Galey Human

8/12/2019 Galey Human

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Willard McCarty

Text and Genre

in ReconstructionEffects of Digitalization on Ideas,

Behaviours, Products and Institutions

Cambridge

2010


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Open Book Publishers CIC Ltd.,40 Devonshire Road, Cambridge, CB1 2BL, United Kingdom

2010 Willard McCarty. Contributors are free to re-publish their contribu-tions in whatever other ways they choose.

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Contents

Contributors viiiIntroduction

Willard McCarty 1

John Burrows 2. Cybertextuality by the Numbers

Ian Lancashire

Peter Garrard 4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts

Alan Galey

Perspective

6. Electronic Editions for EveryonePeter Robinson 145

Peter Shillingsburg 165

Paul Eggert

in the Online World Marilyn Deegan and Kathryn Sutherland


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-spectives can bring to the study of digital textuality. 2 Kirschenbaum describes

-table cultural and ideological biases encoded by particular applications and

textual practices that some versions of hypertext theory were predisposed

-tices and technologies no less exciting for all that. This essay argues that itshould be disquieting to see a deepening separation of material form from

idealized content in our tools at the very moment when literary critics haveestablished the materiality of texts to be indispensable to interpretation. As

these divergent trends in computational practice and literary theory.Textual scholarship has long been driven by an anxious desire to know

what lies beneath the perceptual surface the authorial consciousness

moments of live inscription held within inert physical artefacts. If the object

of textual work is to delve beneath surfaces, the subjects who carry out

is a ritual we perform over the corpus of an author who has passed away -

tual scholars might well sympathize with Erasmus (quoted in the epigraph

of St Jerome. Erasmuss words capture the double-vision that texts demand

of us with regard to their mediation of surfaces and depths. It is the samewith our tools, digital and otherwise. Beneath any smoothly functioningcomputer interface such as a Web browser, the source code may harbour

In a similar manner, the monuments of textual, philological, and historical

-able Key to All Mythologies in Middlemarch , or sometimes even spring from


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts

are present in Erasmuss picture of textual labour, positing a substratum oftextual remains beneath the readers feet. -mus puts it, to be paid for the illusion of digital texts and environments as

approaches that question by examining some theoretical assumptions thatshape the digital tools of Erasmuss inheritors.

As Erasmus implies, we cannot detach technical concerns from the aes-thetic, symbolic, and hermeneutic dimensions of textual work, and hispreoccupation with unseen complexity takes visual form in Figure 1. This

image shows what lies beneath the main reading room in the New YorkPublic Librarys Central Building at 5th Avenue and 42nd Street, an iconof cultural heritage. The illustration comes from the cover of an issue of

inner workings of an interface between readers and a massive collectionof texts, using a visualization technique (the cutaway view) to make theunseen mechanism intelligible to non-specialists. In the reading room at

the top, patrons and librarians use a system of catalogues, request slips,and pneumatic tubes to order books housed in the stacks below. The books,once located, ascend to the reading room via mini-elevator. We can alsoread a foreshadowing of the digital humanities open-access ethos here, too,since this union of aesthetics and machinery serves a public library.

But s tribute to design and engineeringalso illuminates anxieties about what lies beneath it. The image embodiesthe kind of metaphor for archiving that Thomas Richards uses to describe

the symbolic importance of the British Museum at the data-collectingheight of the British Empire, and especially its basement as a chaoticspace that was symptomatic of the material pressures of data overload

reading room emphasize a volume of information that, as a totality, goesunseen by its users. As in Richards metaphor, there is even a basement

appear in disordered contrast to the stacks and retrieval system above.

Such are the pressures felt by structures that must be at once monumentand infrastructure.

Middlemarch , see Lerer 2002. On Pollard, see Maguire


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Alan Galey

-

mus claimed to feel alone in his task of textual management, no such isola-

tion seems possible in this system. One could imagine this image without

of humans throughout makes this a representation not just of mechanicalautomation but also of human labour. The book is a text on a human scale,

Reading Room. Cover issue of

The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations).


