Galpin Society Conference

2015

Musical Instruments in Science and History

In association with the Institute of Acoustics and the Royal Musical Association

CONFERENCE ABSTRACTS

Keynote Paper 1.1 ­ In Honour of Sir Nicholas Shackleton FRS Ingrid Pearson I am deeply honoured and delighted to have been invited to present this paper honouring the late Professor Sir Nicholas Shackleton. His achievements as an earth scientist, in the field of quaternary paleoceanography, earned Nick international renown as well as a string of honours and prizes. Until he was knighted in 1998 many musicians had been unaware of the importance of Nick's research. Indeed, in the words of McCave and Elderfield, for their 2011 Biographical Memoir for the Royal Society, 'his lifetime achievements define the emergence of our understanding of the operation of the Earth's natural climate system'. Many conference delegates will know the extent to which the instruments of the clarinet family held a lifelong fascination for Nick, from his first encounter with the clarinet as a teenager, his period of National Service in The Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment as an army musician, through to his organological expertise manifest in his entries for the 1980 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, amongst other publications. Indeed, the last trip abroad he was able to make saw Nick in Berne to present his scientific work, but also to collect an instrument which had been restored by Andreas Schöni. Nick himself acknowledged the many ways in which his scientific and musical lives enriched each other. I shall draw upon Nick's own work as well as sources from colleagues, musical and scientific. I hope to do justice to man whose wisdom, humanity, integrity and intellect were so generously shared with so many. Paper 1.2.1 ­ The Recorder in the Nineteenth Century Douglas MacMillan It is often believed that the recorder ceased to exist in the nineteenth century. Although the recorder­derived English flageolet and Viennese csakan are thought to have displaced the instrument in the nineteenth century, this paper will demonstrate the continued existence of the recorder. It will be shown that recorders continued to be made throughout the century, and that the recorder revival began not in the twentieth century but in the late nineteenth. The paper will examine three distinct types of nineteenth­century recorders: firstly, those of the Baroque pattern, secondly, the Berchtesgadener Fleitl, the French flûte douce and the Flötuse from Vogtland and finally the instruments associated with the recorder revival. The recorder will be compared and contrasted with the csakan and the English and French flageolets. The work of the pioneer instrument makers Mahillon, Galpin and Dolmetsch will be discussed and the manufacture of external copies of recorders in La Couture­Boussey in relation to the recorder revival will be noted. The influence of the Bogenhauser Künstlerkapelle in Munich will be described. The growing awareness of the recorder apparent in lectures and lecture­recitals as the nineteenth century drew to its close will be discussed.

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Paper 1.2.2 ­ “Curiously contriv’d and fitted for a flute”: The recorder as operatic tool in Handel's Op. 1 Fatima Lahham What happens to opera when it is not being performed? It’s not a question we ask very often, but as a musical conception that tangles with dramatic and visual spectacle, opera assumes a cultural presence off­ as well as on­stage, inhabiting musical, narrative, and historical currents within society, and often living vicariously through them outside the theatre. In this paper I shall be looking at the set of 6 recorder sonatas composed by Georg Frideric Handel between 1725­26, which were sent out into the world of domestic chamber music as a sort of Trojan horse full of quotes, allusions, and downright borrowings from the operas Handel was writing at the time, making them powerful advocates for Italian opera in London in the 1720s, and begging consideration in the same light as the emerging arrangements of opera arias for recorder. This paper explores how Handel’s recorder sonatas might show us the instrument in a new light, according it an important role as domestic re­creator of opera, and suggesting that the idea of the recorder as an ‘amateur’ or ‘gentleman’s’ instrument at this time overlooks its mediation between both private and public spheres to make it a truly unique cultural tool. Paper 1.3.1 ­ The Basset Clarinet: makers, instruments, and patents Albert R. Rice The basset clarinet is a soprano clarinet pitched in C, B­flat or A with its range extended downward below written E by a minor third to C. It is most well­known from its important association with Mozart's compositions for Anton Stadler in the B­flat clarinet obbligato to "Parto, parto, ma tu ben mio" in La Clemenza di Tito (1791); and the A clarinet parts of the Quintet for clarinet and strings, K581 (1789), and the Concerto for clarinet and orchestra K622 (1791). This presentation provides a history of the basset clarinet and an overview of six eighteenth­century basset clarinets made before Mozart's works. It investigates Theodor Lotz' basset clarinet made for Anton Stadler with a chromatic basset range of Eb, D, C#, and C, and shows another similar example by Johann Eisenbrant. Later nineteenth century basset clarinets are described made in three shapes: straight, ophicleide, and bassoon. A revival of interest in the basset clarinet began in the first half of the twentieth century, and several examples of modern and reproduction instruments are examined with their performance histories. Paper 1.3.2 ­ Victor­Charles Mahillon and the Nineteenth Century Oboe d'Amore Revival Stefaan Verdegem The oboe d’amore was a forgotten and obsolete musical instrument in the nineteenth century, until François­Auguste Gevaert, the second director of the Brussels Royal Conservatoire, commissioned Victor­Charles Mahillon in 1873 to make a reconstruction with up­to­date keywork for the performance of the choral works of J. S. Bach. Mahillon’s ‘reinvention’ was internationally successful and eventually became the prototype for the modern oboe d’amore. From two examples preserved at the Brussels Conservatoire, probably the earliest surviving nineteenth­century instruments, it can be seen that the first oboes d’amore had a globular or bulbed bell, as did the instruments from after 1908, as shown in the Mahillon company catalogues. Sometime before 1908 Mahillon also made (or sold) oboes d’amore with an open or expanding bell. Surviving instruments lead us to Mahillon’s Brussels colleague Jacques Albert, who also made open­belled oboes d’amore, probably from 1892. These are similar, or in some cases identical, to the

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Mahillon instruments with respect to bore profiles and keywork, suggesting that Mahillon hired Albert as a subcontractor to produce these. Paper 1.3.3 ­ The Venetian Cornetto: ‘ad imitar piu la voce humana’ Jamie Savan This paper draws on empirical data from three related projects: an investigation into pitch and intonation in the cornetti of the Accademia Filarmonica, Verona; the use of CAD modelling and 3D printing to understand the pitch and fingering system of the cornetts of Christ Church, Oxford; and an investigation of similar issues in a replica of Vienna SAM230 based on recently published CT­scan data. Taken together, these projects reveal some common features of Venetian (and Anglo­Venetian) cornetti of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, and suggest that the instruments known by Giovanni Bassano (and in all probability made by members of his extended family, in Venice and / or England), as used in the music of Gabrieli, Monteverdi, et al, were different in several important respects from the ‘modern’ cornetts that are typically used for the performance of such repertoire today. It will be demonstrated that the design of the Venetian cornetto facilitated imitation of the human voice, as described by Dalla Casa, in different aspects including solmization and transposition practice.

