G. Santas on the Socratic Fallacy

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The Socratic Fallacy

Santas, Gerasimos Xenophon.

Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 10, Number 2, April 1972,

pp. 127-141 (Article)

Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press

DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.1000

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http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v010/10.2santas.html





T he Socrat ic a l lacy

GER SIMOS S NT S

I N A N IN T ER E ST IN G E S S A Y o n P l a t o ' s Euthyphro i n a r e c e n t i s s u e o f The Monist t

P e t e r G e a c h a t t r ib u t e s a p a i r o f a s s u m p t i o n s t o S o c r a te s a n d s a y s :

T h e s t yl e o f m i s t a k e n t h i n k i n g - - a s I t a k e i t t o b e - - t h a t c o m e s f r o m a c c e p t in g t h e s e

t w o a s s u m p t i o n s m a y w e l l b e c a l l ed the Socratic fallacy f o r i t s locus classicus i s t h e

S o c r a t i c d i a l o g u e s . ( 3 7 1 )

T h e a s s u m p t i o n s :

L e t u s r at h e r c o n c e n t ra t e o n t w o a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t S o c r a t e s m a k e s : ( A ) t h a t i f y o u

k n o w y o u a r e co r r e c tl y p r e d i c a ti n g a g i v e n t e r m ' T ' y o u m u s t k n o w w h a t i t i s t o b e

T , i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g a b l e to g i v e a g e n e r a l c r i t e r i o n f o r a t h i n g b e i n g T ; ( B ) t h a t

i t i s n o u s e t o t r y to a r r i v e a t t h e m e a n i n g o f ' T ' b y g i v i n g e x a m p l e s o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e

T . ( B ) i n f a c t f o l l o w s f r o m ( A ) . ( 3 7 1 )

G e a c h g o e s o n t o a r g u e t h a t t h e S o c r a t i c f a l l a c y i s a f a l la c y :

W e k n o w h e a p s o f t h in g s w i t h o u t b e i n g a b l e to d e f i ne t h e t e rm s i n w h i c h w e e x p r e s s

o u r k n o w l e d g e . F o r m a l d e f i n it i o n s a r e o n l y o n e w a y o f e l u c i d a t i n g t e r m s ; a s e t o f

e x a m p l e s m a y i n a g i v e n c a s e b e m o r e u s e f u l t h a n a f o r m a l d e f i n it i o n . (3 7 1 )

I n a d d i t i o n , G e a c h s e e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e S o c r a t i c f a l l a c y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e f ac t

t h a t t h e S o c r a t i c d i a l o g u e s u s u a l l y e n d u p i n aporia:

W e c a n i n d e e d s e e i n a d v a n c e w h y a S o c r a t i c d i a l o g u e s o o f t e n e n d s i n c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e

t o e l u c i d a t e t h e m e a n i n g o f a t e r m ' T ' . . . . B u t i f t h e r e is n o i n i t i a l a g r e e m e n t e i t h e r o n

e x a m p l e s o f t h in g s t h a t c e r t a i n l y a r e T o r o n c r i t e r i a fo r p r e d i c a t i n g ' T ' , t h e n t h e d i s -

c u s s i o n i s b o u n d t o b e a b o r t i v e . . . ( 37 2 )

H o w h a r m f u l t h e r e j ec t io n o f e x a m p l e s m a y b e w e s e e f r o m t h e Theaetetus.

T h e a e t e t u s, a s k e d w h a t k n o w l e d g e i s, g iv e s s o m e i n s t a n ce s o f k n o w l e d g e - - g e o m e t r y

a n d s h o e m a k i n g a n d t h e v a r i o u s c r a ft s . S o c r a t e s o b j e c t s t h a t th e s e a r e o n l y e x a m p l e s ,

a n d h e w a n t s t o k n o w j u s t w h a t k n o w l e d g e is . . . B u t o f c o u r s e a n y k n o w l e d g e is

t The Monist L ( July , 196 6) , 370-372.

[ 1 2 7 ]



I 28 HI S TOR Y OF P HI LOS OP HY

knowledge of so-and-so; and a correct definition would have to run Know ledg e of

so-and-so .. .. with the so-and-so occurring over again in thedefiniens.

(372)

An d finally, Geach suggests that the Socratic fallacy can have m oral ly har mful

consequences as well:

I am sure that imbu ing a mi nd with the Socratic fallacy is quite likely to be moral ly

harmful. Socrates, let us suppose, chats with an ingenuous youth and says that he has

been puzzled about what injustice is. The you th says, Well, that's easy; swindli ng is

unjust . Socrates asks him what swin dling is; no, examples will not do---a forma l defini-

tion is required. Failin g that, we don 't k now, do we?, what swindlin g is, or that it is

unjust. The dialogue, we may suppose, ends in the usual aporia. The ingenuous youth

decides that perhaps swi ndling is not un just ; he turns to ways of vill ainy, and ends upas one of the Thirty Tyrants. After all, a number of Socrates' young men did end that

way. (372)

Geach is by no means a lone in a t tr ibuting these assumptions or some var iant

of them to Socrates. He has eminent authorities on his side, Robinson and Ross,

amo ng others. Rob in son , citing the last two sentences of the Lysis, says:

This is surprisi ng because it seems to imply that (C) until you k now what X is you

can never say whether this is a case of X. That (D) our knowledge of X is prior to our

knowledge of its cases is implied also in the Euthyphro (6E), where Socrates says that

when Euthyphro has told him what X is he is going to use it as a paradigm or patternto determine which things are X and which are not. In fact the impression vaguely

given by the early dialogues as a whole is that Socrates thinks that (E) there is no truth

whatever about X that can be known before we know what X is. He never explicitly

says so; but nor, on the other hand, does he ever set any limits to the priority of this

question. (Plato s Earlier Dialectic, p. 53)

And Ross, c i t ing Hippias Major (286C5), says:

What led Plato to his interest in definitions, if we take this hint, was the conviction

that (F) no one can apply a word correctly unless he can frame to himself some

general account of its meaning. Not only, as he often says, is pointing to instances notrue answer to the problem of definition; (G) we cannot be sure that we are pointing

to genuine instances unless we first know what the definition is. (Plato s Theory ofIdeas, p. 16)

Rob ins on' s (D) and Ross ' (G) seem to be the same as Geach's assu mption (A),

though (C), (E) a nd (F) are very different propositio ns. 2

2 Robinson 's (C), until you know what X is you can never say whether this is a caseof X, is contradicted by many passages in the Laches and the Meno. Interlocutors constantlysay that this or that is a case of courage, virtue, etc.; and when it turns out that they don'tknow what courage, virtue, etc., are, Socrates does not conclude that therefore they can'tsay. The same holds for Ross' (F), no one can apply a word correctly unless he can frameto himself some general account of its meaning . This indeed must be a slip on Ross' part;one after all can apply a word correctly accidentally, in guessing, and so on. Even



T H E S O C R A T I C F A L L A C Y 129

I d o n o t w i s h t o d i s p u t e G e a c h ' s th e s i s th a t a c c e p t i n g t h e t w o a s s u m p t i o n s i s

a fa l l a c y o r t h a t t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e l e a d s t o a s t y le o f m i s t a k e n t h i n k i n g . N o r d oI w i s h to d i s p u t e hi s v i e w t h a t t h e in f l u e n ce o f th e f a l l a c y h a s , I t h i n k , b e e n

g r e a t e r e v e n t h an t h a t o f th e t h e o r y o f F o r m s . R a t h e r , i n v i e w o f i ts w i d e s p r e a d

i n fl u e nc e , I w i s h t o r e - e x a m i n e t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e S o c r a t e s o f t h e P l a t o n i c

D i a l o g u e s c o m m i t t e d t h is f al la c y . G e a c h , i f n o t R o b i n s o n a n d R o s s , w r i t e s a s if

t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t w h a t s o e v e r t h a t S o c r a t e s c o m m i t t e d t h i s f a l l a c y , a n d r a t h e r

o f t e n a t t h a t , in s e v e r a l d i a l o g u e s . I t h i n k t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e i s , t o s a y t h e l e a s t ,

v e r y m u c h i n c o n c l u s i v e ; I th i n k t h a t t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y ; a n d I t h i n k

t h e r e a r e p e r f e c t ly p l a u s i b l e a l t e r n a t iv e e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h a t d o n o t c o m m i t S o c r a t e s

t o t h e f a l l ac y , f o r S o c r a t e s ' r e j e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s .