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts and this image goes out of its way at least forty-seven times to reassert ahuman presence in a system that holds books, readers, and machines withinits compass. Yet none of the humans or books are individuated anywhere

who wish to consult the books into the intellectual classes in which they

readers and their intellectual subclasses, this representation of the library

-ers are represented. The living moments of encounter between individualreaders and texts, in all their diversity and idiosyncrasy, remain deferredin this representation, implicit in the image but inscrutable to our eyes. The

This large-scale mode of representing reading stands in contrast tohumanist depictions of individual reading and writing in Erasmuss time.

That instinctive humanist desire to draw closer, like Tantalus, to some ide- The Vision of Saint Augustine (Figure 2, below).

to paper to ask Jerome in Bethlehem for his thoughts.4

The informationAugustine seeks comes to him in a moment of miraculously instant commu-nication that accords more with our present than with the epistolary of theancient world. Jerome, the archetype of textual scholars, rebukes Augus-

-

5

Hieronymus. Vita et transitus

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perfect interface, instantly receding before an unmediated presence. Wherethe image shows a perfectly synchronic system, outsideof time and history, Carpaccio shows us an instant of collaborative intel-lectual work deeply embedded in history. In Alexander Nagel and Chris-

of shadows, the alerted dog, the poised pen all suggest the momentarinessof that moment, the evening hour of compline, as Augustine tells us. This

is secular time, the time of lived experience, whose each moment repeats 6 Most importantly, The

Vision of Saint Augustine is not our vision, and the miraculous text Augus-tine receives from Jerome lies beyond the limits of human representation.

Both of these scenes depict technologies for managing multiple texts Carpaccio places numerous writing implements, books, and a horizontalreading wheel in Augustines study but his painting meditates on thepartialness of human knowledge, while the image cel-ebrates the abstraction of a mechanical system. Both use encounters with

On Carpaccios depiction of temporality and its relation to the history and na-ture of reading, see Bringhurst 2006.

Vision of Saint Augustine (Alinari/ArtResource, New York).


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts

library contained most of the works he would have thought worth read-

Today,Appiah notes, more is printed in a single city in a week than Augustine or

particulars we humanists study. In essence, the image

-

One could read the Carpaccio and state, which emphasizes abstract, large-scale approaches such as linguis-tic corpora and data mining, the social-science version of literary history

rather than situated acts of subjective interpretation. These approachesrepresent a movement away from the humanities traditionally idiographic

and general laws). 10 These approaches also share something in commonwith the image in that they place the viewer or critic ina superhuman position, showing systems of words and texts from a per-

is more likely that he has the Augustine image in mind. Carpaccios other paintings

of Jerome (see note 4 above).

-

the opening to his more recent book, Graphs, Maps, Trees , suggests a movement be-

idiographic and nomothetic originate with the neo-Kantian philos-

anthropology and psychology than in literary studies. On the tradition of thought


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removed), but The Vision of Saint Augustine complicates the metaphors we

that painting remains all too human. Carpaccio invites his viewers just tothe threshold of human experience, inviting us to cast our eyes, like Augus-tine in the painting, beyond the frame of human perception even as weaccept its limits. The scale of the human is the preoccupation of both images.

both through the conclusions they enable and the metaphors they deploy.The concerns this essay advances have tended to remain tacit in the dig-

-

ments in fundable projects foster a sense of itself as an onward march intothe future an avant garde tool for humanities scholarship. Yet the tool-building enterprise risks fall-ing into a binary in which digital tools represent innovation, dynamism,and provocative instability, while the materials they operate upon very

stability. This binary makes it easy to forget textual work always has aninterpretive dimension that depends upon the complexity of humanities

of joining interpretation with the materiality of texts. Our understanding

the tension between tools and materials in the digital humanities.

2. Digital Textual Scholarship

Every tool is a weapon,If you hold it right.