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Keynote Paper 2.1 ­ From anti­establishment to establishment ­ Christopher Hogwood Derek Adlam In Britain from the mid­1960s, a cluster of young talents advanced the cause of ‘historic’ music through rigorous research into sources and performance practice; the insights gained were used to underpin a growing facility and insight into actual performance. Instrument makers amongst this group also drove the revival forward. What began as a young, anti­establishment movement has now become an essential part of modern musical life. Paper 2.2.1 ­ Between private and public: a brief history of Evan Gorga’s musical collections Alessandra Palidda The figure of Evangelista Gorga (1865­1957), talented musician, but also (and mainly) builder, technician and collector of musical instruments, has been frequently approached, but never extensively analyzed; similarly, the tragic vicissitudes related to his musical instruments (more than 3000 items) forming, both historically and geographically, an extraordinarily complete collection and today constituting the majority and most prestigious part of Rome’s Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali, is only marginally known. Using both existing literature and primary sources and iconography discovered during a dedicated research project undergone in 2012­2013 in Rome and London, the paper will proceed from a brief contextualization of Evan Gorga’s collecting activity to the history of the musical collections, particularly focusing on the unique interaction between private and public dimensions. From Gorga’s ten rented apartments in central Rome to the prestigious international exhibitions in the 1910s and 1920s, from the inevitable fragmentation during WWII to the years of strenuous study and inventory until the final (although problematic) collocation within a dedicated museum, the paper will retrace the main phases of the collections’ history, thus casting new light on a unique, yet still often neglected case study. Paper 2.2.2 ­ Establishing a past and a future for MIMEd 4464 David Gerrard In the catalogue of the University of Edinburgh’s Collection of Historic Musical Instruments MIMEd 4464’s entry reads: ‘Double­manual harpsichord, Baker Harris, London, 1774’. Of these descriptors, however, only ‘double­manual harpsichord’ can be applied with any certainty. While superficially of eighteenth­century appearance, close inspection reveals signs of multiple twentieth­century interventions. The instrument’s provenance is traceable only from 1934 onwards, when it was bought from Henry Tull, a Dolmetsch associate. Tull’s level of involvement with the instrument is uncertain; according to one source, Tull claimed to have built the instrument. Furthermore, the only other surviving harpsichord attributed to Baker Harris is known also to have passed through Tull’s hands, rendering comparative analysis deeply problematic. This investigation aims to establish a clearer picture of the various states through which this harpsichord has passed. The complete lack of accompanying documentation has necessitated an analysis proceeding almost exclusively from inspection of the object itself. Various discovery procedures are discussed, and the findings are compared with other – possibly contemporary – English instruments. This paper also considers the instrument’s philosophical status, and the degree to which its function as ‘a medium in an aesthetic transaction with the past’ (Barclay 2004) has been altered and compromised over time.

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Paper 2.3.1 ­ English Keyboard Instruments and the Importance of Octave Pitch Edward Dewhirst Our knowledge of keyboard instruments in fifteenth and sixteenth century England is shrouded in mystery. From literary sources, images and information on instruments from other countries the types of English keyboard instrument at this time can be deduced. Clavichords were common in fifteenth century England, yet uncommon by the middle of the sixteenth century. Harpsichords appear to have been popular in England in the fifteenth century, but lost popularity in the early sixteenth century to the virginal. Many keyboard instruments were constructed at what we would today call octave pitch, but in the sixteenth century was called ‘single’ pitch. ‘Double’ pitch, an octave below ‘single’ pitch, was introduced in the reign of Henry VIII and these two pitch levels appear to have coexisted until the end of the century when ‘double’ pitch became the dominant pitch level. There is evidence that transposing keyboard instruments were made in England in the sixteenth and seventeenth century associated with church organ pitch. There is also evidence that transitional pitch level instruments were produced in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, combining ‘single’ and ‘double’ pitch registers within one case providing equal facility to play at either pitch level. Paper 2.3.2 ­ John Zumpe in the Bank of England (1775–1789): a wealth of information in the square piano maker’s account Marie Kent Square piano maker John Christopher Zumpe opened an account with the Bank of England on Thursday, 23 February 1775 at the age of 48. He had been making his celebrated pianos and a vast fortune for the past decade, so what prompted him to finally open an account that day? A clue may be found in his return to the bank two days later when he deposited the enormous sum of £575, but to what did this sum relate? Over the next 14 years—through the dissolution of his partnership with Gabriel Buntebart, his move to new premises in Cavendish Square and his association with the Schoene brothers, to his eventual retirement and death—Zumpe’s sundry visits to the bank give an unprecedented insight into his daily life and finances. This paper discusses whether Zumpe employed his account for business or personal use, and asks what it tells us of his alleged partnership with Meinke Meyer, and the nature of his dealings with the many unfamiliar individuals named within the ledgers. Paper 2.3.3 ­ David ‘Jose’ Rubio: Gentleman Luthier and Harpsichord Maker James Westbrook While working in his attic workshop in Greenwich Village, making guitars and early instruments for the likes of Julian Bream or Ephraim Segerman, and modern instruments for Charlie Byrd or Dr Michael Kasha, an instrument maker destined for fame was busy planning what was probably his most ambitious project. He was Jose ‘David’ Rubio (1934­2000), and his project was to build harpsichords back in England. In 1967 he shipped a cannibalised Hubbard harpsichord kit, with his other belongings, over from New York, on the SS Rotterdam. How did a former flamenco guitarist, with seemingly little knowledge of keyboard instruments, turn this new adventure into a successful business ultimately becoming Britain’s most distinguished post­war musical instrument maker? With a short biographical sketch of Rubio’s life, based on unpublished documents and interviews, I will endeavour to answer that question. I will also explore the technical aspects of his harpsichord making, and introduce to you his hitherto unknown team of workers, using the six extant Rubio instruments purchased by The University of Cambridge and its Colleges.

