Fundamental concepts in linguistics
-
Upload
amna-shahid -
Category
Technology
-
view
618 -
download
4
description
Transcript of Fundamental concepts in linguistics
Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics
Lecturer at Department of English Language & Literature University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan
Aspects of Language
Language
Langue Parole
Language Language Performance
Langue• The following rules & conventions constitute
langue:
– The combination of Sounds & Pronunciation (Phonetic,
Phonology)– Formation of Words (Morphology)– Construction of Sentences (Syntax)– Contextual Meanings (Pragmatics)–Words Relationship (Semantics)
Grammatical System
To Saussure:• Language is a grammatical system– That exists in the brains of a group of individuals– In the form of word-image & knowledge of
conventions
• Language exists perfectly – within a society/ collectivity– Not in any individual speaker
Product of Social Agreement
• There is a similarity of:–Sounds–Words–Meaning–among the native speakers of a language
• They have the same images and signs in their minds
–The social bond constitutes language
Parole
•Parole belongs to the individual
•It is the concrete physical manifestation• of the abstract langue•That exist in mind
•An individual makes use of this knowledge•To produce actual sentence i.e. parole
LANGUEVS.
PAROLE
Langue vs. Parole
Langue is Social
•A set of conventions & rules
– Shared by all the speakers of a language
Parole is Individual
• Individual performance of language
– In speech or writing
Langue vs. ParoleLangue is Abstract
•These conventions exist in the minds of the speakers
– Who belong to that society
– That has created the language
Parole is Concrete
• It is physical, makes use of the physiological mechanism:
– Speech organs– In uttering words and
sentences
Langue vs. ParoleUnderlying system
• Which makes the individual
performance (parole)
meaningful
If we hear unknown language
We can’t understand
As we do not share the langue
Performance
• Sound and sentence
Parole cant be a mean of
communication &
understood without langue
Langue vs. ParoleLanguage System
• Consist of stable:
Conventions
Rules
Codes
Language Behaviour
• Production of sentences :
Unpredictable
Heterogeneous
Whimsical (capricious)
Variable
Langue vs. ParoleLegislative side of
Language• Like law langue is relatively fixed
It does not change with each individual
• Langue maintains:
The social order
Homogeneity of the language
Executive side of Language
• It uses the law or code the language
• It executes langue through Individual acts of speaking and writing
Langue vs. ParoleLanguage can be studied
• It is well defined
• Homogenous object
• It is in form of written symbols
So, it can be studied
Parole can not be studied• Unpredictable mass of
speech act
• It cannot be accurately represented
• It is heterogeneous
So variable that cannot be studied
Analogy of a Game of Chess
Rules are determined
Understood by all the players
But each game is different
Depends on the individual performance
Which differ from player to player
ARGUMENTS ABOUT DICHOTOMIES
BY SOCIOLINGUISTS
Unreal Dichotomies
• Langue and Parole are interrelated not separate– Speech has both an individual & social side– We cannot conceive of one without the other
• Parole is not possible or effective without Langue
• Langue also changes gradually under the effect of parole
Parole has Social Aspect• It is concerned with the language use in social
situation– Has some systematic & predictable features in
social situations – It has effect on langue
• Gives a useful insight into language process– Can obtain the data ,gives better understanding of
langue
• It is now easy to study through recording – Audio, video devices
COMPETENCE VS.
PERFORMANCEBY
NOAM CHOMSKY
Competence vs. PerformanceSpeaker’s Knowledge
• Native language (structure)
• Mastery of the system of rules– Is speaker’s linguistic
competence
Speaker’s Production
• Production of actual sentences use in real-life situation
• The way of using linguistic competence is linguistic performance
Competence vs. PerformanceSet of Code
• Competence is set of principals/code which a speaker masters
• The abstract/internal grammar which enables a speaker to utter & understand infinite number of utterances
Encoding/Decoding• Performance is what a
speaker does
• It is the act of encoding or decoding
Competence vs. PerformanceFree from Interference• Due to slips of memory
Lapses of attention
Easy to study• It is ideal thus gives
coherent picture of the language
• Can be studied easily
Prone to Interference• It reflects many such
lapses
Difficult to study• It is difficult to get a
direct coherent record of performance
• Difficult to study
LANGUEVS.
