Fundmentals Energy Process

8/4/2019 Fundmentals Energy Process

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Fundamentals ofRenewable Energy ProcessesAldo Vieira da RosaStanford University

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York OxfordParis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo


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Table of Contents

ForewordAcknowledgmentsChapter 1 Generalities1.1 Units and Co nstants1.2 Energy and Utility1.3 Conservation of Energy1.4 Planetary Energy Balance1.5 The Energy Utilization Rate1.6 The Population Explosion1.7 The Market Pen etration Function1.8 Planetary Energy Resources1.9 Energy Utilization1.10 The Ecology Question

1.10.1 Biological1.10.2 Mineral1.10.3 Subterranean1.10.4 Undersea1.11 Nuclear Energy1.11.1 Fission1.11.2 Fusion1.11.3 Cold Fusion1.12 FinancingReferencesProblems

Part I Hea t En ginesChap ter 2 A Minimum of Thermodynamicsand of Kinetic Theory of Gases2.1 The Motion of Molecules2.2 Temperature2.3 Th e Perfect-Gas Law2.4 Intern al Energy2.5 Specific Heat at Constan t Volume2.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics2.7 The Pressure-Volume Work

P a g eC h a p t e r

1.11.21.31.41.51.81.9

1.131.161.191.201.201.211.221.221.251.271.311.361.391.41

B o o kX V

xvii

123458913161920

20212222252731363941

2.12.12.22.32.32.42.5

53535455555657


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2.8 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure2.9 Adiabatic Processes2.9.1 Abrupt Compression2.9.2 Gradual Compression2.9.3 p-V diagrams2.9.4 Polytropic Law2.10 Isothermal Processes2.11 Functions of State2.12 Enthalpy2.13 Degrees of Freedom2.14 Entropy2.14.1 Changes in En tropy2.15 Reversibility2.15.1 Causes of Irreversibility2.15.1.1 Friction2.15.1.2 Heat Transfer AcrossTemperature Differences2.15.1.3 Unrestrained Compressionor Expansion of a Gas2.16 Negentropy2.17 How to Plot Statistics2.18 Maxwellian Distribution

2.19 Fermi-Dirac Distribution2.20 Boltzmann's LawAppendix (Symbology)ProblemsChapter 3 Mechanical Heat Engines3.1 Heats of Com bustion3.2 Carno t Efficiency3.3 Engine Types3.4 Efficiency of an Otto Engine3.5 Gasoline3.5.1 Heat of Combustion3.5.2 Antiknock Characteristics3.6 Knocking3.7 Hybrid Engines for Automobiles3.8 The Stirling Engine3.9 The Implementation of the Stirling Engine3.10 Cryogenic EnginesReferencesProblems

2.52.62.62 . 1 02 . 1 12 . 1 22 . 1 32 . 1 52 . 1 62 . 1 72 . 1 92 . 2 02 . 2 12 . 2 32 . 2 3

2 . 2 3

2 . 2 42 . 2 42 . 2 52 . 2 62 . 2 92 . 3 12 . 3 32 . 3 4

3.13.43.53.9

3 . 1 33 . 1 33 . 1 33 . 1 33 . 1 73 . 1 83 . 2 33 . 2 53 . 2 83 . 2 9

575858626364656768697172737575757676777881838586

89929397101101101101105106111

113116117


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Table of ContentsChap ter 4 Ocean Therm al Energy Converters4.1 Introduction4.2 OT EC Configurations4.3 Turbines4.4 OTEC Efficiency4.5 Exam ple of OTEC Design4.6 Heat Exchangers4.7 SitingReferencesProblemsChap ter 5 Thermoelectricity5.1 Experimental Observations5.2 Thermoelectric Therm ometers5.3 The Thermoelectric Generator5.4 Figure of Merit of a Material5.5 The Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law5.6 Therm al Conductivity in Solids5.7 Seebeck Coefficient of Sem iconductors5.8 Performance of Therm oelectric Materials5.9 Some Applications of Therm oelectric Generators5.10 Design of a Therm oelectric Generator5.11 Therm oelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

5.11.1 Design Using an Existing Thermocouple5.11.2 Design Based on Given Semiconductors5.12 Tem peratu re Dependence5.13 Ba ttery Architecture5.14 The Physics of Thermoelectricity5.14.1 The Seebeck Effect5.14.2 The Peltier Effect5.14.3 The Thomson Effect5.14.4 Kelvin's Relations5.15 Direction and SignsAppendixReferencesProblems

Chap ter 6 Thermionics6.1 Introduction6.2 Thermionic Emission6.3 Electron Transport6.3.1 The Child-Langmuir Law