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Paper 2.4.1 ­ The rise and demise of the organized piano David E G Shuker The organized piano was the heir to a claviorgan tradition that had its roots in the sixteenth century and reached its peak towards the end of the eighteenth century. From contemporary advertisements and some technical sources the organized piano appears to have been a not uncommon musical instrument and a few survive in various collections. However, almost all are unplayable and it is difficult to know what function they served in both public concerts and domestic music making as there appears to be virtually no repertoire for the instrument. The author has undertaken the reconstruction of an organized square piano using a contemporary Broadwood piano and a newly­built organ so that the sound world of this hybrid can be explored. The reconstruction is a not a copy of any particular instrument but includes features that seem to be fairly standard in late eighteenth­century organized pianos, such as foot blowing for the organ and couplers to engage or disengage either of the piano or organ actions. Paper 2.4.2 ­ Mail Order Music from the American Heartland: the Hinners Organ Company of Pekin, Illinois Allison A. Alcorn Founded in 1879 by John L. Hinners, the Hinners Organ Company (Pekin, Illinois) developed a number of stock models of small mechanical­action instruments that were advertised primarily throughout the mid­western United States and to a lesser extent throughout North America. Operating without outside salesmen, the company was one of the first to conduct all of its affairs by mail, including the financial arrangements, selection of the basic design, and custom alterations where required. Buyers first met a company representative when he arrived by train to set up the crated instrument that had been shipped ahead of him. Tracker organs with hand­operated bellows were easily repaired by local craftsmen, and were suited to an area that, for the most part, lacked electricity. In all, the company constructed nearly three thousand pipe organs during its sixty years of operation. Rapid decline of the firm began in the decade prior to 1936 during which the company sold fewer than one hundred instruments, and closed in that year when John's son, Arthur, found himself without sufficient financial resources to weather the lengthy Great Depression. Hinners organs represent a meat and potatoes instrument that served a unique population during a distinctive period in American history. Paper 2.4.3 ­ The Flight Family Firm Jenny Nex The Flight firm of organ builders was established by brothers Benjamin senior and William in the second half of the eighteenth century. Benjamin carried on the business following his brother’s death in 1791 with partners including John Kelly and Benjamin Flight junior, the latter going on to work with Joseph Robson. A wide variety of historical resources have been brought together to explore this interesting firm. These include multifarious archives: insurance policies; wills; court cases; parish records; patents; newspapers; and auction records. We also have a portrait of Benjamin junior, fictional accounts of barrel organs and factual references of people’s reactions to them. This paper summarises recent findings and goes on to explore a small collection of hymn books which were sent along with barrel organs to various parishes. The music in

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these books is compared with that found on a playable barrel organ (RCM 809) as well as in contemporary hymn books, and delves deeper into the use of barrel organs as sources of performance practices. Paper 2.5.1 ­ 3,000 years of the Ocarina: an instrument that has "no musical significance whatever" with a sound that "bridges the mortal and immortal worlds by its power..." David Liggins In the history of musical instruments, the Ocarina is notable for its frequent absence. Ocarinas are easily misunderstood and undervalued, despite their distinctive acoustic qualities. With millions of players worldwide and a new interest in making and playing, it is time to review the last 3,000 years and reflect on whether the Ocarina is genuinely of little musical significance or invested with supernatural power. The name 'Ocarina' was originally given by Giuseppe Donati to his terracotta invention in Budrio, Italy, 1853. The name is now used to describe other vessel flutes, including those unearthed in large quantities throughout pre­Columbian Latin America. The English 4­hole Ocarina, invented by John Taylor, London, 1963, is more closely linked with these ancient vessel flutes than with its Italian namesake. However, all Ocarinas produce a sound that is relatively free of overtones, variously described as 'bland' or 'spiritual'. Finger­holes can be positioned anywhere on the surface of an ocarina without changing the pitch, giving makers scope to develop new user­friendly designs. An examination of pre­Colombian, Italian and English Ocarinas spanning 3,000 years will allow for an informed reconsideration of the place of the ocarina in the history of musical instruments. Paper 2.5.2 ­ An evolutionary systematic study of panpipes and a test for pre­Columbian contact among Oceania and South America Gabriel Aguirre, Marcelo Sánchez The strong variation in shape, size, ornamentation and manner of playing the panpipes derives from two regions in the world’s largest ocean: South America and Oceania. We scored the variations of 20 features in 160 panpipes from Oceania and South America deposited in museum collections to perform an analysis of relationship. This analysis serves to test hypotheses of cultural diffusion (e.g., pre­Columbian exchanges between Oceania and South America, as suggested in the 1940s) and to understand patterns of innovation in instrument construction as related to different cultural variables. The methods performed are familiar to systematic biologists and have been successfully used to trace historical changes in other musical instruments. The matrix was analysed under a cladistics framework using TNT software. Linguistic groups and geographic distance are plotted against the consensus tree to provide reciprocal illumination on the strength of the phylogenetic signal. Among the features studied are the materials in which panpipes are produced, ligature types, and length of individual pipes. Manner of playing and scales also provide complex testable features. The clustering of instruments of some ethnic groups (e.g. the Aymara and the Chalavi from the Andean region of Bolivia) provides evidence of the ‘signal’ of the features examined.

