash and solidified molten rock

Vent

Shield VolcanoesShield volcanoes are more dome shaped and less steep

than composite volcanoes. They are termed “shield” volcanoes because they resemble a soldiers shield lying on the ground.

Shield volcanoes are built up of layers of liquid lava that has hardened. This lava has low viscosity (very runny) and is basaltic so travels a far distance until it eventually cools and solidifies.

They are less of a hazard to people as they are less explosive than composite volcanoes however the lava is dangerous as it is fast moving and extremely hot.

Where Are They?Shield volcanoes are usually found on constructive

plate boundaries where new crust is being formed by the rising, cooling and solidifying of magma over and over again, eventually building up a sloping dome shaped volcano.

They are also found on mantle plumes such as Hawaii. Examples of shield volcanoes are Kiluea in Hawaii and Erta Ale in Ethiopia.

Layers of solidified lava previously erupted

Magma chamber

Vent

So How Does An Eruption Happen?

A volcanic eruption is when molten rock known as magma from the mantle is erupted onto the surface of the earth as lava. For example, at destructive plate boundaries, the oceanic crust is subducted under the continental crust and is destroyed as it is melted by the mantle.

Magma then rises as it is hot and accumulates in a magma chamber, and forces its way up through cracks and fissures in the rock and out into the atmosphere through a volcano.

CASE STUDY!Volcanic Eruption: Mount St. Helens, USA

Where: Washington, USAWhen: 18th May 1980Causes: An earthquake of 5.1 magnitude at 8:32 am

caused the entire north face of the volcano to collapse exposing the gas rich rock in the volcano which then exploded lava, rock and ash into the atmosphere.Eruption column of ash rose to 80,000 feet in the air.

Killed: 57Damage: $2.88 billion

EffectsPrimary Effects:• 57 people were killed• 200 houses destroyed• 15 miles of railway and 185 of highway destroyed• 9 million sq feet of timber destroyed• Animals were killed – 5000 deer were destroyed• Eruption column of ash reached 80,000 feetSecondary Effects:• Downwind in areas of thick ash accumulation many

agricultural crops such as wheat, alfalfa, apples and potatoes were destroyed.

• Ash blanketed farm land, highways, roads and clogged engines and air conditioning

• Visibility greatly decreased due to ash, so roads were closed.

EffectsThe avalanche of snow and ice from the top

of the mountain caused by the earthquake was overtaken by the eruption of the lava and ash, and this combined with the snow and ice to form lahars. These are mudflows caused by the mixing of volcanic material and water. The lahars rose to 4m high and travelled 27 miles away from the volcano.

Immediate Responses

• Helicopter was sent to rescue any survivors• Removing of the ash cost $2.2 million and

took 10 weeks• Some residents left the region due to

unemployment caused by the eruption.

Long Term Responses• Mount St. Helens looks significantly different after the

eruption than it did before due to the entire north face of the volcano collapsing.

• Trees were replanted to replace those that were lost in the eruption.

• The ash had a positive effect on the soil as it made it more fertile, helping agriculture.

• Tourism suffered massively after the eruption but has since gained more visitors as Mount St Helens has regained its appeal for tourists to the beautiful mountain and the forests and nature around it.

Supervolcanoes If you think volcanoes are bad then just wait until

you hear about one of these bad boys; supervolcanoes.

As you can probably tell from the name supervolcanoes are volcanoes on a much LARGER scale. You need to know the characteristics of a supervolcano and the effects & what would happen if one decided to erupt.

Where Are They?

Supervolcanoes are less common than regular volcanoes due to their immense size, so thankfully there aren’t that many. One of the most famous examples of a supervolcano is Yellowstone in North America.

How Are They Different?Supervolcanoes don’t form mountains like composite

volcanoes do, they form depressions in the ground known as calderas.

Basically what happens is a column of magma rises through the crust, then accumulates in a magma chamber, melting surrounding rock over millions of years and pressure builds up. Once the pressure is released during an eruption the magma is drained and the land collapses and falls in on itself, creating a caldera. The Yellowstone caldera is 1000km across.

What Would Happen?Want to give yourself something else to worry about? WELL,

lets talk about what would happen if Yellowstone supervolcano erupted.