4.14.24.44.64.74.9

4.104.114.12

5.15.65.85.115.125.165.175.185.205.225.255.255.295.325.335.335.345.375.385.395.435.455.465.47

6.16.36.66.8

125126128130131133134135136

139144146149150154155156158160163163167170171171172175176177181183184185

199201204206


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Table of Contents9.3 Fuel Cell Classification9.3.1 Tem perature of Operation9.3.2 State of the Electrolyte9.3.3 Type of Fuel9.3.4 Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte9.4 Fuel Cell Reactions9.4.1 Alkaline Electrolytes9.4.2 Acid Electrolytes9.4.3 Molten Ca rbonate Electrolytes9.4.4 Ceramic Electrolytes9.4.5 Methanol Fuel Cells9.5 Typical Fuel Cell Configurations9.5.1 Dem onstration Fuel Cell (KOH)9.5.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)9.5.2.1 A Fuel Cell Batte ry (Engelhard)9.5.2.2 First-G eneration Fuel Cell Power Plant9.5.3 Molten Ca rbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)9.5.4 Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFC )9.5.4.1 High Tempera ture Ceramic Fuel Cells9.5.4.2 Low Tempera ture Ceramic Fuel Cells9.5.5, Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells9.5.5.1 Cell Construction9.5.5.2 Membrane9.5.5.3 Catalysts9.5.5.4 W ater Management9.5.6 Direct M ethano l Fuel Cells9.5.7 Solid Acid Fuel Cells9.5.8 Rechargeable Fuel Cells (NiMH)9.5.9 Metallic Fuel CellsZinc-Air Fuel Cells9.6 Fuel Cell Applications9.6.1 Stationa ry Power Plants9.6.2 Automotive Power Plants9.6.3 Other Applications9.7 The Therm odynam ics of Fuel Cells9.7.1 Heat of Com bustion9.7.2 Free Energy9.7.3 Efficiency of Reversible Fuel Cells9.7.4 Effects of Pressure and Tem pera ture on theEnthalpy and Free Energy Changes of a Reaction9.7.4.1 Enthalpy Dependence on/Temperature9.7.4.2 Enthalpy Dependence on Pressure9.7.4.3 Free Energy Dependence on Tem perature9.7.4.4 Free Energy Dependence on Pressure9.7.4.5 Voltage Dependence on Tem perature9.8 Performance of Real Fuel Cells

9.69.69.79.79.89.89.99.9

9.109.109.109.129.129.139.139.149.159.169.219.239.259.269.289.299.309.319.339.349.369.379.389.389.409.419.419.439.469.479.479.499.509.549.569.57

268268269269270270271271272272272274274275275276277278283285287288290291292293295296298299300301302303303305308309309311312316318319


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9.S9.19.19.i9.1

J.I3.2J.39.J.43.59.

Current Delivered by a Fuel CellEfficiency of Practical Fuel CellsCharacteristics of Fuel Cells5.3.1 Scaling Fuel CellsMore Complete VjY Characteristicsof Fuel CellsHeat Dissipation by Fuel Cells5.5.1 Heat Removal from Fuel CellsReferencesProblemsChapter 10 Hydrogen Production10.1 Generalities10.2 Chemical Produc tion of Hydrogen10.2.1 Historical10.2.2 Modern Production10.2.2.1 Pa rtia l Oxidation10.2.2.2 Steam Reforming10.2.2.3 Therm al Decom position10.2.2.4 Syngas10.2.2.5 Shift Reaction10.2.2.6 Methanation10.2.2.7 Methanol10.2.2.8 Syncrude10.2.3 Hydrogen Purification10.2.3.1 Desulfurization10.2.3.2 CO 2 Removal10.2.2.3 CO Removaland Hydrogen Extraction10.2.4 Hydrogen Production Plants10.2.4.1 Com pact Fuel Processors10.3 Electrolytic Hydrogen10.3.1 Introduction10.3.2 Electrolyzer Configurations10.3.2.1 Liquid Electrolyte Electrolyzers10.3.2.2 Solid Polym er Electrolyte Electrolyzers10.3.2.3 Ceramic Electrolyte Electrolyzers10.3.3 Efficiency of Electrolyzers10.3.4 Concentration-Differential Electrolyzers10.3.5 Electrolytic Hydrogen Com pressors10.4 Thermolytic Hydrogen10.4.1 Direct Dissociation of W ater10.4.2 Chem ical Dissociation of W ater10.5 Photoly tic Hydrogen