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Paper 2.5.3 ­ A dead man’s instrument ­ Resurrecting the manufacture of the Mallorcan bagpipes, the xeremies Cassandre Balosso­Bardin Forty years ago the xeremies, the Mallorcan bagpipes, were rare objects. As the knowledge to craft them gradually faded over the course of the twentieth century, instruments were recycled and handed down to new generations of pipers. By the 1970s playable instruments were scarce, often having to be purchased from the widows of recently deceased xeremiers (pipers). This dilemma encouraged a few young musicians to become interested in instrument making in order to create a new model of xeremies that reproduced the existing bagpipes’ timbre and organology but that also met contemporary demands. The xeremies changed gradually but significantly as standardisation took over, establishing a common pitch and scale for the melodic pipe and replacing unstable local materials with outsourced and synthetic materials. Furthermore, professional advice and workmanship was sought from other bagpipe traditions such as Galicia, Asturias and even Scotland. Based on field interviews and local bibliography (Artigues and Morey 1989; Morey 1997), I will explore the changes brought on by the new generations from the 1970s to today, deconstructing the instrument to examine how each piece was carefully thought through in order to create today’s fully functioning set of xeremies. Paper 2.5.4 ­ Sunrise of a new tradition: comparative and organological analysis on diatonic accordion between Italy and France Raffaele Pinelli The diatonic accordion, ancestor of mechanical bellow aerophones, is a popular instrument of the "industrial age" spread wide­range in most Western countries, especially in Europe. Today both musicians, other cultural industry professionals and the audience in general pay much more attention to the diatonic accordion than in the recent past, especially in Italy and France. As a link between the peasant culture and the urban one, it has in recent decades been able to facilitate the circulation of modern repertoires by developing new creative trends thanks by significant organological changes. After describing the main characteristics of the diatonic accordion’s production process, the paper aims to describe, for the first time, such organological changes during the last 35 years. In this regard, it will present the cases of two of the most famous manufacturers in the world, the Italians Castagnari and French Bertrand Gaillard. Moreover, thanks to the analysis of the particular process inherent to R & D deployed by both, the intervention will demonstrate how the repertoires of new composition are also the result of the dialectic "musician/luthier".

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Keynote Paper 3.1 ­ Why do light­gauge strings sound brighter? Professor Jim Woodhouse It is well known to players of plucked­string instruments that lighter­gauge stringing gives a brighter sound. The talk will explore the various influences on sound quality in plucked strings, and will show that while many aspects are quite well understood, there remains a puzzle. Some measurements on plain nylon strings of different gauges will be used to explore this puzzle. Paper 3.2.1 ­ A generic model for the acoustic modes of the violin family Colin Gough A generic model is described for instruments of the violin family based on the their shallow, thin­walled, guitar­shaped, box­like, body shell structures formed from doubly arched plates coupled together by the ribs, the soundpost and cavity air modes. Almost all the sound radiated by such instruments at frequencies over their first two octaves is shown to be radiated by a single, volume­changing, breathing mode, either directly or by excitation of the Helmholtz f­hole resonance and its coupling to a number of otherwise only weakly radiating shell modes. The shapes of all such modes are closely related to the common symmetry of all instruments of the violin family. For the violin, the breathing mode is strongly coupled to a longitudinal anticlastic bending mode, which together form the strongly radiating A0, B1­ and B1+ signature modes of all high quality instruments. For all instruments and set­ups, the radiating strength of the individual signature modes is shown to be strongly dependent on soundpost position and strength and breathing mode coupling to the Helmholtz f­hole resonance. Additional strongly radiating modes emerge when the breathing mode frequency is closely coincident with a small number of other well identified shell mode vibrations. Paper 3.2.2 ­ When Science Goes Bad Stewart Pollens In recent years, scientists have attempted to discover the “secrets” of Stradivari and other important musical instrument makers. In a number of studies, faulty scientific methods and dubious experimental techniques have been employed; in others, legitimate double­blind evaluations of tonal qualities, acoustical measurements, mathematical modelling, chemical analysis, and dendrochronology have yielded results that have been misrepresented or fancifully interpreted. This paper will challenge the validity of several high profile studies. Paper 3.3.1 ­ A comparison of single­reed, lip­reed and bowed­string excitations of a hybrid wind instrument Kurijn Buys A hybrid wind instrument is constructed by connecting a theoretical excitation model (such as a real­time computed physical model of a single­reed mouthpiece) to a loudspeaker and a microphone which are placed at the entrance of a wind instrument resonator (a clarinet­like tube in our case). The successful construction of a hybrid wind instrument, and the evaluation with a single­reed physical model, has been demonstrated in previous work. In the present paper, inspired by the analogy between the principal oscillation mechanisms of wind instruments and bowed string instruments, we introduce the stick­slip mechanism of a bowed­string

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interaction model (the hyperbolic model with absorbed torsional waves) and a lip­reed model (such as the trumpet embouchure) to the hybrid wind instrument setup. As with the single­reed model, the hybrid sounds generated with the bowed­string and lip­reed models are close to the sounds predicted by a complete simulation of the instrument. While the hybrid instrument incorporating the bowed­string model differentiates itself by the characteristic raucous timbre for low bowing speeds, the more dynamical nature of the lip­reed model introduces a greater timbre variation in both attack and sustained components for various input parameters. Paper 3.3.2 ­ Acoustical Properties of The Celempung: Sundanese Bamboo Traditional Musical Instrument Jack Arthur Simanjuntak This research describes the acoustics properties in terms of the fundamental frequency and partials of the celempung, a bamboo musical instrument from West Java Indonesia. Celempung is made from a bamboo segment as the main sound generators with three strings cut out from the bamboo body itself. The note of three strings are “ting” (high), “tung” (mid), and “gung” (low). This investigation is focus on analyzing spectral frequency of “tung” note. The analysis was generated from the measurement of sound energy by numerous microphones in semi anechoic room. Pitch and timbre of three celempungs were evaluated with spectrum analyzer. It was found that the prominent partials are f, 1.34 f, 2.01 f, 3 f, 3.22 f, 3.41 f, 3.96 f, 4.87 f, 5.73 f, 6.79 f, 9.06 f where f is fundamental frequency that value is 278.4 Hz. It is evident that the fundamental frequency⎯which is in low frequency range⎯ is close related to the pitch. The clustering of partials in mid­high frequency range is prominent to the perceiving of “tung” as mid note compared to the partials in low mid. Paper 3.3.3 ­ Real­time digital emulation of the acoustic violin using vSound Patrick Gaydecki vSound is a real­time digital signal processing (DSP) system that accepts the electrical output from an electric violin and produces an output signal which, when fed to an amplifier and loudspeaker, approximates closely the timbre of an acoustic instrument. The method, which assumes that the violin body acts as a linear system, exploits the principle of convolution. The system comprises a switchable preamplifier matched to violin pickups, a high resolution sigma delta codec and a digital signal processor operating at 590 million multiplications­accumulations per second. The entire system is stand­alone and holds in its memory up to fifty far­field impulse responses of wooden instruments, any one of which may be convolved in real­time with the input to synthesize the modified output. The unit also incorporates a number of other functions to optimize the characteristics of the output to suite the acoustic properties of the ambient space and player preferences. These include a 20­band graphic equalizer, an arbitrary equalizer, a bass cut filter and an adjustable blender. The blender, which combines the original with the processed signal, extends the scope of the system for use with acoustic instruments fitted with pickups on the bridge. The unit is controlled by a set of navigator­style buttons in conjunction with a simple display screen; Windows­based control software also allows the user to download new responses and to adjust the settings of the graphic or arbitrary equalizer. Initial tests using an impulse response obtained from a Guarneri del Gesù violin constructed in the early­mid 18th century suggest that the system significantly enhances the tonal quality and timbre of an electric instrument.