Whenever we ask what new technology can do for textual scholars, we

-

tant behind, and information culture itself has been accused of system-

2). Indeed, we have been here before. The digital humanities now occupy


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 101 -

phers did in the era when the New York Public Librarys Central Build-

with social and technological change required the assimilation of vastamounts of technical knowledge about the transmission of texts and by extension, the seemingly transmissible parts of culture itself into acoherent progress narrative. This narrative had to account not only forthe literary documents that had survived, but also for the practical means by which culture could be preserved and disseminated into the futurethrough editing (and through the related activities of historical bibliog-

raphy and bibliographic appraisal, enumeration, and preservation). Likedigital humanists today, the New Bibliographers lived in a time of new

their material to command a detailed knowledge of how texts, humans,

imperatives of explaining and making.

a well-developed perspective on new kinds of cultural artefacts. Through-out this essay, the term artefact that can be studied for interpretative purposes, like books, but also what

11 (Digital artefact can also mean an instance of visual noise in a digital image, but that usage

noun that includes books as easily as cultural productions like video games,

-tions of the term object. Anthropologists and archaeologists have alsothought about this problem. For example, Anders Andrn makes a distinc-

Karin Barber takes text

-ing artefact

description becomes complicated when we consider whether a copy ofa video game can be an artefact, since there are no instances of, say, the


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game Myst in the world that are not copies or can such cultural works

Folio, itself an edited text created in part from scribal transcriptions, but

artefact is beyond the scope of -

digital artefact .On its present course, digital textual scholarship may well turn out to

be a continuation of the project of D.F. McKenzie. By the time of his death -

reintroduced historical and interpretive perspectives into editorial theory,

system of transmissible texts, human agents, and mechanical constraints. 12 This essay takes its title from a phrase of McKenzies, for whom bibliog-

any recorded text opens the scope of textual scholarships materials to

and poetry, and now blogs, wikis, and social networking websites thekinds of intensely socialized digital texts whose existence in a Web 2.0world would likely have fascinated McKenzie had he lived to see it. Itis worth noting that he tended not to describe computers simply as newtools for the textual scholars toolbox, but rather as a welcome challenge

in a continuing professional obligation to account for new forms of com-munication. As McKenzie suggested in his centenary lecture for the Bib-

very challenging discussion of late) makes the collection almost relentlessly text- (or


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts That obligation has acquired a new urgency with the arrival of computer-gen-erated texts. The demands made of bibliography and textual criticism by theevolution of texts in such forms, the speed with which versions are displaced

one by another, and the question of their authority, are no less compellingthan those we accept for printed books. By the logic of our discipline, were

This is a remarkable statement for being both progressive and conserva-tive at once. In the progressive sense, McKenzie naturalizes the expansionof textual scholarships circle of knowledge to encompass the digital, such

digital becomes redundant in digital textual studies . By hislogic, to reject inquiry into digital artefacts is to reject the very essence oftextual scholarship. But this vision of textual studies also conservativelyextends the traditional concerns of print and manuscript bibliography to

-meration of versions and the establishment of authority among them.

Does digital textual scholarship then consist of applying existing -

servative approach works, and the single most edifying example so far may

14 Taking as his subject canonical electronic

literature such as Michael Joyces

nuances of born-digital objects. This mode of reading raises a question the

theories of textual editing, were [] to be given the task of preserving theoriginal text of in some stable and standardized electronic for-

textual scholars awake at night, not to mention librarians, archivists, andliterary scholars.

-tion, by showing how interface elements such as icons and windows in dif-

-tual scholars, especially those of the generation that had grown up with personalcomputers in the home. Its importance was recognized with the Society for Textual

-


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as layer , version , release , object , state , instance , and copy. These terms bridgethe formalized languages of programming and descriptive bibliography,two worlds that make remarkably similar investments in precise languageand meaningful distinctions. The bibliographical edge to Kirschenbaumsapproach allows him to delve beneath the surfaces of digital artefacts, illu-

literary hypertext enthusiasts and cyberculturalists have tended to pass

-

digital textual scholarship, Kirschenbaums article hearkens back to two

recognizable strengths of the past centurys bibliographical tradition, one -raphys rigour in accounting for the physical features of books. 15

Yet for all its innovation, this early example of digital textual scholarshipalso relies upon a conservative view of scholarly editing as fundamentally

textual scholarship extends its scope to include digital artefacts, it must

do so while itself changing from within. In seeking to avoid the weak ver-sion of poststructural criticism, with its ill-informed descriptions of digitaltexts as inherently unstable and non-physical, Kirschenbaums analysis

-ence on textual studies has prompted resistance to the idea of stable origins,interest in texts as mediators of power and not just as bearers of aestheticworth, questioning of the construction and uses of canons, and valuing ofmultiple authority as richness. 16 If hypertext theory in the nineties failed

to understand how digital texts work beneath the surface, the computinghumanists who did understand tended to underestimate poststructural-

-

ference between a printed and an electronic edition is that a fairly standardand well-documented model has developed for a printed edition, but no

this remains an insightful statement about electronic editions, but it over-

Computational Description, is a deliberate echo of Fredson Bowerss landmark Principles of Bibliographical Description.