The difference between the effects of a supervolcano and a normal volcanic eruption is that the effects would be worldwide. A supervolcanic eruption would affect everyone.

If Yellowstone erupted the whole world would suffer, huge volumes of ash would be thrown up 1000s of kilometres into the air – which would take 3 days to reach the UK, grounding all aircraft activity, potentially affecting sunlight levels and therefore hindering crop growth in other areas as well as blanketing huge areas of land in ash.

Pyroclastic flows (flows of very hot rock & ash) would cover vast areas of land killing everything in their path. The amount of heat released would be unbearable.

However, we do not actually know what the definite effects of the eruption of a supervolcano would be because there has never been an eruption whilst humans have roamed the planet.

Don’t give yourself nightmares! Yellowstone is monitored extremely closely and hopefully isn’t going to erupt anytime soon. There are loads of documentaries and films about Yellowstone so if you’re interested go and have a look!

Monitoring & Predicting Volcanic Activity

Volcanic activity is a major killer to human, plant and animal life if we aren’t prepared for it, so monitoring volcanoes helps us to be prepared if an eruption is likely.

Techniques include monitoring heat and using tilt metres to detect heat or swelling in the land – if so magma is near the surface and an eruption may be likely.

This helps us to evacuate people living on or very near the volcano to safety as well as moving livestock to safer locations away from the blast zone.

Fold MountainsFold mountains occur at destructive plate boundaries,

where plates are moving towards each other. As the denser (heavier) oceanic crust is subducted

underneath the continental crust, the layers of sedimentary rock (rock made from sediments such as sand and the remains of sea creatures- e.g limestone) become folded and crumpled into huge mountains known as fold mountains.

Rocks folded upwards are known as anticlines and rocks folded downwards are synclines.

Formation1. Rivers carry ‘sediment’ containing sand, rocks and other material and deposit it in the ocean, where it settles out on the sea bed and over millions of years forms layers of sedimentary rock.

2. Layers of sedimentary rock are formed and oceanic and continental plates move towards each other at destructive plate boundaries.

3. As the oceanic crust is denser it is subducted beneath the continental plate and the layers of sedimentary rock on the ocean floor are pushed and folded upwards into fold mountains due to the compression of the plates moving towards each other.

Anticlines and Synclines

In fold mountains, rocks folded upwards are known as anticlines, and rocks folded downwards are known as synclines. Try to remember that synclines are folds down, like how a sink or a bowl curves downwards.

ExamplesThe Andes in South America are a chain of fold mountains.

AnticlinesSynclines

Adapting to Fold MountainsFold mountains are extremely steep, very difficult to

access and have poor soils and limited communications due to their altitude, however humans have adapted to living in these areas and using the natural features to get the best out of them.

Fold mountains can be used for a variety of things, such as;

• Farming• Hydroelectric power (HEP)• Mining• Tourism

CASE STUDY! The AndesWe know they’re at the end of our armies but how

do people survive there? The Andes are a chain of fold mountains running the entire length of the South American continent. They were formed as a result of the Nazca plate subducting underneath the South American plate. They have an average height of 4,000 metres and span 7 of the 13 South American countries on the continent.

UsesMining- the Andes have large ore and salt deposits which

are sold commercially. In Peru and Chile the mountains also contain a large

amount of copper, making them the first and second largest copper exporters in the world.

Peru also contains the largest gold mine in the world; the Yanacocha gold mine.

In Bolivia the Andes are rich in tin and also silver.Valuable metals help provide work for locals so is a major

source of employment but also boosts the economy as a large proportion of exports are metals.

AgricultureThe Andes are very steep, so how have people

adapted to farming?Due to the steep slopes, farming takes place on

terraces, which are flat pieces of land like steps built into the slope for the growth of important crops. Many farmers are subsistence farmers, meaning they grow food for themselves and their families, however some farmers do run businesses and sell “cash crops” for money.

On the terraces crops are grown, mainly potatoes which are very important as is maize (corn) as well as tobacco, coffee and cotton which are the main export crops. Coca is also grown legally in some countries for herbal tea, but illegally in others for the production of the drug cocaine.