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Paper 3.4.1 ­ Lips, Mass Loading, and Bassoon Embouchures, Ancient and Modern James Kopp When the bassoon’s double reed is blown, the player’s lips become part of the apparent vibrating mass of the reed’s two blades. The lips are typically applied near the outer end of the blades for low notes, and advanced further onto the blades for the higher registers. Both parallel and “overbite” alignments of the jaws are taught today, and an “underbite” alignment was apparently known in the mid­19th century. Other variables include the degrees of out­turning and tensing of the lips, especially the lower lip. These embouchure variations may be compared to mass loading of a clamped­free bar, and their qualitative effects on the reed resonance frequency are predictable according to that model. By assuming control of the loading variables, the player can optimise response in the different registers of the bassoon, increase pitch flexibility, and lend clarity and focus to the tone. Slightly rotating the reed on the bassoon’s crook results in an “oblique embouchure,” a practice documented by 1752, nearly ubiquitous between 1780 and 1880, and still taught in the early 20th century. An oblique embouchure tends to minimise the lip­mass load on the vibrating blades, thereby raising the resonant frequency of the reed and facilitating high­register response. Paper 3.4.2 ­ Bi­stable pitch problems in the low range of the baroque bassoon. Mathew Dart The bassoon was originally conceived as the bass in the oboe family; ‘basson des hautbois’, playing with similar fingerings an octave and a fifth lower. Its extension bore adds a further fifth below the seven­finger note, with four toneholes operated by the thumbs. This extended tonehole lattice, along with the deep fingerholes, ensures a low cutoff frequency throughout the range and helps form the characteristic bassoon sound. The low range fingerings are not expected to overblow, so should be a simple matter to tune but difficulties do occur. One such is the third lowest note on the instrument: D2 is often difficult to obtain and oscillates between sharp and flat. This paper will demonstrate how the D2 problem arises in a bassoon by Poerschman, of the second generation of German Baroque makers, but was avoided by J.C. Denner in the first generation. The problem is related to the apparent reluctance to add toneholes and keys to the simple Baroque configuration. Input impedance analysis will show that mode­stretching is the cause and a simple solution used by Poerschman’s successors will be shown to work on his bassoon too, by effecting a change in the cutoff frequency.

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Paper 3.4.3 ­ Study and Optimization of Acoustical Performance of Original Baroque and Classical Bassoons Bryant Hichwa In woodwind instruments the physical position of the tone­holes depends on the maker’s choice of temperament. The researchers considered 47 mostly eighteenth and early nineteenth­century temperaments and determined the temperament yielding the best acoustical performance. The researchers observed marginal acoustic performance in 44 bassoons. This surprising result was found to be closely linked to the wing joint (WJ). By redesigning the WJ length and the position of the WJ tone­holes we were able to significantly improve acoustic performance, e.g. the intonation of an original Scherer bassoon improved 60.3%. We measured the physical properties of a statistically significant number of Baroque and Classical bassoons (93 original, 17 copies and 44 redesigned). The increased size and quality of our database allowed us to determine the optimized acoustic lengths for 13 fingerings (Bflat1­F3). The results of this unique study include 1) acoustic length of the combined length of the bocal and bocal extension, 2) Benade adjacent tone­hole position correction, 3) Hichwa­Benade 2nd adjacent tone­hole position correction, 4) 180° boot­joint turn around correction of large bore fingerings (Bflat1­G2), and 5) the bell correction for the C2 tone­hole. The systematic interpretation of these non­linear acoustic systems has led to a detailed understanding of acoustical performance of these bassoons. Paper 3.5.1 ­ The tin whistle – an introductory study of its unique sonic identity S.Culhane The tin whistle is a relatively modern instrument whose sonic identity is largely due to the thinness of the metal from which it is made. This is a distinctive feature amongst instruments otherwise similar in form and size. Despite the extensive literature on the history and acoustics of duct flutes, current theory does not encompass the acoustics of the tin whistle. Specifically, the instrument’s thin walls predetermine a tone­hole geometry which may account for much of the tin whistle’s characteristic sound. Analysis tools such as VIAS and Sonic Visualiser have facilitated the current study, which to date, indicates that for the whistle, an additional theoretical approach could be considered, and perhaps incorporated into the applicable aspects of current theory. Historically, the tin whistle appeared mostly in informal musical settings, so a player’s approach to the music was not necessarily determined by musical notation. The kwela tradition exhibits an alternative approach, as exploration of the sonic possibilities of the tin whistle gave rise to playing techniques not widely associated with the instrument. In traditional Irish music, the emphasis is historically different – and the study draws on examples from these contrasting traditions. Paper 3.5.2 ­ Spectral enrichment in brass instruments as an approach to understanding their evolution and diversity Murray Campbell, Joël Gilbert, Arnold Myers It is generally accepted that the characteristic timbres of the different kinds of brass instrument depend to a large extent on their bore profiles. The bore shape and diameter are critically important aspects of what the