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts 105

New Bibliographys dethroning through the eighties and nineties, which

as a conduit of tradition and guardian of cultural heritage, its own futuredepends upon recognizing, pace value in proportion as they provoke thought and change in the present.

Long-term preservation of digital heritage begins with the design of reliablesystems and procedures which will produce authentic and stable digitalobjects.

UNESCO Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage, article 5

Tensions between tools and materials in the digital humanities manifestthemselves in both the design and analysis of digital artefacts. In particu-lar, the preservation imperative described above brings cultural pressures

like the Magna Carta, Shakespeare First Folio, or United States Declarationof Independence, each of which confers a sense of material origin uponmaster narratives. We can see tensions at work in some of these documents

-

Universal Declaration of Human Rightswww.un.org/Overview/rights.html

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomslaws.justice.gc.ca/en/charter/

In both cases, human-readability coincides with machine-readability in the

of these foundational documents. Future stability of such digital artefactsis the concern of UNESCOs Charter on Preservation of the Digital Herit-


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ensure that it remains accessible to the public (article 2). But contrast that

UNESCO Charter on Preservation of the Digital Heritage

the closest thing we have to a stable address for the Charter in the nativeformat of the Web. As a digital document, the Charter says one thing but

aspirations of cultural heritage pull in one direction while the design of thecode pulls in another.

These tensions become visible in digital objects through the double- -

fying surface and what lies beneath. By nature textual scholarship resiststhe fallacy of screen essentialism , the tendency to essentialize digital text

towards monitors and display devices in new media studies, where the

-ture, perhaps even a basis, for new media. The screen is relatively new onthe scene, however. Early interaction with computers happened largely on

-writers, with their scroll-like supplies of continuous paper for printing out-

Under such conditions there was a more consequential distinction betweeninput and output processes than we generally experience with PCs, some-times involving a gap of days between the submission of input and thereceipt of output from a large, shared mainframe. This is not to suggestthat screens are unimportant, but rather that critics need to balance their

process, in which the screen is but one layer of interface. To see the algo-


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Alan Galey history. It looks back to how things

were, even in the very recent past, and how they came to be as they are. Tothose ends, its chief products are narratives in the form of scholarly booksand articles. Increasingly though, the term history of the book is expand-ing into history and future of the book , generally a positive development but by no means a straightforward one, since the future is not available forstudy in the same way as the past. The digital humanities most produc-

create, not just observe and comment upon.

-ervation imperative acting as a brake on any experimental tradition fromwithin, then so too can interface design be accused of not being historicalenough, sometimes uncritically assuming a synchronic view of readersand texts that ignores cultural, historical, and political contexts. This is not

contrary. For example, the history of design is a core component of most

design exemplify a breadth of historical and cultural materials that mosttextual scholars would admire. However, a substantial part of computerinterface design has nonetheless developed in a way that disregards his-torical understanding as central to the knowledge it produces. Similarly,

way a literary critic or cultural historian would. History here is not even

-

logical context for their approaches is not history but cognitive science, justas it is with the interface design coming from computer science. That is byno means a weakness both of their works cited here are excellent intro-

For digital textual scholars the problem is not that the humanities

tions


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts perspective may present itself as the only valid one. This essay sides withthe historical perspective mainly because it has been neglected in inter-face design, which looks instead to cognitive science for its epistemological

disciplines was the constitution of information studies in response to cor-porate and military needs in postwar America, resulting in

non-American analyses of information analyses of information and soci-ety and culture have almost totally been given over to so-called informa-tion specialists and public policy planners, mainly from computer science, business and business schools, the government, and the quantitative social

-sis, a neglect of critical modes and vocabularies for analysis, a dependenceon naive historiographical forms [], and a neglect of art and culture out-

cultural heritage

account for blind spots such as the design of the UNESCO Charter as adigital artefact, as well as problems in other digital projects that lock theirmaterials in a conceptual box labelled cultural heritage . Many of the literarytexts which bear that label Hamlet , Ulysses , The Canterbury Tales , The Prel-ude have complex histories of transmission intertwined with interpretiveconcerns, and textual scholars may receive new kinds of illumination from

games. The humanities investment in the inner complexity of materials of representing in digital form the entirety of our received textual and

found themselves charged with building a new humanities archive usingsomeone elses tools.