I d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r G e a c h w o u l d s a y t h a t S o c r a te s c o m m i t s t h e f a ll a c y

w h e n e v e r h e a s k s f o r d ef i n it io n s ; h e c l e a r l y t h i n k s t h a t t h e f a l l a c y w a s c o m m i t t e d

in t h e E u t h y p h r o ( h e c i te s 5 D a n d 6 D ) , a n d p o s s i b l y i n t h e Theae te tus . I p r o p o s e

t o te s t G e a c h ' s t h e s i s b y r e f e r e n c e t o a g r o u p o f d i a l o g u e s t h a t i n c lu d e , b e s i d e s

t h e s e t w o , t h e Laches , t h e Lysis , t h e C h a r m i d e s , t h e M e n o a n d t h e H i p p i a s M a j o r .I n a l l t h e s e d i a l o g u e s , S o c r a t e s d e m a n d s a d ef i n it i o n o f a c o n c e p t , r e j e c t s t h e

e x a m p l e s t h a t a r e o f f e re d , a n d t h e r e s u lt i s aporia. I t w o u l d s e e m , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t

i n t h e s e d i a l o g u e s S o c r a t e s d o e s t h e s o r t s o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o l e a d t o t h e

s t y le o f m i s t a k e n t h i n k i n g t h a t G e a c h t a l k s a b o u t ; i f a n y g r o u p o f d i a l o g u e s i s

a l i k e ly l ocus f o r t h e f a l l a c y , t h i s g r o u p i s s u r e l y o n e o f t h e m o s t l i k e l y .

I w i s h t o b e g i n b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a t l e a s t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s e n s e s i n w h i c h

S o c ra t es m i g h t b e s u p p o s e d t o r e j e c t e x a m p l e s .

( 1) W h e n S o c r a t e s a s k s o n e o f h i s u s u a l q u e s t io n s ( W h a t i s h o l i n e s s ? W h a t i s

c o u r a g e ? W h a t i s t e m p e r a n c e ? W h a t i s v i r tu e ? ) a n d r e c e i v es o n e o r m o r e e x a m p l e s

a s a n a n s w e r , h e m i g h t r e je c t t h es e e x a m p l e s , n o t a s e x a m p l e s o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s ,

b u t a s n o t b e i n g t h e r i g h t s o r t o f a n s w e r t o h i s q u e s t i o n . I n t h is s e n s e n o e x a m p l e s ,

g e n u in e e x a m p l e s o r n ot , k n o w n e x a m p l e s o r n o t , w o u l d a n s w e r h is q u e s t io n .

A n d t h i s re j e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s u s u a l l y g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i si n it ia l q u e s t i o n , s a y , W h a t i s c o u r a g e ? i n t o W h a t i s t h is t h i ng , c o u r a g e , w h i c h

i s t h e s a m e i n a l l t h e s e c a s e s ? (Laches , 1 9 1 E ) . T h i s r e j e c t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m ,

a n d d o e s n o t i m p l y r e j e c ti o n i n t w o o t h e r p o s s i b l e s e n se s : S o c r a t e s c o u l d h a v e

r e j e ct e d , e .g ., L a c h e s ' b e i n g w i l li n g t o s t a y a t o n e ' s p o s t a n d f a c e t h e e n e m y a s

Robins on ' s (E), there is no tru th whatever about X that can be known before we know w hatX is, which is logically strong er than Gea ch's (A), needs qualification: In the Laches and theCharmides Socrates relies constantly and without hesitation on two similar propositions,

courage is noble and temp erance is noble (kalon) in testing proposed definitions. Theonly text that I know that supplies some evidence for such a strong proposition as (E) is

Republic, I, the discussion with Thrasymachus, where it seems to be implied that even theprop osition justice is a virtu e can not be relied on until a definition o f justice is know n; buteven here Socrates presents arguments in support of this last proposition before such a defini-tion is discovered. Section I II o f this p ap er is also relev ant to ((2) and (F).



130 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

a n e x a m p l e o f c o u r a g e ; a n d r e j e c te d i t e i t h e r (2 ) in t h e s e n s e o f a r g u i n g o r a s s e r t i n g

t h a t t h i s i s n o t a n e x a m p l e o f c o u r a g e , o r ( 3 ) i n t h e s e n s e o f a r g u i n g t h a t t h i sm a y b e a n e x a m p l e o f c o u r a g e b u t w e c a n n o t k n o w t h is t o b e t h e c as e b e f o r e w e

k n o w t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f c o u r a g e .

L e t u s n o w r a i s e t w o q u e s t i o n s : ( I ) I n w h i c h o f t h e s e s e n s e s o f r e j e c t i n g

e x a m p l e s , i f a n y , w o u l d S o c r a t e s r e j e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s b e e v i d e n c e t h a t h e i s

c o m m i t t i n g t h e S o c ra t i c f a l l a c y ? A n d ( I I ) in w h i c h s e n s e d o e s S o c r a t e s i n f a c t

r e j e c t e x a m p l e s i n o u r g r o u p o f d i a l o g u e s ?

( I ) I t i s c l e a r I t h i n k t h a t r e j e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 1 ) is n o t b y i t s e l f

e v i d e n c e t h a t o n e i s c o m m i t t i n g t h e S o c r a t i c f al l ac y . I f I a m a s k e d , a s L a c h e s i s,

t o s a y w h a t c o u r a g e i s , I o f f e r e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e , a n d t h e n I a m t o l d t h a t

i t i s n o t e x a m p l e s I h a v e b e e n a s k e d t o g i v e b u t r a t h e r w h a t i s t h e s a m e i n a l l th e

e x a m p l e s b y v i rt u e o f w h i c h t h e y a r e e x a m p l e s o f c o u ra g e , I a m n o t t h e r e b y b a r r e d

f r o m u s i ng e x a m p l e s to r e a c h a n a n s w e r ; I a m o n l y b a r r e d f r o m g i v in g e x a m p l e s

a s t h e a n s w e r . F o r t h i s r e j e c t i o n o f m y e x a m p l e s l e a v e s m e f r e e t o t r y t o o b t a i n

t h e r e q u i r e d a n s w e r b y g e n e r a l i z in g f r o m m y e x a m p l e s ; a n d I a m a l s o l e ft f r e e

t o te s t a n y g e n e r a l i z a t io n I r e a c h b y r e fe r e n c e b a c k t o m y e x a m p l e s a n d p o s s i b l y

o t h e r s . T h e r e i s n o f a l l a c y h e r e o r s t y l e o f m i s t a k e n t h i n k i n g o f t h e s o r t G e a c h

i s t a l k i n g a b o u t ; t h o u g h o f c o u r s e I c a n m a k e m i s t a k e s i n g e n e ra l i z i n g e v e n f r o m

m y o w n e x a m p l e s ( M e n o m a k e s j u s t su c h a m i s t a k e a n d S o c r a t es c a t c h e s h i m b y

r e fe r in g h i m b a c k t o M e n o s o w n e x a m p l e s o f t he v i r t u e o f t h e s l a v e a n d t h e

c h i ld , 7 3 C ) . I f m y e x a m p l e s a r e r e j e c t e d i n s e n s e (2 ) ( I a m t o l d t h a t t h e y a r e n o t

e x a m p l e s o f , s a y , c o u r a g e ) , I m a y o r m a y n o t b e i n t h e d i ff ic u lt ie s g e n e r a t e d b ya c c e p t i n g ( A ) a n d ( B ) . I f s o m e o f m y e x a m p l e s a r e r e j e c t e d i n t h is s e n s e , I c o u l d

o f f e r o t h e r s a n d t r y t o g e n e r a l i z e f r o m t h e m . I f l l e x a m p l e s w h a t s o e v e r t h a t I o f f e r

a r e r e j e c t e d in t h is s e n s e , t h e n o f c o u r s e I c a n n o t t r y t o r e a c h a d e f i n i t i o n f r o m

e x a m p l e s . T h i s w o u l d b e a b i n d o f a s o r t, b u t n o t t h e s o r t , I b e li e v e , t h a t G e a c h i s

t a l k i n g a b o u t . F i n a l l y , i f S o c r a t e s w e r e r e j e c t i n g e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 3) , t h i s c e r -

t a i n l y w o u l d b e c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t h e i s c o m m i t t i n g t h e S o c r a t ic f a l l a c y . F o r

i f I o ff e r e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e , a n d t h e n 1 a m t o l d t h a t I c a n n o t k n o w t h a t t h e s e

o r a n y o t h e r s a r e e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e b e f o r e I k n o w t h e d e f i ni t io n o f c o u r a g e ,

t h is w o u l d s e e m t o i m p l y t h a t I a m n o t e n t i t le d , b e f o r e I k n o w t h e d e fi n i ti o n , t o

u s e e x a m p l e s a s d a t a f r o m w h i c h I c a n g e n e r a l iz e t o a d e f i n it i o n o r e v e n a s d a t aw h i c h m e r e l y s u g g e s t a d e f i n i t i o n . S o i f s o m e h o w I c o m e t o a c q u i r e k n o w l e d g e

o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n t h i s c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y b e f r o m t h e e x a m p l e s . M o r e o v e r , r e j e c t i o n

o f e x a m p l e s i n t h is s en s e , r a is e s a p r o b l e m a b o u t t e s t i n g a n y p r o p o s e d d e f i n it i o n

b y e x a m p l e s : f o r o n th i s v i e w a n y k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h is o r t h a t i s a n e x a m p l e o f

c o u r a g e c o u l d o n l y b e b a s e d o n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d e fi n i ti o n o f c o u r a g e ; s o i n n o

c a s e c o u l d e x a m p l e s b e u s e d t o t es t a d e f i n it i o n ; o n l y a k n o w n d e f i n i ti o n t o t e s t

e x a m p l e s . I t m a y b e n o t e d , i n c i d e n t a ll y , t h a t r e j e c t io n o f e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 3 ) d o e s

n o t b y i t s el f e n t a i l t h a t n o k n o w l e d g e o f th e d e f i n it i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d ; i t cu t s o f f

o n e i m p o r t a n t r o u t e b y w h i c h s u c h k n o w l e d g e m i g h t b e o b t a in e d . T o c u t o f f t h is

r o u t e i n th i s w a y m a y b e a f a ll a c y a n d i t m a y b e a s t y le o f m i s t a k e n t h i n k i n g ,

b u t i t d o e s n o t necess r i l y l e a d t o a d e a d e n d .