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instrument maker provides for the player, but are difficult to describe quantitatively. Studies of the propagation of sound through instruments have led to a better understanding of the relationship between instrument design and timbre, in particular on how the sound becomes brighter at higher dynamics. This paper discusses recent experimental and theoretical work on the effects of bore size and shape on brasswind timbre, and presents simple parameters which can be used to characterise types of instrument. The parameters can be readily derived from the design of an instrument or from simple physical measurements of existing instruments, and are offered as a tool for comparing models of instrument, both historical and modern. Paper 3.5.3 ­ What can we say about the sound of an historical woodwind instrument without playing it? Keith Bowen Historical woodwind instruments often cannot be played, by virtue of their poor condition or the risk of damage. However, they may usually be accurately measured, and the measurements used to calculate the acoustic impedance as a function of frequency. Conclusions may then be drawn about, for example, pitch, intonation, stability of fork fingerings, effects of bore shrinkage and even the timbre of the notes. The calculations were originally developed for conical­bore woodwinds, and are here applied to clarinets for the first time. The computer codes of Cronin, based on the model of Plitnik and Strong, with some modifications for application to clarinets, are used. The eventual aim is to study the characteristics of the bassoon­form bass clarinet, which flourished for over a century from 1793 but disappeared from use in the early twentieth century. In order first to verify the methodology, I apply the method to a restored, playable Buffet Albert system (straight) bass clarinet from the 1920s. This has similar bore and fingering to many of the bassoon­form bass clarinets, lacking only their low range, and is a good trial subject for testing the calculations by comparison with experimental measurements and playing tests. Paper 3.5.4 ­ Harmonics: the artist, scientist and craftsman Richard Smith Artists and craftsmen interpret the term ‘harmonic’ differently. On the one hand, the artist may give some instruments (such as ‘natural’ trumpets) magical properties which are claimed to work ‘in tune’ with the human body and surrounding architecture; on the other hand, the skilled craftsman may unknowingly work with individual ‘harmonics’ to manipulate the musical qualities of their creations. As a scientist who has worked with the resonances of a trumpet’s air column for over 40 years, many people have shown that the frequencies of the resonances are unrelated and certainly not harmonically linked. This fact, together with the years of experience, show that no two instruments have the same musical characteristics even if they are made on the same production line, using modern manufacturing techniques. It is impossible to produce clones, unless one day we can make a complete instrument with a 3­D printer. But then I forgot to mention the complication caused by having an artiste play the instrument. Vive la différence!

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Keynote Paper 4.1 ­ Why Cambridge Woodwind Makers? Daniel Bangham In this talk I will explain the aims and desires of our new venture. This will include a brief history of how it came to be established, the activities it is already delivering and its aspirations for the future. Though we are pleased that over 100 instruments have been completed by students in just four years, there are still many areas of the project that are still to be developed. One example is if there are any useful protocols to be encouraged in the area of instruments measuring. When teaching so many students, it brings into focus how difficult it is to read and interpret the measurements we create. The established makers who teach our courses are so embedded in their own method, it comes as a surprise when others don't get the same result from the same set of measurements. I am sure the question and answer session will bring up other areas of interest! Paper 4.2.1 ­ Old Harps, New Techniques Karen Loomis The Queen Mary and Lamont harps of National Museums Scotland are two of the oldest surviving European harps, and are early exemplars of the historical instrument widely known as the "Irish harp". Few of these instruments have been examined in any detail, and the internal construction and craftsmanship remains unexplored territory in nearly all cases. The Queen Mary and Lamont harps were extensively studied for the author's recently completed PhD research, providing the first in­depth look at the interior of any of these iconic instruments. This paper discusses how modern analytical techniques were used to overcome the difficulties associated with studying particularly old and rare musical instruments, and how significant discoveries can and do continue to be made long after they have been returned to their museum display cases. Topics covered include methods for non­invasive examination of tool marks, damage, and repairs in inaccessible areas, for minimally invasive species identification of fragile, deteriorated wood, and for minimizing future handling by enabling musical instrument builders to take their own independent measurements without accessing the instruments. Paper 4.2.2 ­ Robert Willis and innovation in harp design Mike Baldwin The early nineteenth century witnessed sustained technical innovation in harp making. Between 1794 and 1820 the harp’s development as a fully chromatic instrument may be traced through fourteen English patents. Nine makers worked in close proximity in London’s Soho, and production greatly increased: Erard, for example, made over 2700 harps and Erat nearly 1300. Although the patents describe new mechanisms in great detail, little has been known until now about the design thinking through which they arose or about the practical experimentation needed to realise them. By examining a diary written by Robert Willis (1800­1875) between November 1819 and January 1821 and a patent he had filed in August 1819, this paper traces the invention of one such harp, revealing how it was designed, prototyped and tested. Only nineteen and already a precocious polymath, Willis, who was later to become a Fellow of the Royal Society, and Jacksonian Chair of Natural Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge, was allowed to work on his project in Jacob Erat’s manufactory with passionate intensity, and

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the close involvement of several of Erat’s craftsmen. His account affords new insights into the organisation of Erat’s workshops, and into the tools and machinery used in the harp trade. Paper 4.3.1 ­ The Courtois Family, Master Makers of Brass Wind Instruments in France, New Documents and Perspectives Tula Giannini Based on newly found archival documents, this paper, for the first time, details the Courtois family of brass makers in Paris during the 19th century. Tracing their origins from the late 17th century as Chaudronniers (artisan makers in brass), to the 19th century Courtois brass makers working in Paris, I identify the makers and workshops of the family’s two branches: one at rue de Caire 21, then rue des Marais Saint Martin 88, and the other at rue des Vieux Augustins 34. Featured are workshop inventories for 1829, 1834 and 1877 describing the materials, tools and merchandize manufactured, which bring new perspectives on brass instruments when their technical and tonal qualities were being transformed with the adoption pistons, as seen in the development of the cor solo to the cor à pistons. As suppliers of instruments to solo players and teachers at the Conservatoire, the Courtois were leaders in brass development exemplified by the 1847 patent for the cor à pistons melding the art and science of horn making, while horn methods of Meifred and Gallay, with whom the Courtois collaborated, established the art of horn playing, the former introducing the first Conservatoire class for cor à piston. Paper 4.3.2 ­ Guaranteed British Throughout Jocelyn Howell The British manufacturers Boosey & Co., Hawkes & Son and then Boosey & Hawkes developed and produced wind instruments that shaped the sound of music in Britain and the Empire, the legacy of which is well represented in the collections of Sir Nicholas Shackleton, Edinburgh University, the Horniman Museum and many other collections. Instruments for orchestral players accounted for only a small proportion of production. However, very many instruments were required for brass and military bands, and from the 1920s for jazz and dance band musicians. Models were developed for specific uses with many eminent musicians collaborating with the companies to develop new designs. Boosey made almost all the instruments they sold from the 1880s, Hawkes from 1924. This paper discusses the diverse market that there was for these instruments and the influences upon their design. By evaluating company literature, extant instruments and players’ experience the development of particular models upon which the companies built their reputations will be traced. Paper 4.3.3 ­ The House Band of the Marquises of Breadalbane c1804–60 Lance Whitehead For 60 years or more the Campbell family of Breadalbane maintained a private house band at Taymouth Castle, near Kenmore in the Highlands of Scotland. Consisting largely of working­class labourers drawn from the Breadalbane estate, boosted on occasion by specialist musicians from London, the band’s early nineteenth­century story is an important complement to that of the Cyfarthfa Brass Band in Merthyr Tydfil. Although the make­up of the band from its inception to the late 1830s is unclear, by the 1840s and 50s it is possible to identify the exact size, instrumentation and even layout of the band, which by then was also entirely brasswind. Interestingly, a subset of the group also performed as a chamber band. Moreover, it is a