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Alan Galey110

The sonnets of Shakespeare remain the sonnets of Shakespeare even in the

Aldous Huxley, Introduction to Printing of To-Day

With a few exceptions, accounts of the intellectual and institutional trans-

practices mandate the abstraction of content from the details of its presen-

presentational details as integral to the interpretation of texts. Many of the

-ciple of treating form and content as not only distinguishable (as literarycritics do in order to talk about them), but also as divisible into components

-

transformability, autonomous mobility, and automation resolve at a more ideology

the separation of content from material instantiation or formal presenta-

ideology transcendental data , in which the separability of data from their

are ever more transparently just [] skins or, put technically, templates,schemas, style sheets, and so on, designed to be extricable [from content]

-

fested in pragmatic terms, confronts digital textual scholars with the kind -able, let alone possible, to divide the content of a text from its material form

20 -

-retical and practical conversations about digital texts have unfolded in thehumanities. The topic of interface arose late in the critical discourse, arriv-

-

Jargon Lexicon


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userinterface that organizes and delivers the logical design of the archive to spe-

environments will be the search for ways to implement, at the interfacelevel, the full dynamic and decentering capabilities of these new tools.

2001

This frank admission is belated in more ways than one, since the paragraph Radiant

Textuality (2001), not in the earlier versions published in the journal TEXT Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and

Theory -

doche for the critical discourse as a whole.

term that marks the borderline between the older hypertext theory and -

design ethos of thinking through making the no-nonsense pragmatism of digital humanists has not insulated themfrom repeating the mistakes of their predecessors. The late arrival of inter-face to the theoretical conversation has replicated itself in the lateness ofinterface design tools native to the humanities.

neither has it gone unremarked. 21 Kirschenbaum notes two dangers of

-

digital scholarly editions incorporate the lessons of usability studies from 22 The more insidious danger

-

archives, and digital resources. -


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is the methodological creep toward the separation of form and content,which runs counter to the humanist tendency to see the two as distinguish-

DeRoses proposition that a book is the same regardless of variables such as

scholarly treatment of imaginative works operate from a naive distinction Kirschen-

a fundamental disconnect with the prevailing intellectual assumptions of website or the placement of a poem on a page, can somehow be ontologically

between the text-oriented humanities and other, data-oriented disciplines. -

that non-textual scholars like DeRose have only been repeating what had become conventional wisdom in their knowledge domains. 24 That con-

-

in the form of an Ordered Hierarchy of Content Objects (OHCO), a tree structureof non-overlapping nodes that conveniently matches the structure of all XML docu-ments. The debate over the OHCO theory of text divided critics along the ques-tion of the materiality of texts though some participants might characterize the

scholarship. From a textual studies perspective, the OHCO thesis lost in theory but -

but the OHCO model is everywhere in our digital tools, from the structure of XMLdocuments, to the historical core of the TEI guidelines (see


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts ventional wisdom has made its way into the humanities, for example in James Cummingss explanation of XMLs usefulness to the Records of Early

- -

-

ally, its value is suspect since it impairs textual scholars ability to use textencoding to model the complexity latent in their materials. Although Cum-mings accurately describes XMLs advantages over HTML for the encodingof born-digital documents like academic articles, his description becomes

deeply problematic when applied to the encoding of non-digital materi-als like manuscript poems (he takes many of his examples from Chaucer).Cummingss explanation overlooks the crucial distinction between pre-scribing presentational details and recording them a non-trivial distinc-

material artefacts. 25

The seductiveness of form-content abstraction derives from its abilityto simplify the task of encoding, even for those trained to appreciate com-

and book history mirrored here, as the conventional wisdom governingthe design of new digital documents extends, anachronistically, to the read-ing of textual materials from the past. Cummings and DeRose represent atradition which, in the spirit of the Huxley epigraph above, regards contentas literally that meaning contained in the language of a text. (Tom Davis,

26 On the

other side of the doctrinal divide, McKenzies simple dictum stands in con-

[accessed 11/2/2010]), to the Document Object Model that underpins browsers and other Web technologies. See Schreibman 2002 for a balanced over-

-

information


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Alan Galey114

Paradoxically, the digital humanities have produced valuable practicalvenues for thinking through such religious issues (for example, the TextEncoding Initiative), but also communities of practice whose theoretical

Encoding Initiative).