The terraces are irrigated, which is artificially watering the land due to the poor quality and dryness of the soil due to the hot climate in some

regions.

TransportationDue to the very steep slopes, accessing the Andes isn’t

easy as the towns and villages are located high up the mountain, and carrying things up and down certainly isn’t either, so the native people use llamas to carry heavy loads up and down the mountain as a form of transport.

Llamas wool is also used for clothing and the meat is sometimes used as a food source.

Donkeys and horses are also used because cars and vehicles provide little use over the treacherous terrain.

Hydroelectric Power (HEP)Hydroelectric power is the creation of electricity by the

power of water turning a turbine in a machine. This can be seen locally on a small scale but also on a

larger scale in fold mountains as the valley sides are very steep so water runs down through streams and gorges making them ideal locations to place turbines.

However the water supply can be seasonal, as water may be held as ice in the winter, then in spring when it melts the water supply increases. Also with the climate the rainfall may be inconsistent.

Yuncan DamIn north east Peru, the Yuncan Dam was

placed in Puacartambo and Huachon rivers to generate hydroelectric power.

Steep sided valley walls

Tourism

The Andes is a beautiful natural landscape that many people want to come and look at so tourism is a major sector in the economy and employment for locals as it brings in a fair amount of money.

One of the main attractions is the Inca Trail in Peru which covers 50km of old pathways linking together ancient Inca settlements throughout the mountains and a visit Machu Picchu – one of the New 7 Wonders of the World.

Take a virtual tour of the Inca Trail here! http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Restless%20Earth/Andes/Peru/IncaTrail.htm

Earthquakes!What is an earthquake? It’s the release of pressure and

energy in the earths crust creating seismic waves. Earthquakes originate deep within the crust at a point called the focus and directly above the focus on the earth’s surface is known as the epicentre.

Seismic waves are energy released by the earthquake and there are different types.

• Primary waves(P waves) are released first and travel fastest, they can travel through solids and liquids.

• Secondary waves(S waves) are released second and are slower than P waves, and can travel through SOLIDS ONLY.

Where In The World Are They?Earthquakes occur at plate boundaries where tectonic

plates of the earth’s crust meet.

Destructive plate boundaries – earthquakes occur when the oceanic plate is being subducted underneath the continental plate. The oceanic plate scrapes along the continental and sometimes gets jammed, pressure builds up and is released as an earthquake – these are usually of a high magnitude (are very powerful) for example in Japan &The Philippines

Constructive plate boundaries – where the plates are moving away from each other, the crust splits, releasing pressure as an earthquake – for example in Iceland – a volcanic island on the Mid Atlantic Ridge – a constructive plate boundary, earthquakes are frequent as the 2 plates move away from each other. Earthquakes can also trigger volcanic eruptions.

Conservative plate boundary – earthquakes are very common at these plate boundaries as the plates are moving past each other in the same direction. As they are moving at different angles and speeds, the plates jam together and pressure builds up, and is released as an earthquakes when the plates move past each other.

For example in California- the San Andreas fault line is a conservative plate boundary.

Intelligent People!Can we just take a moment to realise that

these really intelligent people in California are living on the San Andreas Fault line. How nice and safe and secure is that?!

Measuring EarthquakesHow big or the intensity of the earthquake is, is

known as the magnitude. The magnitude of an earthquake is measured by using the Richter Scale.

The Richter Scale is a logarithmic scale, meaning that every increase in number is 10x bigger than the previous number. If an earthquake measures 3.0 on the Richter Scale then this is 10x bigger than an earthquake of 2.0 . An earthquake of 4.0 would be 10x bigger than 3.0, and 100x bigger than 2.0.

Richter Scale The lower the magnitude – 1.0-2.0 the more frequent the

earthquakes are. These cause little damage and happen all over the world several times a day, they are just too small for us to feel – usually on constructive plate boundaries.

The higher the magnitude- 7.0-9.0 the less frequent the earthquake, these are the really huge earthquakes that kill many people and cause the most damage- usually on destructive plate boundaries. These earthquakes cause tsunamis if they occur under the sea. For example the Japanese earthquake in 2011 had a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter Scale – this occurred under the sea and caused total devastation.