9.579.589.599.629.639.719.739.749.76

1 0 . 11 0 . 31 0 . 31 0 . 41 0 . 41 0 . 51 0 . 51 0 . 61 0 . 61 0 . 71 0 . 71 0 . 81 0 . 81 0 . 81 0 . 8

1 0 . 91 0 . 1 11 0 . 1 11 0 . 1 61 0 . 1 61 0 . 1 71 0 . 1 71 0 . 1 81 0 . 1 91 0 . 1 91 0 . 2 21 0 . 2 41 0 . 2 51 0 . 2 51 0 . 3 11 0 . 3 3

319320321324325333335336338

353355355356356357357358358359359360360360360361363363368368369369370371371374376377377383385


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Table of Contents10.5.1 Generalities10.5.2 Solar Photolysis10.6 Photobiologic Hydrogen ProductionReferences

ProblemsChapter 11 Hydrogen Storage11.1 Compressed Gas11.2 Cryogenic Hydrogen11.3 Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption11.4 Storage of Hydrogen in Chem ical Compounds11.4.1 Generalities

11.4.2 Hydrogen Carriers11.4.3 Water Plus a Reducing Substance|i 11.4.4 Metal Hydridest 11.4.4.1 Characteristics of Hydride Materials11.4.4.2 Thermodynamics of Hydride Systems11.5 Hydride Hydrogen Com pressors11.6 Hydride Heat Pum psReferencesProblemsPart III En ergy from th e SunChapter 12 Solar Radiation12.1 The Nature of the Solar Radiation12.2 Insolation12.2.1 Generalities12.2.2 Insolation on a Sun-Tracking Surface

12.2.3 Insolation on a Sta tionary Surface12.2.4 Horizontal Surfaces12.3 Solar Collectors12.3.1 Solar Architechture12.3.1.1 Exposure Control12.3.1.2 Heat Storage12.3.1.3 Circulation12.3.1.4 Insulation12.3.2 Flat Collectors12.3.3 Evacuated Tubes12.3.4 Concentrators12.3.4.1 Holographuc Pla tes12.3.4.2 Nonimaging Concentrators\\ 12.4 Some Solar Plan t Configurations

x i

10.3310.3410.3510.3710.38

11.311.511.711.811.8

11.1011.1111.1111.1711.2111.2511.2911.3211.33

385386387389390

399401403404404406407407413417421425428429

12.112.412.412.712.712.10

12.1112.1112.1112.1112.1212.1312.1412.1512.1512.1612.1712.18

445448448451451454455455455455456457458459459460461462


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12.4.1 High Tem perature Solar Heat Engine12.4.2 Solar Chimney12.4.3 Solar PondsAppendix A (The Measurement of Time)The Duration of an HourTime ZonesTime OffsetThe CalendarThe Julian Day NumberAppendix B (Orbital Mechanics)Sidereal versus SolarOrbital EquationRelationship BetweenEcliptic and Equatorial CoordinatesThe Equation of TimeOrbital EccentricityOrbital ObliquityReferencesProblems

Chapter 13 Biomass13.1 Introduction13.2 The Com position of Biomass13.2.1 A Little Bit of Organic Chemistry13.2.1.1 Hydrocarbons13.2.1.2 Oxidation Stages of Hydrocarbons13.2.1.3 Esters13.2.1.4 Carbohydrates13.3 Biomass as Fuel13.3.1 Wood Gasifiers

13.3.2 Ethanol13.3.2.1 Ethanol Production13.3.2.2 Fermentation13.3.3 Dissociated Alcohols13.3.4 Anaerobic Digestion13.4 PhotosynthesisReferencesProblemsChapter 14 Photovoltaic Converters14.1 Introduction14.2 Theoretical Efficiency14.3 Carrier Multiplication

1 2 . 1 81 2 . 2 01 2 . 2 01 2 . 2 21 2 . 2 21 2 . 2 21 2 . 2 31 2 . 2 31 2 . 2 51 2 . 2 61 2 . 2 61 2 . 2 8

1 2 . 3 21 2 . 3 31 2 . 3 61 2 . 3 71 2 . 3 91 2 . 4 0

1 3 . 11 3 . 11 3 . 21 3 . 21 3 . 31 3 . 41 3 . 41 3 . 61 3 . 71 3 . 81 3 . 8

1 3 . 1 11 3 . 1 31 3 . 1 41 3 . 2 11 3 . 2 81 3 . 2 9

1 4 . 11 4 . 6

1 4 . 1 3

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476477480481483484

493493494494495496496498499500500503505506513520521

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Table of Contents

If'1

14.414.14.14.14.514.614.714.814.914.1014.14.14.14.14.14.14.