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story of social contrasts: while the Breadalbane family could afford to entertain Queen Victoria on a lavish scale, band members were poorly paid and suffered under an authoritarian system and tyrannical bandmaster. Using Breadalbane family documents preserved at the National Records of Scotland in Edinburgh, mass resignations and expulsions are considered alongside the introduction of new instruments, repertoire and issues of performance practice. 4.4.1 ­ Twenty­five years in transition ­ the guitar from five courses to six strings Darryl Martin The last quarter of the eighteenth century saw remarkable development in the history of the guitar. In 1775 the usual instrument had five courses, each with a pair of strings, but by 1800 the stringing arrangement as used to today (with six­single strings) had been established in most of Europe. This presentation will look at these changes. In particular it will focus on both the five­string and early six­string guitar. The five­string guitar is rare enough that some commentators have publicly stated that it never existed in its own right. This section will include a discussion on one such authentic (albeit altered) example in the University of Edinburgh's musical instrument museum. The six­string guitar section will concentrate on identifying what is probably the earliest surviving example, including a discussion on all of the potential contenders. 4.4.2 ­ Economical Making and Extravagant Decoration of Regency Instruments: A Successful Combination Hayato Sugimoto The harp lute, a generic term given to certain types of plucked stringed instruments, was originally invented by the English musician Edward Light around 1800 as a substitute for the highly regarded instrument, the harp. They were enthusiastically played mostly by amateur ladies and sometimes by celebrities in the first half of the nineteenth century. Though there are many extant harp lutes, little is known about their social and cultural associations. Indeed, with their strange forms, in marketing the instruments the inventor’s strategic foresight as to the social changes and the emerging fashions was significant. Without Light’s commercial acumen, harp lutes would not have been so popular. A well­balanced combination of two opposing elements – economical manufacture and extravagant ornamentation – substantially underpinned his success. His instruments were deliberately adapted for a period of transition: modernization, industrialization and an art movement now known as the Regency Classicism. Following earlier research, a copy of harp­lute, the most successful model, has been made. In discussing the process of making and instrument decoration, this paper will attempt to reveal a picture of Regency Britain and its fashion.

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Paper 4.4.3 ­ Guitar Stringing in Late­Nineteenth­Century North America and the Emergence of Steel Nicholas Pyall The circumstances are many and entwined that lead to the evolution of the steel string guitar in the late nineteenth century and its popular acceptance in the early twentieth century by amateur and professional players and their audiences. While there is no indication of the guitar being strung with steel in Europe or America during the first half of the nineteenth century, the practice of Pasquale Vinaccia, who used steel for the first and second courses of the Neapolitan mandolin c1835, shows that it was physically possible to have done so by that date. Whereas previously guitar strings with gut trebles and copper overwound silk core basses had been imported from Europe, new evidence of the North American use of steel in their manufacture from the mid­nineteenth century is revealed in Virginia Penny’s Cyclopaedia of 1863. Her account of factory­women winding strings further supports Philip Gura’s findings from the examination of the accounts and business records of James Ashborn’s Connecticut guitar factory, which reveal increased use of mechanization and the inclusion of a string winding division in 1851. This paper examines the North American manufacture and use of guitar strings from the mid nineteenth century. It surveys the types of strings offered in North­American musical merchandise catalogues and their representation in periodicals of the Banjo­Mandolin­Guitar movement, and traces the gradual emergence of steel as a string material. Paper 4.5.1 ­ Double Frets on Early Plucked Instruments: Re­discovering Historical Practice Taro Takeuchi, Chris Egerton European early plucked instruments such as the lute and baroque guitar have enjoyed a great revival in the 20th and 21st centuries, resulting in many excellent builders and players. However there remain some aspects in which we ignore the historical setting of these instruments, such as the use of the double frets (i.e. tying the gut frets twice on each position around the neck). Despite research suggesting double­fretting was common practice in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the majority of modern players choose single frets. Re­examination of many iconographical sources and the writings of Mace, Castillion, Capirola and Dowland, as well as practical experiments with double­fretted instruments provide support. Comparative sound spectrum frequency analyses were also conducted, illustrating the special speaking quality of the double­fretted tradition. The results showed double­fretted instruments are easier to play, allowing accessibility to the daily repertoire. A constant feature of the tone is a mild and pleasant buzz, perhaps unexpected from our aural concept of European early music. Through this study we can approach more closely how these instruments were actually played, how they functioned and sounded. And thereby we obtain a better understanding of their origins.