The Mercalli Scale The Mercalli Scale measures the effects of an

earthquake and how destructive it is. It ranges from 1 – not felt to 12 – total destruction in roman numerals and is based on the observers judgement of the place affected by the earthquake, usually the epicentre.

CASE STUDY! Haiti Earthquake 2010 (Poor)

When: 12th January 2010 16:53Magnitude: 7.0 Richter ScaleWhere: Port au Prince (Capital)Killed: 100,000 – 160,000Affected: 3 millionDamage: 250,000 homes destroyedGDP per capita: US$ 669.2

GDP means Gross Domestic Product- total of workers earnings & taxes. The ‘per capita’ means how much the average person earns a year.

EffectsPrimary Effects: • 100,0000 people killed• 250,0000 homes destroyed due • Communications, air, land & sea transport facilities, hospitals

and electrical networks damaged from the quake • Buildings collapsed on people – concrete pillars weren’t

enforced with steel so ceilings fell to floors – pancake effectSecondary Effects:

•Localised tsunami

•Dead buried in mass graves – bodies lying in the street spread diseases

•Aid couldn’t get in due to damaged communications – health & sanitation supplies conflict about who was in charge

•Looting & violence

Immediate Responses• Appeals for aid were made immediately by the

United Nations and the president of Haiti.• Neighbours Dominic Republic gave aid; food,

water & heavy lifting machinery.• Hospitals in the Dominican became available as

well as airports. • Red Cross provided emergency medical relief• Within 2 days over 20 countries had sent military

personnel including the US, Canada & the Dominican Republic.

Long Term Responses• The EU promised €330 for emergency & long term

aid• UK donated £20 million• Catholic Relief Services donated $200 million and a 5

year relief and reconstruction programme covering shelter, health, livelihoods & child protection.

• 6 months after the quake 98% of rubble hadn’t been cleared – 20 million cubic metres remained.

• 1.6 million still living in camps with no running water, sewage or electricity

• By May 2010 enough aid had been raised to give each family a cheque for US$37,000.

CASE STUDY! Japan Earthquake 1995 (Rich)

When: 17th January 1995 5:46am Magnitude: 6.8 Richter ScaleDuration: 20 secondsWhere: KobeKilled: 6,434Damage: 10 trillion yen/ US $100 billionGDP per capita: US $43,117.8

EffectsPrimary Effects:• 6,434 killed• 150,000 buildings destroyed• The Great Hanshin Expressway collapsed at 1km long• 120 out of 150 quays destroyed at Kobe’s port• FiresSecondary Effects:• Bodies lying in the street• Gas, electricity and water lines fractures• Water supply fractured – couldn’t put out fires from

fractured gas and electricity lines.• Aid was hindered due to roads being destroyed and

communications – such as phone lines and internet being fractured.

Immediate Responses

• Retailers Daiei and 7-Eleven used their existing supplies to provide necessities such as food, clean water, hygiene products, blankets etc.

• Motorola and NTT provided free telephone service for victims to contact family & friends.

• Local hospitals really struggled with the huge demand for medical treatment. People had to wait to see a doctor in the corridors, and some were even operated on in the corridors.

Long Term Responses• The railways were repaired reaching 80%

operability in one month after the quake.• Some areas in Kobe suffered from subsidence due

to liquefaction of the soil – where the vibrations from the earthquake separate sediment and water, basically turning the ground to mud so buildings move.

• Port was repaired• 1.2 million volunteers were involved in relief efforts

in the first three months after the earthquake.

Monitoring & Predicting Seismic Activity

Earthquakes are a major killer, so predicting when they are going to happen and monitoring active fault lines and the major plate boundaries all year round helps us to minimise the loss of life caused by them.

Also earthquake proof buildings and educating people in earthquake prone areas has seemed to work.

Earthquake proof buildings using diagonal bracing and reinforced steel and timber – flexible so that the building bends slightly with the quake. Also using rollers, springs or sliding pads on the foundations of the building allow the building to move with the quake, preventing it from falling down.

Duck, Cover, Hide – Japanese children are taught in school to put their hands on their heads and hide under a table in the event of an earthquake.