h r

Spectrally Selective Beam Splitting4.1 Cascaded Cells4.2 Filterd Cells4.3 Holographic ConcentratorsThermo-photovoltaic CellsThe Ideal and the PracticalThe PhotodiodeThe Reverse Saturation CurrentPractical EfficiencySolar-Power Satellite10.1 Beam from Space10.2 Solar Energy to DC Conversion10.3 Microwave Generation10.4 Radiation System10.5 Receiving Array10.6 Attitude and Orb ital Control10.7 Space Tran sportationand Space Construction14.10.8 Fu ture of Space Solar Power Pro jectsAppendix AAppendix BReferencesProblemsPart IV W ind and W ater

[{>- 'Chapter 15 Wind Energy15.1 History15.2 Wind Turbine Configurations15.2.1 Drag-Type Wind Turbines15.2.2 Lift-Type Wind Turbines15.2.3 Magnus Effect Wind Machines15.2.4 Vortex W ind Machines15.3 Eolergometry15.4 Availability of Wind Energy15.5 Wind Turbine Characteristics15.6 Principles of Aerodynamics15.6.1 Flux15.6.2 Power in the Wind15.6.3 Dynam ic Pressure15.6.4 Wind Pressure15.6.5 Available Power15.6.6 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine

1 4 . 1 41 4 . 1 51 4 . 1 61 4 . 1 71 4 . 1 71 4 . 1 91 4 . 2 01 4 . 4 01 4 . 4 21 4 . 4 41 4 . 4 61 4 . 4 61 4 . 4 71 4 . 4 81 4 . 4 91 4 . 5 0

1 4 . 5 01 4 . 5 11 4 . 5 21 4 . 5 31 4 . 6 01 4 . 6 1

538539540541541543544564566568570570571572573574574575576577584585

15.7 Airfoils

1 5 . 11 5 . 41 5 . 41 5 . 61 5 . 71 5 . 81 5 . 81 5 . 9

1 5 . 1 01 5 . 1 21 5 . 1 21 5 . 1 31 5 . 1 31 5 . 1 31 5 . 1 41 5 . 1 51 5 . 1 6

597600600602603604604605606608608609609609610611612

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15.8 Reynolds Num ber15.9 Aspect Ratio15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis15.11 Aspect Ratio (of a wind turb ine)15.12 Centrifugal Force15.13 Performance Calculation15.14 Magnus EffectReferencesProblemsChapter 16 Ocean Engines16.1 Introduction16.2 Wave Energy16.2.1 About Ocean Waves16.2.1.1 The Velocity of Ocean Waves16.2.1.2 Wave Height16.2.1.3 Energy and Power16.2.2 Wave Energy Converters16.2.2.1 Offshore Wave-Energy Converters16.2.2.1.1 Heaving Buoy Converters16.2.2.1.2 Hinged Contour converters

16.2.2.1.3 Overtopping Converters16.2.2.2 Shoreline Wave Energy Converters16.2.2.2.1 Tapered Channel System16.2.2.2.2 Wavegen System (OWC)16.3 Tidal Energy16.4 Energy from Currents16.4.1 Marine Current Turbine System16.4.1.1 Horizontal Forces16.4.1.2 Anchoring Systems16.4.1.3 Corrosion and Biological Fouling16.4.1.4 Cavitation16.4.1.5 Large Torque16.4.1.6 Maintenance16.4.1.7 Power Transm ission16.4.1.8 Turbine Farm s16.4.1.9 Ecology16.4.1.10 Modularity16.5 Salination Energy

16.6 The Osm otic EngineReferencesProblemsSubject Index 677

1 5 . 1 91 5 . 2 11 5 . 2 31 5 . 3 01 5 . 3 11 5 . 3 31 5 . 3 51 5 . 3 61 5 . 3 7

1 6 . 11 6 . 11 6 . 11 6 . 21 6 . 31 6 . 41 6 . 41 6 . 51 6 . 51 6 . 61 6 . 71 6 . 81 6 . 81 6 . 9

1 6 . 1 11 6 . 1 11 6 . 1 31 6 . 1 31 6 . 1 41 6 . 1 41 6 . 1 41 6 . 1 51 6 . 1 51 6 . 1 61 6 . 1 61 6 . 1 61 6 . 1 61 6 . 1 61 6 . 1 91 6 . 2 21 6 . 2 4

615617619626627629631632633

65165165165265365465465565565665765865865966 166 166366366466466466 566566666 666666666 6669672674

Fundmentals Energy Process

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