( I I ) I n w h a t s e n se d o e s S o cr a te s r e j e ct e x a m p l e s ? T h e e v i d e n c e f o r th e a n s w e r




t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s , I t h i n k , u n e q u i v o c a l . S o c r a t e s c o n s t a n t l y r e je c t s e x a m p l e s i n

s e n s e (1 ) , a n d n e v e r r e j e c t s e x a m p l e s e i t h e r i n s en s e ( 2 ) o r , m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i ns e n s e ( 3) . F a r f r o m r e j e c t i n g e x a m p l e s i n s e n se s ( 2 ) o r ( 3) . S o c r a t e s s o m e t i m e s

( i) a c c e p t s s o m e e x a m p l e s , ( i i ) o f f er s s o m e o f h i s o w n , ( i i i) i n v i t e s t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r t o

g i v e a d e f i n i t i o n t h a t c o v e rs t h e e x a m p l e s , a n d ( iv ) p r o c e e d s t o te s t a p r o p o s e d

d e f i n i t i o n b y e x a m p l e s a l r e a d y g i v e n o r n e w o n e s .

C o n s i d e r t h e Laches.

S o c . T h e n l e t o u r f ir st e n d e a v o r b e, L a c h e s , t o s a y w h a t c o u r a g e is . . .

L a c h . O n m y w o r d , S o c r a t e s , t h a t is n o t h i n g d i f f ic u l t: a n y o n e w h o i s w i l l in g t o s t a y

a t h is p o s t a n d f a c e t h e en e m y , a n d d o e s n o t r u n a w a y , y o u m a y b e s u r e i s c o u r a g e o u s .

S o c . R i g h t l y s p o k e n , L a c h e s ; b u t I f e a r I a m t o b l a m e , b y n o t p u t t i n g i t c l e a r l y , f o r

y o u r h a v i n g a n s w e r e d n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f m y q u e s t i o n , b u t s o m e t h i n g e l se . ( 1 9 0 E )

S o c r a t e s sa y s t h a t h i s q u e s t i o n h a s n o t b e e n a n s w e r e d , b u t h e d o e s n o t d i s p u t e

L a c h e s ' ca s e as a c a s e o f c o u r a g e ; h e d o e s n o t e v e n o b j e c t t o L a c h e s ' you may be

sure i s c o u r a g e o u s , p r e c i s e l y t h e t h i n g t o o b j e c t t o i f h e w e r e c o m m i t t i n g t h e

S o c r a t i c f a l la c y a n d r e j e c t i n g e x a m p l e s i n s e n se ( 3) . N o t o n l y t h is , b u t S o c r a t e s

p r o c e e d s t o g i v e e x a m p l e s o f h i s o w n ; t h a t o f t h e m a n w h o f i g h ts t h e e n e m y w h i l e

f l e ei n g , a n d n o t s t a y i n g a s t h e S c y t h i a n s a r e s a i d t o f ig h t , a n d t h a t o f th e S p a r t a n s

a t P l a t a e a w h o k e p t tu r n i n g a r o u n d a n d f i g h t in g l i k e c a v a l r y , a n d s o w o n t h e

g r e a t b a t t le . S o c r a t e s c o n t in u e s b y l i s ti n g f o r L a c h e s d i f fe r e n t s o r t s o f c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s in w h i c h c o u r a g e c a n b e s h o w n , a n d f in a l ly r e s ta t e s h i s q u e s t i o n a n di n v i te s L a c h e s t o s a y w h a t i s t h e s a m e i n a l l th e c a s e s o f c o u r a g e t h e y h a v e b e e n

t a l k i n g a b o u t :

W h a t e i t h e r o f th e m ( c o u r a g e a n d c o w a r d i c e ) is , t h a t i s w h a t I w a n t e d t o k n o w . S o t r y

a g a i n , a n d t e l l m e w h a t i s t h i s th i n g , c o u r a g e , w h i c h i s t h e s a m e i n a l l t h e s e c as e s . ( 1 9 1 E )

A n d w h e n L a c h e s g i v e s h i s a n s w e r h e m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e h a d i n m i n d t h e

e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e t h e y h a v e b e e n c i t in g :

W e l l , t h e n , I t a k e i t t o b e a c e r t a i n e n d u r a n c e o f t h e s o u l , i f I a m t o s p e a k o f t h e

n a t u r a l q u a l i t y t h a t a p p e a r s i n t h e m a l l . ( 1 9 2 B )

I n a d d i t i o n , S o c r a t e s p r o c e e d s t o te s t L a c h e s ' a m e n d e d d e f i n i t io n ( C o u r a g e i s w i s e

e n d u r a n c e ) b y e x a m p l e s ; th u s a t 1 9 2 E S o c r a t e s i m a g i n e s t w o c a s e s w h e r e a m a n

w i s e l y e n d u r e s s o m e t h i n g , a n d S o c r a t e s a n d L a c h e s c o n f i d e n t l y a g r e e t h a t t h e s e a r e

n o t c a s e s o f c o u r a g e , a

3 I f w e c o m p a r e t h e t e x t s o f t h e Laches r e v i e w e d s o f a r w i t h G e a c h ' s a s s u m p t i o n ( B ) ,t h a t i t i s n o u s e t o t r y t o a r r i v e a t t h e m e a n i n g o f ' T ' b y g i v i n g e x a m p l e s o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e

T , a n a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h G e a c h s a y s fo l l o w s fr o m a s s u m p t i o n ( A ) , i t is c l e a r t h a t t h e t e x t sc o n t r a d i c t a s s u m p t i o n ( B ). If w e t a k e (B ) t o m e a n t h a t e x a m p l e s a r c n o t y t h e m s e l v e sa n a nsw e r t o Soc r a t e s ' que s t i on , t ha t i s t r ue e nough . Bu t i f w e unde r s t a nd ( B) i n a mor en a t u r a l w a y , t o m e a n t h a t i t i s n o u s e t r y i n g t o a r r i v e a t t h e m e a n i n g ' T ' o n t h e b a s i s o te x a m p l e s , b y se e in g w h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e e x a m p l e s , i t i s c le a r t h a t S o c r a t e s ' p r o c e d u r e



132 HIST ORY OF PHIL OSOPH Y

A similar sort of thing happens in the M e n o between 71E and 73D: Socrates

asks his usual question, about virtue this t ime, Meno gives him examples, Socratesrejects the examples in sense (1), explains his question and invites Meno to give

the right sort of answer:

Soc. Seeing then that it is the same virt ue in all cases, try and tell me, if you ca n

recollect, what Gorgias--and you in agreement with him--say it is.

Meno. Simply that it is the power of governing man kin d- -if you want some simple

description to cover all cases.

And Socrates ' f irs t objection is that this reply does not even cover al l the cases

that Meno has given:

That is what I am after. But is virtue the same in a child, Meno, and in a slave--an

ability to govern each his master?'

In the C h a r m i d e s there is no rejection of examples at al l , for Charmides ' f irs t

answer to Socrates ' question is a definit ion.