From the markscheme…This is what the examiners want you to know about

predicting earthquake activity:Earthquake activity is monitored as this can be a sign or a

trigger of a volcanic eruption. Observation of changes in the shape of the land and more accurately the use of tiltmeters to identify and record such changes. GPS use satellites to detect the smallest movement – of a mm and robots known as spiders are introduced into craters to monitor changes in gases – especially sulphur dioxide which can signify an eruption. All of these allow people to prepare and to evacuate if necessary.

TsunamisWhat are tsunamis?Tsunamis are HUGE waves that come smashing ashore

that have been displaced by an earthquake that’s occurred in the ocean. Above the epicentre of the earthquake a column of water splits in half, one wave is sent towards the shore, one out to sea. These waves aren’t huge in deep water, but when they reach shallower water and flat land they become huge and gain momentum and are unstoppable.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions, landslides or meteorite impacts.

How Do They Work?Tsunamis are created when the sea floor abruptly

deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water, and when the pressure between the plates is released as an earthquake the waves soar in opposite directions.

Tsunami waves have a very long wave length 100s of km long which is why they go unnoticed at sea. The grow in height immensely as they reach shallower water – as they come inland.

CASE STUDY! Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004

When: 26th December 2004 Magnitude: Earthquake of 9.1-9.3 Richter ScaleCause: Earthquake when the Indian plate was

subducted underneath the Burma plate.Killed: 230,000 Affected: 14 countries affectedDuration:8.3-10 minutes- longest duration ever

recorded.

EffectsPrimary Effects:• 30m waves (100ft) smashed ashore • Indonesia was the worst hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India & Thailand.• It caused the whole planet to vibrate• 230,000 people killed – 1/3 were children• Caused damage and deaths up to the East coast of Africa• Crops destroyed & farmland floodedSecondary Effects:• Buildings destroyed• Diseases spread in the dirty water that blanketed the land cholera & typhoid

due to the high population density & hot tropical climate.• Shortage of clean water, food• Many are subsistence farmers – livestock killed, lost jobs & food to survive as

farms flooded

Immediate Responses• The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than

1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.• Bodies were buried as soon as possible to prevent the

spread of disease.• US $14 billion was raised in aid for damaged regions by

nations worldwide.• Camps were set up, and presents were sent in as it was the

day after Christmas containing emergency aid kits – food and water, blankets.

• Notice boards were put on with photos of the missing, tourists helped locals try and find their loved ones, some flew in from other countries to help.

Long Term Responses• UK public donated £330,000,000 – worked out as £5.50 per person • Severe damage to ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forest,

coastal wetlands, sand dunes & rock formations.• Poisoning of fresh water supplies with salt water• Thousands of rice, mango and banana plantations were destroyed and

will take years to recover.• Drinking water, wells and aquifers have been affected by the saltwater,

which is costly to restore.• Many people were there on holiday – a popular tourist destination, may

deter people from holidaying there in the future, for fear that may happen again.

• Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System set up to monitor the ocean and predict future tsunamis so that people are prepared this time and can get to safety.

Exam

Spend 25 minutes on the Restless Earth question and no more! You must not run over into your other question time or else you won’t be able to finish the exam in time to the best of your ability.

You’ll be given a source; either a diagram or a graph to work with for the first few questions, use your noggin! They have given you information and they want you to use it, - quote figures from a graph, table or map, be very specific and obvious and leave nothing to chance.

Case Study QuestionsThe longer questions for 6-8 marks you need to use

your case studies for, make sure you use the CORRECT case study, quote numbers, dates, magnitudes, deaths, damage, GDPs, charities as many things as you can think of that’s RELEVANT to what the question is asking you – don’t waste time giving them information they haven’t asked for.

Read what the question is asking you, circle the key words and stick to it. Choose 3 or 4 points to talk about in detail and make sure you stick to them.

Good Luck!

Good luck with your revision and exams! If you have any questions about this PowerPoint or the course in general, or anything in particular it doesn’t even have to be about geography, please feel free to email me at xhannahh97x@yahoo.com and also check out my recent blog posts! Thank you for reading this PowerPoint and good luck!

Also I do not own any of the images in this PowerPoint, I just got them from Google Images.