-

spect, hypertext theory now seems like a part of the conversation aboutdigital textuality that mistook itself for the whole conversation, but the dig-ital humanities practical orientation should not mean a dismissal of theory.

it, has become no less a moment of theoria for the digital humanities, in the theoria as more than pas-

present or stores up information. [] Theoria is not so much the individualmomentary act as a way of comporting oneself, a position and condition.

not only present but completely present, as when one is present in an

theoria and presence as syno-nyms, the modelling of human presence in interface design becomes not just the implementation of a theory, but an act of theoria that enables oneto think through these complex relationships. Textual scholarship has long

practice has bypassed such moments of theoria in its tendency to think of

interface design and text encoding as separate activities, each happening atopposite ends of the research plan. As Kirschenbaum points out, interface

time and resources run out. The deferral of interface thus represents not

stake in how the humanities understand texts.

subtly changes the meaning of this statement by altering its orthographical form to


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5. Serving the Particular

[T]he universal in the humanities is in the service of the particular.

The search for human presence in digital artefacts is also the search for thehumanities place in digital scholarship. Both searches are underway evenas the design of digital tools is moving in one direction while the theo-ries of textual scholarship are moving in another. Digital humanists caught between the tensions described in this essay should be wary of two species

by computing practitioners who neglect theory, asserts that that the onlyaspects of texts worth knowing are those which may be modelled digitally.Screen essentialism thus has its counterpart in computational essentialism,and digital textual scholars must somehow navigate between the two. Thechallenge is to design interface tools that do not force business or (social)science models upon humanists. This step involves developing traditionsof programming native to the humanities, and recognizing that program-ming and computer science are not the same thing. A further challenge isto determine how designing and prototyping, as keystones of the experi-mental tradition within the digital humanities, should relate to the archivaland historical strengths of textual scholarship.

To put all this another way, what does the conjunction and signify in aterm like history and future of the book

the most optimistic light, the and -thesis between reading historical artefacts and designing for the future.Although interface is by no means the only important aspect of digital tex-tuality, it is the area where such a synthesis is most needed. The responseof textual studies should therefore be more strategic than simply pointingout when computing practitioners do not understand humanities materi-als. For a text encoder working under a computer science model to treatdata as extricable from their presentation is consistent with best practice.For a literary scholar to treat texts as inextricable from their presentation

-


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Alan Galey116

is also consistent with best practice. This is the methodological crux facingdigital textual scholars of the present and future.

The solution lies partly in rearticulating a simple but fundamental idea

how books work, as well as manuscripts and other textual materials. Bylooking for something more than the authorial genius loci in texts, McKen-zie introduced new ways to answer the question of what is at stake in

human presence implies no less complexity than

any recorded text , and digital artefacts, like any other kind, bear traces of the

social worlds they occupy, not just of their creators. Just as Kirschenbaumrightly questions the easy binary that produces digital texts as unstable,so must we also be vigilant against the myth that, with the rise of digitaltechnology, the human record is now moving from a period of fundamen-tal stability to one of instability. As print- and manuscript-oriented textualscholars have long argued, past textual forms were never so immutable to

begin with. Textual scholarship may be the contrarian voice within thedigital humanities, resisting those progress narratives which, in order to

justify investments in tool-building, make texts computationally tractable

two must progress together or not at all. were shown

mastery over the space of the archive, rationalizing it by means both of the

retrieval mechanism and of the images power to depict it. Digital human-ists today are presented with similar representational systems promis-

worthwhile question, but only if we remember that the humanities greatadvantage is the power to produce new knowledge using only a few books

sometimes even one text. That uniquely powerful economy of scale

For digital tools and methods to share in that distinctlyqualitative power, they must be able to serve the particulars of texts with-

Johns in American Historical Review

idiographic as opposed to nomothetic


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4. The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts -

humanities we have to earn.


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