When Geach speaks of the rejection of examples in the T h e a e t e t u s his lan-

guage suggests to me that he himself had rejection in sense (1) in mind. His point

seems to be not that Socrates rejects examples in senses (2) or (3)--which he does

not--but rather that Socrates and Theaetetus fai l to take examples as a s tart ing

point and thus fai l to draw an important lesson from the examples:

To give examples, each of which is knowledge o f so-and-so, is to miss the point--as

though, asked what clay was, one mentioned potter's clay, brickmaker's clay, and so on

(146d-147a). But of course any knowledge is knowledge of so-and-so; and a correct

definition would have to run know ledg e of so-and-so is . . ., with the so-a nd-s o

occurring over again in the de f i n i en s (372; Geach's italics)

But, conceding all this , I do not see how in any way i t is evidence for Geach's

assumption (A) or for supposing that Socrates is committ ing the Socratic fal lacy

contradicts assumption (B) . For this is precisely what Socrates urges Laches, and Meno

too, to do, to try to see what is common to all the undisputed examples that Laches andSocrates himself have cited.Robinson notices that Socrates sometimes uses examples to refute a proposed defini-

tion, but does not seem to see that this does not square very well with his attribution toSocrates of propositions (C), (D) and (E). If we cannot know, cannot even say that this orthat is an example of courage before we know the definition of courage, how can we relyon examples to refute a proposed definition? And yet this is precisely what Laches andSocrates do. [.aches defines courage as wise endurance, Socrates describes to him twocases of admitted wise endurance, and Laches confidently says that these nevertheless are notcases of courage. Possibly the argument here is indirect: they have beforehand agreedthat courage is noble, and Laches can tell that these cases are not cases of doing somethingnoble, hence they are not cases of courage. But a bit later Socrates describes to Lachesseveral cases where men endure equally, and Laches judges confidently that the man who isless wise in these cases is also more courageous. In fact, the whole conversation with Lachesmakes no sense whatever except on the supposition that in some cases Laches can tell, andtell with confidence, that a man is courageous, or that a man is not courageous, even thoughLaches does not know the definition of courage. This supposition is discussed in section 11Iof this paper.




in t h e Theae te tu s . A m a n t r y i n g f o r S o c r a ti c d e f i n it i o n o f k n o w l e d g e m a y h a v e

e x a m p l e s o f k n o w l e d g e a v a i l a b l e t o h i m a n d f a i l to c a p i t a l iz e o n t h e m i n at h o u s a n d a n d o n e d i ff e re n t w a y s . H e m a y n o t e v e n p a y m u c h a t t e n ti o n t o t h e m ,

l a y t h e m a s i d e a s u n i m p o r t a n t , t h i n g s h e c a n l e a r n n o t h i n g f r o m . B u t a l l th i s

i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m s u p p o s i n g t h a t h e c a n n o t u s e t h e e x a m p l e s i f h e w i s h e s

t o o r i s w i s e e n o u g h t o d o s o : S o c r a t e s d o e s n o t r e j e c t t h e e x a m p l e s a s d a t a

t h a t c a n n o t b e u s e d o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t w e c a n n o t k n o w t h e m t o b e g e n u in e

e x a m p l e s o f k n o w l e d g e b e f o r e w e k n o w a d e f i n i t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . S o c r a t e s ' n e g l e c t

o f e x a m p l e s is e v i d en t , a n d i s - - I a g r e e w i t h G e a c h - - t o b e r e g r et t ed ; h is r e je c t io n

o f t h e m i n s e n s e ( 3 ) - - t h e s e n s e r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c h a r g e o f t h e S o c r a t ic

f a l l a c y - - i s n o t .

G e a c h m i g h t s a y th a t t h o u g h r e j e c ti o n o f e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 1 ) i s n o t c o n -

c l u s iv e e v i d e n c e t h a t S o c r a te s c o m m i t s t h e f a l l a c y , n e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s e v id e n c e

i n t h is s e n se : i f S o c r a t e s w e r e c o m m i t t i n g t h e f a l l a c y w e w o u l d e x p e c t h i m t o

r e j e c t e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 1 ) , a n d h e d o e s j u s t t h a t . T h i s i s p e r h a p s s o ; b u t t h e r e

a r e o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r S o c r a t e s ' r e j e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e ( 1 ) , a n d t h e

s i m p l e s t a n d t h e o n e c l o s e s t t o t h e t e x t s i s t h i s : S o c r a t e s ' i n i t i a l q u e s t i o n i s i n t h e

f o r m W h a t is T ? a n d t y p i c a l l y h e a m p l i fi e s o r e x p l a i n s i t b y p u t t i n g i t i n

t h e f o r m W h a t i s i t t h a t i s t h e s a m e t o al l t h e th i n g s t h a t a r e T a n d i n v i r t u e o f

w h i c h t h e y a r e T ? T h e r e c a n b e l it tl e d o u b t t h a t h e m e a n s t o a s k t h e f ir s t q u e s t i o n

i n th e s e n s e o f t h e s e c o nd . A n d w h a t e v e r c a n b e s a i d a b o u t t h e f ir s t q u e s t i o n , i t is

c l e a r t h a t t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n i s n o t a n s w e r e d b y c i ti n g e x a m p l e s o f t h i n g s t h a t

a r e T . H e n c e t h e r e j e c ti o n o f e x a m p l e s i n s e n s e (1 ).B u t t h e o b j e c t o r m i g h t p e rs i s t: w h y a f t e r a l l d o e s S o c r a t e s t a k e t h e f i rs t q u e s t i o n

a l w a y s i n th e s e n s e o f t h e se c o n d ? W h y n o t b e s a ti s fi e d s o m e t i m e s w i t h a s e t o f

e x a m p l e s a s a n a n s w e r t o t h e first q u e s t i o n ? I w a n t t o s u g g e s t a p o s s i b l e a n s w e r

t h a t d o e s n o t c o m m i t S o c r a t e s t o t h e S o c r a t i c f a l l a c y . I n E u t h y p h r o 6 D S o c r a t e s

t e l l s u s w h a t h e w o u l d d o w i t h t h e s o r t o f a n s w e r h e w a n t s i f h e h a d i t :

T e l l m e t h e n wh a t t h i s a s p e c t idea) i s , t h a t I m a y k e e p m y e y e f i x e d u p o n i t a n de m p l o y i t a s a m o d e l a n d , i f a n y t h i n g y o u o r a n y o n e d o e s a g r e e s w i t h i t , m a y s a y t h a tthe ac t i s ho ly , and i f no t , tha t i t i s unho ly .

N o w P l a t o o r S o c ra t e s m a y h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e re i s a d i ff i cu l ty a b o u t a g r e e i n g

w i t h a s e t o f e x a m p l e s t h a t d o e s n o t a r is e a b o u t a g r e e i n g w i t h h o l i n e s s. 5 I f

S o c r a t e s h a d a s e t o f e x a m p l e s o f h o li n e s s , h o w w o u l d h e t el l w h e t h e r n e w c a s e s

a r e c a s es o f h o li n es s o r n o t ? P r e s u m a b l y b y s e e in g w h e t h e r t h e n e w c a s e a g r e e s

w i t h t h e k n o w n e x a m p l e s . B u t a g r e e s i n w h a t r e s p ec t s ? I n all r e s p e c t s ? T h i s

w o u l d s e e m t o o s tr o n g . B u t i f i n s ome , h o w c a n w e t e l l wh i ch , i f w e d o n o t k n o w

w h a t i s th e s a m e o r c o m m o n t o t he s e t o f k n o w n e x a m p l e s b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h t h e y

a r e e x a m p l e s o f h o l y a c t i o n s ? H e m a y h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s d i t f i c u l t y w o u l d

n o t a r is e a b o u t a n e x a m p l e a g r e e i n g w i t h h o li n es s , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e ho l in e s s

The word that Socrates uses, to iouton, that the Loeb transla tor renders agrees with ,m ay also be translated as sim ilar to ; the difficulty tha t I raise applies equally w ell to

s imi la r to .



134 HI S TOR Y OF P HI LO S OP HY

would not have inci denta l or accid ental features as holy actions do. If one's

basis for rejecting examp les in sense (1) were this difficulty or even a g li mme rof it , one certainly would not be committing the Socratic fallacy in rejecting

examples in sense (1).

II

Aside from the rejection of examples, what about the other evidence that Geach

and others cite for attr ibut ing to Socrates a ssu mpti on (A)?

We have Euthyphro 5D and 6D, cited by Geach, Lysis 223B and Hippias

Major 286 CD, cited by Robinson and Ross; and to this we may add Charmides

159A and 176AB as being in the same vein.

Let us begin with the Euthyphro which is after all Geach's text. Geach intro-

duces the discussion of the fallacy in this way:

Euthyphro's genuine belief in the old legend is something Socrates finds hard to

stomach (5E-6C), but he does not try to shake it. Instead, he adopts a line of argument

that we find paralleled in many dialogues. If Euthyphro really knows that his ownaction is pious then he must be able to say what is pious; he must not just give examples

of pious actions, like his own action or again the punishment of sacrilegious robbery,

but say what kind of thing it is that makes whatever is pious pious (5D and 6D).

(370-371; the first set of italics mine)

Now the statement I have put in italics would be strong evidence that Socrates

makes assu mpti on (A). 6 Does Socrates then assert this very st atemen t in the

Euthyphro? He does not.

