Gaining access to data, research ethics and

sampling

3-major partsa. Gaining access to data

b. Research ethicsc. Sampling

Lecture - 6

Gaining access to data

» Part - 1

a. Physical entry (or initial access): The initial level of gaining access to an organization to conduct research or gaining entry to an organization and access to intended participants

b. Continuing access: Continuing access is necessary to carry out further parts of your research or to be able to repeat the collection of data in another part of the organization;

c. Cognitive access: The process of gaining access to data from intended participants. This involves participants agreeing to be interviewed or observed, within agreed limits. This is achieved through ‘informed consent’.

Types of access

Informed consent: Position achieved when intended participants are fully informed about the nature, purpose and use of research to be undertaken and their role within it, and where their consent to participate, if provided, is freely given. Implied consent: Position achieved when intended participants are fully informed about the nature, purpose and use of research to be undertaken and their role within it, but their consent to participate, is inferred from their participating in the research, such as by responding to a questionnaire.

Participant consent

Problems associated with access

1. Organisations may not be prepared to allocate time and resources

2. Requests for access may not be of sufficient interest to organizations

3. Failure to reach those who can give permission (contacting wrong person)

4. Concerns about sensitivity of the topic or the confidentiality of the information sought

5. Perceptions about the researcher’s credibility

6. Doubts about the researcher’s competence

Strategies to gain access

» Allow yourself sufficient time

» Using existing contacts and developing new ones

» Providing a clear account of purpose and type of access required

» Overcoming organisational concerns about granting access

» Identifying possible benefits to the organization of granting access

» Appropriate forms of communication:

Writing introductory letter (Specimen on page 142 of the text) Facilitating ease of reply when requesting access (page 144 of the text)

» Developing access on Incremental basis

» Establishing researcher credibility

Checklists to help gain access

There is a lengthy, time consuming and exhaustive process of gaining access to data

Students are encouraged to go throughBox 5.2 (page 146) for

‘Checklist to help to gain access’And

Box 5.4 (page 152) for‘Checklist of requirements for informed consent’

‘The appropriateness of your behaviourin relation to the rights of those

who become the subject of or are affected by your work’

Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

» Part - 2

Research ethics

‘Gaining access to data’ and ‘maintaining ethics’ are interrelated processes, because:

The ‘requirements for informed consent’ necessitate informing participants about:

* ‘the nature of the research’* ‘the requirements of taking part in research’* ‘the implications of taking part and participants’

rights’* ‘the use of data collected and the way in which it will be reported’

» Part - 2

The discussion on ethical issues carries a wide scope; there are ethical issues that affect the research process in general, while there are ethical issues that are specific to each stage of research.

‘Privacy’ may be seen as the cornerstone of the ethical issues and ‘Respecting privacy of participants’ means:

* the right of participant not to participate* the right not to be harassed or offered inducements* the right not to be contacted at unreasonable times* the right not to answer any question or set of questions or provide any data, at all. * ..................* ..................(Check Box 5.3, page 149 for other details)

» Part - 2

Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different research stages

Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different research stages

Research Ethics

The nature of participant consent

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Selectingthe

Samples

Part - 3

Population, sample and individual casesSource: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

The need to sample

Sampling--a valid alternative to a census when;

» A survey of the entire population is impractical

» Budget constraints restrict data collection

» Time constraints restrict data collection

» Results are needed quickly

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling -1

PopulationThe entire group under study as defined by research’s objectives, sometimes called the

“universe.” e.g.: heads of households, families, types of retail outlets

Sample framea master list of the population (total or partial) from which

the sample will be drawn

Samplea subset of the population that should represent

the entire group

Sample unitthe basic level of investigation…consumers, store managers,

shelf-facings, teens, etc. The research objective should define the sample unit

Censusan accounting of the complete population

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling -2

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling - 3

Sampling errorany error that occurs in a survey because a sample is used

(random error)

Sample frame error (SFE)the degree to which the sample frame fails to account for all of

the defined units in the population (e.g. a telephone book listing does not contain unlisted numbers) leading to sampling

frame error.

Sampling error and sampling frame error20

WE ARE GOING TO POSTPONE OUR BRAINSTORMING DISCUSSION ON

“Points learnt from study of cases on gaining access and ethical issues”

YOU WILL IMPROVE YOUR PRESENTATION ON ABOVE TOPIC WITH THE HELP FROM MATERIALS

FROM THIS LECTURE (EARLIER SLIDES), AND WILL MAKE A PRESENTATION ON A BROADER

TOPIC INDICATED ON NEXT SLIDE

Discussion on last week assignment - 5

Individual student’s assignment1. Continue work on collection of further review materials and writing of ‘Review of Literature’ section of your project report.

2. Refine your work on “Points learnt from study of cases on gaining access and ethical issues”; this lecture will help you to do so.

3. Study the cases 7a to 7c, think about the answers of questions given at the end of each case, and compare your thought-over answers with actual answers provided.Sampling technique:

Case 7a ) Provided in “Additional Reading Case 7b ) Materials” on pages 55-onwardsCase 7c )

Continues on next slide

» Assignment – 6Cases on gaining access, ethical issues and

sampling techniques

Briefly explain what you have learnt from study of these cases; please also be ready for a class discussion on the topic in the next class.

4. You will do this all individually, and your individual reports will be annexed with your group report to be submitted in next week-class. You report will include ‘Points learnt from study of the cases on sampling techniques’.

Group’s assignment: 1. Exchange your individual reports with each other, hold a group meeting and finalize group report for submission in next class.

2. Be ready for a presentation and class discussion on the topic in next class.

» Assignment – 6Cases on gaining access, ethical issues and

sampling techniques

SPSS Exercise 6(a):Use of TRANSFORM and COMPUTE commands

We have already learned how the data were entered in tothe SPSS file “CGPA-SURVEY” and used to estimate

DESCRIPTIVES and FREQUENCIES

Today we are going to learn how some new variables can be computed from the existing ones.

» Our two variables MARKFA and MARKMA (marks in FA/F.Sc and Matric) are in percentages while CGPAL and CGPAB (CGPA in latest degree and at Bachelor level) are in CGPAs. To have all four variables in the same/comparable level, we wish to convert MARKFA and MARKMA in to CGPA (from their original percentage levels).

» For such conversions (to create new variables on the basis of existing ones), we first use TRANSFORM and then COMPUTE commands.

» In “TARGET VARIABLE’ box, write the new variable’s name “CGPAFA” and in “NUMERIC EXPRESSION” box, write the formula needed to convert the existing variable in to new one.

SPSS Exercise 6(b):Use of TRANSFORM and COMPUTE commands

» Since the highest marks in column under “MARKFA” are 90, we may assume 90% marks = 4.00 CGPA; hence the formula in “NUMERIC EXPRESSION” box should be: (4/90)*MARKFA

» You can write your own formula, or can take the required formula from “FUNCTION GROUP” box ; for instance, click ‘”ARITHMETIC” , then “Ln” (natural log), and bring “Ln” up in “NUMERIC EXPRESSION” box, and bring variable of interest in to the parenthesis from the list of variables on the left.