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Paper 4.5.2 ­ Seventeenth and eighteenth century Brussels violins from the MIM collection: a look inside Geerten Verberkmoes Violin making in Brussels reached a height in the second half of the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth century. During that period, members of the Borbon and Snoeck families were employed as instrument maker for the music chapel of the Brussels court. Other local makers from the same era, like J. De Maseneer, J.H. Rottenburgh and B.J. Boussu, worked independently. The Musical Instruments Museum (MIM) in Brussels preserves a substantial number of instruments by the above mentioned makers. During the present study, six violins (one each by De Maseneer and Gaspar Borbon and two each by Egidius Snoeck and Boussu) were investigated intensively. In addition to conventional methods, such as visual inspection and taking measurements, recent imaging techniques like digital endoscopy and CT scanning were employed as well, enabling visualisations of the inside of the sound box, 3D cross sections and thickness, elevation and density maps. This paper presents results of these imaging studies, and illustrates the similarities and differences between the four above mentioned makers, both from a stylistic as well as a constructional point of view. A possible evolution amongst them is questioned and discussed. Further, the question of the usability of the images for present day violin makers is addressed. Research was performed by the paper presenter in collaboration with Anne­Emmanuelle Ceulemans (MIM, Brussels), Danielle Balériaux (Erasmus hospital, Brussels) and Berend Stoel (Leiden University Medical Center).” Paper 4.5.3 ­ Framing a Life: Patronage and the Viola da Gamba at the court of Isabella d’Este Elizabeth Weinfield Isabella d’Este (1474­1539) of Mantua is one of the great patrons of art in Renaissance Italy, and celebrated as a collector. Often discussed in the literature alongside the painters she patronized (among them Bellini, Da Vinci, Giorgione and Raphael), she is lauded as an important figure in cultural diplomacy whose collection—rich in musical iconography—betrays a simultaneous love of art and music. Scholarship surrounding musical iconography in Isabella’s art collection has yet to pay substantial consideration, however, to the musical instruments Isabella commissioned, among them some of the finest examples of late fifteenth­ and early sixteenth­century Italian luthiery. An accomplished musician, herself, and with an expert eye, Isabella commissioned instruments from esteemed makers in Venice, and had pieces constructed for her by her personal luthier and antiquities dealer, Lorenzo da Pavia, and over time amassed an extensive and carefully­constructed collection of harpsichords, organs and violins. The collection also featured some of the first violas da gamba at any European court. The viola da gamba played a central role in many paintings in Isabella’s collection depicting musical allegories and scenes of domestic music­making, works that were crucial in reflecting an influential woman engaged in musical practice: indeed, Isabella’s endorsement of the viol would substantially alter the current of musical composition at court. This paper will discuss Isabella d’Este’s interdisciplinary patronage alongside the rapidly changing musical climate of Mantua at the turn of the sixteenth century, and shall reveal that the viola da gamba granted a great patroness the means to perform through her collection.

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Paper 4.5.4 ­ The Beaulieu Trophies: Representations of Musical instruments in early eighteenth century Ireland David Armitage, Mathew Dart, Graham Wells, Francis Wood An important iconographical source on musical instruments and their use in early music has been ‘hiding in plain sight’ until recently noticed by wind instrument maker and player David Armitage. Beaulieu House in County Louth has three semicircular ‘trophies’ above doorways in the entrance hall, decorated in the 1720s. Each is in high relief, apparently constructed of carved and turned wooden elements assembled together and whitewashed overall. One is composed of militaria, though including trumpets, the other two are made up of more than 30 musical instruments including recorders, oboes, bassoons, bagpipes, a harp, violins and violas and more curious instruments such as what appears to be a mirliton. There are also sheet music, allegorical references and decorations of foliage and fruits. The wind instruments almost have the appearance of being the real thing as they have compelling turnery, keywork, reeds, etc. The bagpipes are bellows­blown small­pipes and could potentially be the earliest representation of this instrument in the British Isles. These have not been documented in organological circles, and while there is more work to be done, this paper presents preliminary findings on origin and dating, and commentaries on the wind instruments displayed. Poster A ­ Evolution of Oud structure from Sassanid to Safavid era: a study of samples from Iran Maryam Dolati Fard, Negar Booban Of all Persian musical instruments, Oud is probably the most famous in Persian music history. This research presents a systematic study of the evolution of oud structure over centuries, starting from pre­Islamic Art, the Sassanid era (6th century AD), to the Safavid era (18th century AD). By examining some samples of paintings and metal works from the period mentioned, along with old treatises of Persian music, we would be able to understand the culminating structure of Oud by the end of this era. To explore the gradual evolution of Oud, this paper adopts the Qualitative Comparative Analysis where the proportions of Oud are studied based on the scale range of the instrument and of the musicians illustrated in earlier samples, and in comparison with the current Oud structure. This was done in the Auto CAD 2D­format software. Although the variety of the shape or proportion of the structure is not mentioned in any of the treatises, the results show a gradual increase in the width of the bowl, from Sassanid to Safavid era; the proportion in the Sassanid Oud is more similar to the current one. Poster B ­ Building as Instrument: ‘Designing for Musical Tone’ Fiona Smyth On a Saturday in April 1924, a small group of musicians, architects and physicists assembled in what was then the British government laboratory for research in building acoustics. The purpose of the gathering was to conduct a series of experiments to scientifically define acoustic conditions related to musical tone in

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buildings. Three acoustic descriptors were defined, and matched to three London concert halls. The descriptors, and corresponding concert halls, had been derived from collaboration between an architect, Hope Bagenal, and a number of noted musicians including Holst, Vaughan Williams and Boult. In the absence of scientifically­derived parameters for architectural acoustics, the descriptors were based on the perception of music. The work undertaken on that Saturday in April was an experiment to temper and quantify the acoustic environment of the laboratory to match those musical descriptors. The subsequent outputs were to define an approach to architectural acoustics that regarded ‘building as instrument’: to be tuned and tempered in designing for musical tone. This paper discusses the experimental work undertaken on that date in 1924, the outputs, and their subsequent mid­century application in designing for musical tone in British concert halls. We regret that the below paper cannot be delivered due to visa difficulties. Evaluation of White Strings of Tar and Setar Mitra Jahandideh, Amir Taheridehkordi, Farnaz Thareimotlagh, Khorshid Pouyan One of the numerous problems of the Iranian traditional music is the lack of a specific standard in making and designing the components and parts of musical instruments. Tar and Setar play an important role in the Iranian traditional and urban music with three main strings: white, yellow, and bass. This project has been devoted to evaluation of acoustical and mechanical characteristics of white strings. The experiments have been performed on two white strings which are common among Persian Tar and Setar players, and one exceptional string which is not common. In the mechanical analysis we concentrated on results of tensile test and for the acoustical surveying the SSM – string sound meter – system has been designed in order to explore the timbre of strings. Finally, a method for finding standard white string has been suggested. This method can be generalized to other western and eastern musical instruments.

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