I t seems to me that Socrates' dema nd for a definition of piety in the Euthyphro

is introduced in a different way from the way that Geach's statement in italics

suggests. The Euthyphro is different from other dialogues we have considered in

that the de man d for a definition arises from con sidera tion of a very controversial

case, Euthyphro's attempt to prosecute his own father for murder. For this we

have as evidence not only Socrates' own reactions as Euthyphro unfolds his case

but also Euthyphro's own testimony about the reaction of his relatives. I t is worth

quoting the text in full:

6 Incidentally, Geach's statement that I have put in italics, and his assumption (A) areperhaps somewhat ambiguous, depending on how we understand the phrases must be ableto say and being able to give. We may distinguish a strong and a weak version. The strongversion is: If you know that this or that is an example of T, you must already know thedefinition of T. The weak version: If you know that this or that is an example of T, you mustbe able to discover and tell me the definition of T, i.e. you must be able to discover what iscommon to the examples by virtue of which they are examples of T. It is the strong versionthat I take Geach and Robinson and Ross to have in mind. and it is the only one that is atissue in this paper. The weak version may be argued to be fallacious, as Wittgenstein for

instance implies, on the ground that it presupposes that there is always something commonto be discovered, but this is a different story, not to the point here. Textual evidence forthe weak version, which I do not dispute, is not evidence for the strong version.



T H E S O C R A T I C F A L L A C Y 13 5

S o c . B u t w h a t is t h e c h a r g e , a n d w h a t i s t h e s u i t a b o u t ?

E u t h . M u r d e r , S o c r a t e s.

S o c . H e r a c l e s S u r e l y , E u t h y p h r o , m o s t p e o p l e d o n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e r i g h t l ie s ; f o r

I f a n c y i t i s n o t e v e r y o n e w h o c a n r i g h t l y d o w h a t y o u a r e d o i n g , b u t o n l y o n e w h o i s

a l r e a d y v e r y fa r a d v a n c e d i n w i s d o m .

E u t h . V e r y fa r , i n d e e d , S o c r a t e s , b y Z e u s .

S o c . I s t h e o n e w h o w a s k i l l e d b y y o u r f a t h e r a r e l a ti v e ? B u t o f c o u r s e h e w a s ; f o r

y o u w o u l d n o t b r in g a c h a r g e o f m u r d e r a g a i n s t h i m o n a s t r a n g e r ' s a cc o u n t .

E u t h . I t i s r i d i c u lo u s , S o c r a t e s , t h a t y o u t h i n k i t m a t t e r s w h e t h e r t h e m a n w h o w a s

k i l l e d w a s a s t r a n g e r o r a r e l at i v e , a n d d o n o t s e e th a t t h e o n l y t h i n g t o c o n s i d e r i s

w h e t h e r t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s l a y e r w a s j u s ti f ie d o r n o t , a n d t h a t i f it w a s j u s t i fi e d o n e

o u g h t t o le t h i m a l o n e , a n d i f n o t , o n e o u g h t t o p r o c e e d a g a i n s t h i m , e v e n i f h e s h a r e

o n e ' s h e a r t h a n d e a t a t o n e ' s t a b le . F o r t h e p o l l u t i o n i s t h e s a m e i f y o u a s s o c i a t e

k n o w i n g l y w i t h s u c h a m a n a n d d o n o t p u r i f y y o u r s e l f a n d h i m b y p r o c e e d i n g a g a i n s th i m .

E u t h y p h r o c o n t i n u e s b y g iv i n g th e f a c t s o f t h e c a s e , a n d e n d s h i s s p e e c h a s

f o l l o w s :

N o w m y f a t h e r a n d t h e r e s t o f m y r e l a t i v e s a r e a n g r y w i t h m e b e c a u s e f o r t h e s a k e

o f t hi s m u r d e r e r I a m p r o s e c u ti n g m y f a t h e r f o r m u r d e r . F o r t h e y s a y h e d i d n o t k i l l

h i m , a n d i f h e h a d k i l l e d h i m n e v e r s o m u c h , y e t s in c e t h e d e a d m a n w a s a m u r d e r e r ,

I o u g h t n o t t o t r o u b l e m y s e l f a b o u t s u c h a f e l lo w , b e c a u s e i t i s u n h o l y f o r a s o n t o

p r o s e c u t e hi s f a t h er f o r m u r d e r . W h i c h s h o w s h o w l i t tl e t h e y k n o w w h a t t h e d i v i n e

l a w i s i n r e g a r d t o h o l i n e s s a n d u n h o l i n e s s .S o c . B u t, i n t h e n a m e o f Z e u s , E u t h y p h r o , d o y o u t h i n k y o u r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t d i v i n e

l a w s a n d h o l i n e s s a n d u n h o l i n e s s i s s o e x a c t , t h a t w h e n t h e f a c t s a r e a s y o u s a y , y o u

a r e n o t a f ra i d o f d o i n g s o m e t h i n g u n h o l y y o u r s e l f i n p r o s e c u t i n g y o u r f a t h e r f o r

m u r d e r ?

E u t h . I s h o u l d b e o f n o u s e, S o c r a t e s , a n d E u t h y p h r o w o u l d b e i n n o w a y d i f f e re n t

f r o m o t h e r m e n , i f I d i d n o t h a v e e x a c t k n o w l e d g e a b o u t s u c h t h in g s .

I n S o c r a t e s ' t w o l i t t l e s p e e c h e s i n t h is p a s s a g e I d o n o t f i n d a n y t h i n g t h a t

w o u l d j u s t if y t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f G e a c h ' s s t a t e m e n t i n i ta l ic s t o S o c r a t e s . I n t h e f ir s t

s p e e c h ( b e g i n n i n g w i t h " H e r a c l e s " ) S o c r a t e s ' r e a c t i o n i s a v e r y n a t u r a l o n e ; i t is

l ik e s a y in g " G o o d h e a v e n s , m a n , y o u m u s t b e p r e t t y s u r e o f y o u r g r o u n d s t ou n d e r t a k e s u c h a th i n g . " T h e g r o u n d s b e i n g t h e f a c ts o f th e c a s e a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s

o n w h i c h E u t h y p h r o i s a c ti n g . A n d E u t h y p h r o p r o c e e d s t o g i ve j u s t s uc h g r o u n d s ;

h e a l s o c i t e s t h e v i o l e n t d i s a g r e e m e n t o f h i s f a t h e r a n d r e l a t i v e s b o t h o n t h e f a c ts

a n d t h e p r i n c ip l e s , a n d e n d s u p b o a s t i n g , b y u n m i s t a k a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n , th a t h e h a s

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i v i n e la w s a b o u t h o l i n e s s . T h i s o n h i s o w n . I n h i s l a s t s p e e c h

S o c r a t e s t a k e s h i m u p o n u s t t h a t i m p l i e d b o a s t . A n d w h e n S o c r a t e s a t 5 D ( th e

p a s s a g e G e a c h c i te s ) r a i s e s h i s q u e s t i o n a b o u t h o l i n e s s [ o r t h e f i r s t t i m e h e i n t r o -

d u c e s i t n o t i n G e a c h ' s w a y b u t b y r e fe r e n ce t o E u t h y p h r o ' s o w n b o a s t :

N o w i n t h e n a m e o f Z e u s , t e l l m e w h a t y o u j u s t n o w a s s e r te d y o u k n e w s o w e ll . W h a td o y o u s a y is t h e n a t u r e o f p i e ty a n d i m p i e t y , b o t h i n r e l at i o n to m u r d e r a n d o t h e r

t h i n g s . . .




C o n f r o n t e d w i t h s u c h a c o n t r o v e r s i a l c a s e , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s d i s a g r e e m e n t e v e n

a f t e r t h e f a c t s h a v e b e e n c o n c e d e d ( E u t h y p h r o ' s r e l a t i v e s a r g u e t h a t h e i s d o i n gs o m e t h i n g u n h o l y e v e n i f t h e f a c ts a r e a s E u t h y p h r o c o n c e i v e s t h e m , a p o i n t t h a t

S o c r a t e s t a k e s u p w h e n h e s a y s w h e n t h e f a c t s a r e a s y o u s a y ) , i t i s p e r f e c t l y

n a t u r a l f o r S o c ra t e s t o lo o k f o r a g e n e r a l c r i te r i o n , e s p e c ia l ly w h e n E u t h y p h r o

h a s b o a s t e d t h a t h e h a s o n e ; t o d o s o in s u c h a c a s e a m a n n e e d n o t i m p l y o r

a s s u m e s u c h a g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n a s G e a c h ' s a s s u m p t i o n ( A ) .

I n 6 D w e a ls o h a v e a p a ss a g e w h i c h G e a c h m a y h a v e h a d i n m i n d a n d w h i c h

R o b i n s o n s a y s i m p l ie s t h a t o u r k n o w l e d g e o f X is p r i o r t o o u r k n o w l e d g e o f i ts

c a s e s op. cir., p . 5 3 ) :

T . d m e t h e n w h a t t h i s a s p e c t idea) i s , t h a t I m a y k e e p m y e y e f i x e d u p o n i t a n de m p l o y i t a s a m o d e l a n d , i f a n y t h i n g y o u o r a n y o n e e l se d o e s a g r e es w i t h i t, m a y s a yt h a t t h e a c t i s h o l y , a n d i f n o t , t h a t i t i s u n h o l y .

W e l l , n a t u r a l l y t h i s i s h o w S o c r a t e s i s g o i n g t o u s e a g e n e r a l c r i t e r i o n , o r a

d e f i n it i o n if y o u l i k e, o n c e h e h a s i t. H e d o e s n o t s a y , n o r d o e s t h is p a s s a g e

i m p l y b y a n y s t r e t c h o f t h e im a g i n a t i o n , t h a t t h i s is t h e o n l y w a y i n w h i c h h e

c a n t e ll w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g i s h o l y o r u n h o l y . N o r d o e s h e s a y , o r i m p l y , t h a t

in n o c a s e c o u l d h e te ll w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g w a s h o l y o r u n h o l y u n le s s h e k n e w

w h a t h o l i n e s s i s . I t i s a l s o w o r t h n o t i c i n g t h a t h e d o e s n o t s a y t h a t b y u s i n g t h e

i d e a o f h o l i n e s s i n t h e w a y h e i n d i c a t e s h e w i l l k n o w w h e t h e r s o m e a c t i o n i s h o l yo r u n h o l y ; h e o n l y s a y s m a y s a y , a p o i n t t o w h i c h w e s h a ll c o m e b a c k l a te r .

T h e c o n t e x t o f t h e H i p p i a s M a j o r p a s s a g e s e e m s s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r : S o c r a t e s

i n t ro d u c e s h i s q u e s ti o n a b o u t t h e b e a u ti f u l b y d e s c r ib i n g a n o c c a s i o n i n w h i c h

h e c e n s u r e d s o m e s p e e c h e s a s b e i n g u g l y a n d p r a i s e d o t h e r s a s b e a u t i f u l , a n d w a s

chal lenged:

N o w , h o w e v e r , g i v e m e a b r i e f a n s w e r t o a q u e s t i o n a b o u t y o u r d is c o u r s e, f o r y o ur e m i n d e d m e o f t h e b e a u t i fu l j u s t a t t he r i g h t m o m e n t . F o r r e c e n t ly , m y m o s te x c e l l e n t f r i e n d , a s I w a s f i n d i n g f a u l t w i t h s o m e t h i n g s i n c e r t a i n s p e e c h e s a s u g l y a n d

p r a i s i n g o t h e r t h i n g s a s b e a u t i f u l , a m a n t h r e w m e i n t o c o n f u s i o n b y q u e s t i o n i n g m e

v e r y i n s o le n t ly s o m e w h a t a f te r th is f a s h i o n : H o w , i f y o u p l e a se , d o y o u k n o w ,S o c r a t e s , s a id h e , w h a t so r t o f t h i ng s a r e b e a u ti f u l a n d u g l y ? F o r , c o m e n o w , c o u l dy o u te ll m e w h a t t h e b e a u t i f u l is ? A n d I , b e in g o f n o a c c o u n t , w a s a t a l o s s a n d c o u l dn o t a n s w e r h i m p r o p e r l y ; a n d s o , a s I w a s g o i n g a w a y f r o m t h e c o m p a n y , I w a sa n g r y w i t h m y s e l f a n d r e p r o a c h e d m y s e l f , a n d t h r e a t e n e d t h a t t h e f ir s t t i m e I m e t o n e

o f y o u w i s e m e n , I w o u l d h e a r a n d l e a r n a n d p r a c t i s e a n d t h e n g o b a c k t o th e m a n w h oq u e s t io n e d m e a n d re n e w th e w o r d y s tr if e . S o n o w . . , t e a c h m e s a ti s f a c to r i ly w h a t th ea b s o l u t e b e a u t if u l is . . . t h a t I m a y n o t b e c o n f u t e d a s e c o n d t i m e a n d b e m a d er i d i c u l o u s a g a i n .

S o c r a t e s p r a i s e d c e r t a i n p a r t s o f s p e e c h a s b e a u t i f u l a n d c e n s u r e d o t h e r s a s u g l y ,

w a s c h a l le n g e d , a n d e v e n tu a l l y t he c h a l l e n g e t o o k th e f o r m c o u l d y o u te U m e

w h a t t h e b e a u t if u l i s ? S o c r a t e s a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e ch a l l e n g e p r o p e r , a n d




w a s t h r o w n i n t o c o n f u s i o n o r p u z z l e m e n t aporia). W h y ? B e c a u s e h e d i d n o t

k n o w w h a t t h e b e au t if u l is . L a t e r , h e s e e m s t o s a y t h a t i f h e c o m e s t o k n o w w h a tt h e b e a u t i f u l is h e w i ll n o t a g a i n b e t h r o w n i n t o c o n f u s i o n . P o s s i b l y , h e m e a n s

n o t o n l y t h a t h e w il l b e a b l e to a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n , b u t a l s o t h a t h e c a n u s e

h i s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b e a u t i f u l a s g r o u n d s , p e r h a p s t h e b e s t g r o u n d s , t o s u p p o r t

h i s p r a i s e o f c e r t a in p a r t s o f s p e e c h e s a s b e a u t i fu l . T h i s m a k e s g o o d s e n s e o f t h e

p a s s a g e. W e d o n o t n e e d t o a tt r i b u te t o S o cr a te s t h e s t r o n g e r a s s u m p t i o n - -

c o m p a t i b l e w i th b u t n o t i m p l i e d b y t h e p a s s a g e - - t h a t k n o w l e d g e o f t he b e a u t i f u l

i s t h e only g r o u n d b y w h i c h h e c a n s u p p o r t p r a i s i n g c e r t a i n t h i n g s a s b e a u t if u l .

E v e n i f w e a t t ri b u t e t o h i m t h i s s t r o n g e r a s s u m p t i o n , i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w f r o m

i t t h a t h e s u p p o s e s t h a t u n l e s s h e h a s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b e a u t i f u l h e c a n n o t k n o w

t h a t t h i s o r t h a t i s b e a u t i f u l , u n l e s s w e a l s o a t t r i b u t e t o h i m t h e a d d i t i o n a l

s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t o n e c a n n e v e r k n o w a n y t h i n g u n l e s s h e c a n h a v e g r o u n d s f o r

w h a t h e c l a i m s t o k n o w - - a s u p p o s i t i o n n o w h e r e i n s ig h t . O n t o p o f a ll th i s, t h is

s t r o n g e r a s s u m p t i o n a n d t h e a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o s i t i o n s e e m t o b e i d le s o f a r a s t h is

p a s s a g e is c o n c e r n e d : f o r S o c ra t e s h a s n o t d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s h a v i n g c l a i m e d

to k n ow t h a t s o m e p a r t s o f s p e e c h a r e b e a u t i fu l ; o n l y a s h a v i n g p r a i s e d t h e m a s

b e a u t i f u l . I d o n o t s e e t h e r e f o r e h o w G e a c h ' s a s s u m p t i o n ( A ) c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d

w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e t o S o c r a t e s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s p a s s a g e .

T h e p a s s a g e s i n t h e Charmides a n d Lys i s a r e s e t in a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t : t h e r e i s

n o d i s a g r e e m e n t o r c h a l l e n g e a b o u t e x a m p l e s .

T h e w a y i n w h i c h S o c r a t e s i n t r o d u c e s h i s q u e s t i o n i n t h e Charm ide s d o e s n o t

s u p p o r t G e a c h ' s c h a r g e o f t h e S o c r a t ic fa l l ac y . I n a s o m e w h a t p l a y f u l p a s s a g e ,h e s a y s :

T h e n t h i s i s t h e wa y , I s a id , i n wh ic h I c o n s id e r t h a t o u r i n q u i r y i n to t h i s m a t t e r h a db e s t b e c o n d u c t e d . N o w , i t i s c l e a r t h a t , i f y o u h a v e t e m p e r a n c e w i th y o u , y o u c a nh o ld a n o p in io n a b o u t i t . F o r b e in g i n y o u , I p r e s u m e , i t m u s t , i n t h a t c a s e , a f f o r d s o m ep e r c e p t i o n f r o m w h i c h y o u c a n f o r m s o m e o p i n i o n o f w h a t t e m p e r a n c e i s , a n d w h a tk in d o f t h in g i t i s : d o y o u t h in k s o ?An d s i n c e y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e Gr e e k t o n g u e , I s a id , y o u c a n t e l l m e , I s u p p o s e , y o u rv i e w o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t h o u g h t o f y o u r s ?I da resay , he sa id .

T h e n i n o r d e r t h a t we m a y m a k e a g u e s s wh e th e r i t i s i n y o u o r n o t , t e l l m e , I s a id ,w h a t y o u s a y o f t e m p e r a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o y o u r o p i n i o n .

E a r l ie r , a t 1 57 D , C r i t ia s h a d d e c la r e d t h a t C h a r m i d e s i s t h e m o s t t e m p e r a t e

p e r s o n n o w a l i v e . S h o r t l y a f t e r , a s k e d p o i n t b l a n k b y S o c r a t e s w h e t h e r h e is

a l r e a d y s u f f ic i e n tl y p r o v i d e d w i t h t e m p e r a n c e o r d e f i ci e n t i n i t , C h a r m i d e s

b l u s h e d a n d a n s w e r e d m o s t i n g e n uo u s l y , s a y i n g t h a t i t is n o e a s y m a t t e r a t

t h e m o m e n t e i t h e r t o a d m i t o r t o d e n y t h e w o r d s o f t h e q u e s t i o n . F o r , h e s a y s ,

i f h e s a id h e w a s n o t t e m p e r a t e , i t w o u l d b e a s t r a n g e t h i n g t o s a y a g a i n s t

h i m s e l f , a n d i f h e s a i d th a t h e w a s h e w o u l d b e p r a i s i n g h i m s e l f a n d f o u n d d i s -

t a s t e f u l . T h i s i s t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e p a s s a g e j u s t q u o t e d .

T h e o t h e r p a s s a g e i n t h e Charm ide s a n d t h e p a s s a g e i n t h e Lys i s c o m e a t t h e

e n d o f t h e t w o d i a l o g u e s :



138 HISTO RY OF PHIL OSOPH Y

See now whether you have it (temperance), and are in no need of the charm; for if it

is yours, I should rather advise you to regard me as a blabber who is unable to argue

out any subject of inquiry whatsoever, and yourself as advancing in happiness as you

advance in temperance.Then Charmides said: Why, upon my word, Socrates, I do not know at all whether I

have it or not. For how can I know when even you two are unable to discover what

this thing is?--so you say, but of this you do not at all convince me---and I quite

believe, Socrates, that I do need the charm, and for my part I have no objection tobeing charmed by you everyday of my life, until you say I have had enough of the

treatment.

All this comes after a tortuously involved discussion in which all the definitions

of temperance proposed have been found unsatisfactory, and unsatisfactory notbecause there was no agreement on examples but for a variety of other reasons.

In this setting, Charmides' question, which is the most explicit text I have found

for the Socratic fallacy, is understandable. When his more experienced elders had

failed to discover and understand what temperance is, it would have been unseemly

and arrogant for Charmides to declare in answer to Socrates' question, You two,

and I too, do not know what temperance is, but I certainly do know that I am

temperate. In considering Charmid es' answer and his question, it is import ant to

remember that they have been inquiring about a moral concept, a thing of high

praise and of practical importance in their lives, as Socrates repeats again and

again; and Charmides was asked whether h e was temperate. If the investigationhad been about, say, what number is, instead of what temperance is, and the

results had been similarly aporetic, and at the end Charmides had been asked

whether, say, three is a number, he might well have replied, Yo u two, and I also,

do not know what nu mber is, but I certainly do know, an d yo u do too, that three is

a numb er. But with virtues and moral concepts in general it is perhaps different.

If we discovered that we did not know what temperance is and could not formulate

a single principle about temperate or intemperate conduct, it would be more

puzzling if this did n o t shake our confidence in making particular judgments that

this or that is temperate conduct than if it did.

And on top of all this, it is to be noted that the question, and the implication

that goes with it, is Charmides' in this passage, not Socrates'. I cannot therefore

see, once more, that this passage--the most explicit text for the Socratic fallacy--

is good enough reason for attributing to Socrates such a general proposition, about

all concepts, as Geach's assumption (A).

Finally, the Ly s i s In the paragraph before the last, Socrates sums up the

results of another tortuous and aporetic discussion:

If neither the loved nor the loving, nor the hke nor the unlike, nor the good nor the

belonging, nor all the rest that we have tried in turn--they are so many that I, for one,

fail to remember any more--well, if none of these is a friend, I am at a loss for anything

further to say.




A n d a t t h e v e r y e n d :

T o d a y , L y s is a n d M e n e x e n u s , w e h a v e m a d e o u r s e lv e s r i d i c u l o u s - - l , a n o l d m a n , a swe l l a s y o u . F o r t h e s e o th e r s w i l l g o a wa y a n d t e l l h o w we b e l i e v e we a r e f r i e n d s o f o n ea n o t h e r - - f o r I c o u n t m y s e l f i n w i t h y o u - - b u t w h a t a f r i e n d is , w e h a v e n o t y e tsucceeded in d i scover ing .

A s i n t h e Charmides, i t i s n o t d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t e x a m p l e s t h a t c a u s e s t h e

t r o u b l e . L y s i s a n d M e n e x e n u s a n d S o c r a t e s h a v e m a d e t h e m s e l v e s r i d i c u l o u s n o t

s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e f a i l ed t o d i s c o v e r w h a t a f r i e n d i s, b u t b e c a u s e o f t h i s i n

j u x t a p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e f a c t th a t t h e y b e l i e v e , a n d a g r e e , t h a t t h e y a r e f r i e n d s o f o n e

a n o t h e r . W h a t p e r h a p s S o c r a t e s f i nd s e m b a r r a s s i n g i s t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e t h ey a r e

f r i e n d s b u t , h a v i n g f a i l e d t o d i s c o v e r w h a t a f r i e n d i s , t h e y c a n n o t t e l l w h y , i n t h es e n s e t h a t t h e y c a n n o t t e l l w h a t i t i s , a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s q u a l i t i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s

t h e y h a v e o n e t o a n o t h e r , t h a t m a k e s t h e m f r ie n d s . D o w e n e e d t o a t t r i b u t e t o

S o c ra t es a s s u m p t i o n ( A ) to u n d e r s t a n d t hi s e m b a r r a s s m e n t ?

I I I

F i n a l l y , i t s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e w e h a v e r e v i e w e d s h o w s n o t t h a t

S o c ra t e s o r P l a to h a d a d o c t r i n e - - t h e d o c t ri n e o f th e S o c r a t ic f a l l a c y - - b u t r a t h e r

t h a t t h e y h a d a p r o b l e m : t h e y c o u l d n o t c l e a r l y se e th e i r w a y t o s a y i n g t h a t w ecan a n d o f t e n do h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f e x a m p l e s o f a c o n c e p t w h e n w e d o n ' t k n o w

t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a c o n c e p t ; a n d t h e y c o u l d n o t c l e a r l y s e e t h e i r w a y t o s a y i n g t h a t

w e can t a n d don t.T h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t o n e c a n a n d o f t e n d o e s k n o w t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s a n

e x a m p l e o f a c o n c e p t w h e n h e d o e s n o t k n o w t h e d e f in i t io n o f t h e c o n c e p t

p r o b a b l y a p p e a r e d p u z zl i ng a n d m y s t e r io u s t o S o cr a te s a n d P l a to . H o w c a n I

k n o w w h e t h e r I a m t e m p e r a t e , C h a r m i d e s a s k s , w h e n y o u S o c r a t e s a n d C r i t i a s

c a n n o t e v e n d i s c o v e r w h a t t e m p e r a n c e i s? T h i s i s a q u e s t io n , n o t a d o g m a , a n d i t

m a y b e a g e n u i n e q u es t io n , n o t a r h e t or i ca l o n e - - s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x p r e ss e s w o n d e r .

T h e s u p p o s i t i o n s e e m s t o r e q u i r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n , a t h e o r y t o m a k e i t t e n a b l e .A n d th e p a r a d i g m c a s e a r g u m e n t o r s o m e t h i n g li k e i t a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t o c c u r

t o P l a t o ; n o r d o P l a to o r S o c r at e s s e e m t o h a v e p a i d m u c h a t t e n ti o n t o p a r a -

d i g m a t i c l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s . B u t t h e r e i s m o r e t o i t t h a n t h i s . T h e Hippias Major,a n d t h e Euthyphro t o o , s u g g e s t s t r o n g l y t h a t S o c r a t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t o n e i s i n

d i f f i c u l t y w h e n i t c o m e s t o defending o n e ' s c l a i m o f a n e x a m p l e w h e n o n e d o e s n o t

k n o w t h e d ef i ni ti o n . T h i s is s u r e l y t h e p o i n t o f th e q u e s t i o n s t h a t S o c r a t e s ' c l o s e

r e l a t i v e a n d p e r m a n e n t h o u s e - g u e s t ra i s e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e fi rs t d i a l o g u e . T h i s

b e l i e f a p p e a r s e x t r e m e l y p l a u s i b l e i f w e t h i n k o f s u c h a d e f e n s e a s c o n s i s t in g i n

c i ti n g th e f a c t s o f t h e e x a m p l e a n d s o m e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e w h i c h t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

f a c t s i m p l i e s t h e o r i g i n a l c l a i m ; a n d w e b e g i n t o w o n d e r , f u r t h e r , h o w w e c a n

k n o w s u c h a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e w h e n w e d o n ' t k n o w t h e d e f i n i t i o n . T h i s m o d e l o f

d e f e n s e i s p l a u s i b l e e n o u g h , i n d e e d i t is th e s t a n d a r d m o d e l i n m o r a l a n d e v e n




a e s t h e t i c m a t t e r s , a n d i t a p p e a r s t o b e S o c r a t e s ' m o d e l o f m o r a l r e a s o n i n g i n t h e

Crito. F u r t h e r , P l a t o m a y h a v e b e e n w a r y o f s a y in g t h a t o n e c a n h a v e k n o w l e d g eo f e x a m p l e s w h e n o n e d o e s n o t k n o w t h e d e f i n i ti o n f o r d i ff e r e n t s o rt s o f r e a s o n s

a l t o g e t h e r; r e a s o n s t h a t a p p e a r i n t h e Hippias Major b u t b e c o m e p r o m i n e n t o n l y

l a t e r i n t h e Phaedo a n d t h e Republic, a n d h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e S o c r a t i c

f a l l a c y . E x a m p l e s a r e i n t h e s e n s i b l e w o r l d a n d s h a r e a l l t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l i n s t a b i l i t i e s o f s e n s i b l e t h i n g s : t h e y c h a n g e , t h e y a p p e a r o n e t h i n g

i n c o m p a r i s o n t o o n e t h in g a n d a n o t h e r i n c o m p a r i s o n t o a n o t h e r , t h e y a p p e a r

d i f f e r e n t l y t o d i f f e r e n t o b s e r v e r s a n d e v e n t o t h e s a m e o b s e r v e r a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s .

H o w c a n o n e h a v e a s t a b le c o n c e p t i o n o f s u ch t h in g s t h a t c a n a m o u n t t o k n o w l -

e d g e ? 7 I f s u c h r e a s o n s a r e a c c e p t e d , t h e y w o u l d i m p l y , f o r P l a t o , t h a t o n e c a n n o t

h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f e x a m p l e s e v e n w h e n o n e d o e s h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d ef in i -

t i o n , t h o u g h p r e s u m a b l y i n s u c h a c a s e o n e c o u l d d e f e n d o n e ' s c l a i m t o e x a m p l e s a s

f a r a s s u c h d e f e n s e i s p o s s i b l e .

I f S o c r a te s a n d P l a t o , f o r a n y o r a l l o f t h e s e r e a s o n s , f o u n d i t di ff i cu l t t o s a y

t h a t w e c a n a n d d o h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f e x a m p l e s w h e n w e d o n ' t k n o w t h e d e fi ni -

t i o n , t h e y m u s t h a v e f o u n d i t e q u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o s a y t h a t w e d o n ' t i n a n y s e n s e

h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f e x a m p l e s w h e n w e d o n ' t k n o w t h e de f in i ti o n . T o b e g i n w i t h , th e

S o c r a t i c q u e s t i o n ( a s t y p i c a l l y a m p l i f i e d b y S o c r a t e s ) , e. g ., W h a t i s i t t h a t i s

c o m m o n t o a ll e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e b y v i r tu e o f w h i c h t h e y a r e e x a m p l e s o f

c o u r a g e ? , s e e m s t o p r e s u p p o s e t h a t e x a m p l e s o f c o u r a g e a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e

i n t e r l o c u t o r s; a n d i t s u g g e s ts t h e p r o c e d u r e o f g e n e r a l iz i n g f r o m e x a m p l e s i n o r d e r

t o a n s w e r th e q u e s ti o n , a p r o c e d u r e t h a t L a c h e s a n d M e n o f o l l o w f o r a w h i l et h o u g h u n s u c c e s s f u ll y . I t w o u l d s e e m a b s u r d f o r S o c r a t e s t o a s k s u c h a q u e s t i o n

a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o s u p p o s e t h a t n o e x a m p l e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e i n t e r -

l o c u t o rs . B u t a s id e f r o m s u c h a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y , t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e

i n t e r lo c u t o r s a r e t o t a ll y i g n o r a n t o f e x a m p l e s w h e n t h e y d o n ' t k n o w t h e d e f i n it i o n

w o u l d s e e m t o le a d t o a c o m p l e t e l y d e a d e n d . I f t h e y d o n ' t k n o w t h e d e f i n it i o n

a n d a r e a l s o c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t o f e x a m p l e s , h o w o n e a r t h a r e t h e y e v e n t o g e t

started? A n d i f s o m e h o w t h e y d o g e t s t a r t e d , h o w i s w h a t t h e y c o m e u p w i t h t o

b e tested?

I n f a ct , w e h a v e p r e s e n te d u n a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e t h a t P l a t o p r e s e n t s s o m e

i n t e r l o c u t o r s , n o t a b l y L a c h e s a n d M e n o , a s b e i n g a b l e t o t e l l , a n d t e l l w i t h o u td i ff ic u lt y , t h a t s o m e c a se s a r e c a s e s o f c o u r a g e o r v i r t u e a n d o t h e r s n o t , w h e n

a s i t t u r n s o u t t h e y d o n ' t k n o w t h e d e f i n it i o n s o f c o u r a g e o r v i r t u e . T h e y m a y

n o t h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e e x a m p l e s in s o m e P l a to n i c s e ns e o f k n o w l e d g e ( in

t h e Republic, e .g . o n e c a n k n o w o n l y f o r m s ) b u t t h e y a r e n o t t o t a l l y i g n o r a n t o f

e x a m p l e s e i th e r ; t h e y c a n t e ll , a n d t h e y c a n b e l i e v e . T h i s f a c t , r e c o g n i z e d b y

S o c r a t e s a n d P l a t o , m a y s e e m l i k e t h e b e g i n n i n g o E t h e w a y o u t o f a l l th e

r In different contexts, these reasons have been discussed recently in illuminating waysby G. Vlastos , Degrees of Reali ty in Plato in New Essays on Plato and Aristotle, ed. by

R. Barnbrough (London, 1965), and A Metaphysical P arad ox, Proceedings and Addres.~eso the American Philosophical Association, 39 (1966); and b y J . Hint ikka in Tim e, Truth ,and Knowledge in Ancient Greek Philosophy, American Philosophical Quarterly, IV (January ,1967).



THE SOCR ATIC FA LLA CY 141

difficulties. But this fact too, I believe, is more than likely to have puzzled

Socrates and posed the most difficult question of all: how is even this muchpossible? How is it possible to even tell that this or that is a case of courage when

one doesn't know what courage is? Put this question in Socratic language, and it

begins to look formidable indeed: How is it possible to tell that this or that is an

example of what is common to, and distinctive of, all cases of courage when one

does not know what is common to and distinctive of all cases of courage?

I want to suggest that the theory of Recollection may have been intended,

at least in part, as an answer to this question, and eventually perhaps as a way

out of all these difficulties. The theory would be an answer if it asserted, among

other things, that we once knew, perhaps in the sense of being directly acquainted,

the forms themselves. This past knowledge, one could then say, makes it possible

for us now to recognize and tell examples when we don't know the definition; in

turn, the examples can serve as at least the occasion and the guide for discovering

a definition; and the definition, in turn can be tested against the examples and,

more importantly, against the form itself. Whether this theory is true, tenable or

verifiable, is not the point here. The point is whether it fits the difficulties. It fits

them like a glove; indeed, in the midst of such difficulties, it looks like a godsend.

In conclusion, if our review of the evidence is accurate and our account of

the difficulties near the mark. the verdict has to be very different from Geach's,

and even different from the more tentative verdicts of Robinson and Ross. Not

only have we found evidence against attributing to Socrates Geach's sweeping

assumptions (A) and (B)--the Socratic fallacy; in place of these assumptions wehave instead found questions. In the shifting scenes of the aporetic Early

Dialogues there are no such hardened doctrines as Geach supposes. There are,

instead, questions, puzzles, and difficulties; and attempts, sometimes desperate

ones, to work them out. a

Univers i t y o f Cal i f orn ia , l r v ine

s I am indebted to Professor David Robinson for many critical comments, and to theAmerican Council of Learned Societies for a Fellowship during which this paper was written.The reader should also consult the first section of A. Anderson's Socratic Reasoning in theEuthyphro, Review o/ M etaphysics, XXII, 3 (March, 1969).

G. Santas on the Socratic Fallacy

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