COMPETENCE
Langue vs. Competence
Same & Social
• It is same with every language user
• It has social aspect/agreement/bond
Different & Individual• Based on inbuilt LAD
enables a person:To acquire competenceTo internalize the
rules of the languageTo generate an infinite
number of sentences• Speaker A may be more
competent than BThough share the same
conventions of language
LINGUSTIC SIGN VS.
SYMBOL
Linguistic Sign
• It is a physical marker –carries some information
– Direct– Brief– Precise (only this not other)
Parts of Sign• The linguistic sign is consist of two parts:
Sign
The signifier The signified
The word The concept
which signifies The object
Word Represents Concept• Word does not represents the actual object in
real life– But the concept/image of the object we have in our
minds– If the word tree represents the real object (tree)– The word for this object in all languages would
have been the same
• We see an object and form a concept of it in our minds
Word/Concept Relationship • We invent a word consisting of some sound-images
– That represents the concept exists in mind
• The relationship between the sounds/words and the concept they signify– An arbitrary– No logical reason why we choose a certain word
• To represent the concept
• Since signs are arbitrary – They differ from language to language– Every society constructs its own concepts of the real world – Links these concepts to certain signifiers & signified
(chosen arbitrarily)
Validity of Sign
• This relationship once establish as social fact– Continues over a long period of time
• Social agreement gives it validity
Relational Entity
• Signs are the relational entities
• Exist in terms of complex relationships to each other
• Signs make up the whole system of a language
Symbol• A kind of sign that signifies several concepts – on the basis of the primary relationship of
signifier/signified • Thus the word “tree” signifies concept of tree
(primary relationship) may also signify:– Life, growth etc becomes not only sign but also symbol
• Symbol means more information e.g. waving one’s hand– Symbolic of farewell– Dismissal etc.
SUBSTANCE&
FORM
Language Quality
Language Quality
Substance Form
Raw Material Particular Order
Meaningless Meaningful
Substance
Phonic Graphic
Phonemes Morphemes Graphemes
sounds letters alphabets
/k/ /b/ /t/ -tion, -able, -co. A, d, c, h
Form• All distinct sounds &written scripts are the substance
of a language– It is meaningless (only noisy)– Required some form to become meaningful
• When sounds, letters, words are arranged in a certain way i.e.– We can see some meaning in them– It becomes form of a language
• It is just like a shapeless log of wood– The carpenter makes a chair / table out of it– He changes substance into form
Saussure’s TermLanguage Quality
Substance Form
Signifier Signified
Mere sound/words Meaningful/ Concept
Specific Arrangement makes Form
• Sounds when arranged in particular order– Signify something meaningful
• Words when arranged in a particular order – Express some meaningful idea/action
• The arrangement itself gives form to the substance of the language
Levels of Form
Form
Expression Content
Shape/form of Elements Level of Meanings
Regardless of Meanings Grammar & Semantics
The bachelor gave birth to a baby
Linguistic Study
To sum up we say: • Substance is element/ raw material of language
• Form is the associative order– In which elements are brought together in a
meaningful way
• So, form is the concern of linguistic study, not substance
• Form makes it study substance
STRUCTURE/SYSTEM&
SYNTAGMATIC/PARADIGMATIC RELATIONSHIPS
Language
Structured System of Systems
Elements are inter-related A System(At each level of its structure)
Phonological Morphological Syntactic
Sounds words word-classes
Elements of sounds/words/class are inter-related
Structure • An ordered composition of many
elements/parts– Each part being related to the whole– Also related to other elements within it
• Inter-relationship of elements constitute SYSTEM–Within each system, elements are selected &
combined to build up structure
The Phonological System: Word Structure
– To build up a word such as “TAKE”
1. We will select some soundsOut of several possible sounds
2. We combine them in a particular orderdecide which one is to occur 1st, which later
Structure: Process of SelectionCertain rules operate:
• We can select only one element from a class of similar elements– A particular consonant from same class – A noun from a class of nouns
• /k/ /b/ /t/ all are consonants
Structure: Process of CombinationCertain rules operate:
• We combine the chosen elements in a particular order
• We can combine:– /t/ + /eI/ + /k/ but not /eI/ + /t/
• These elements are combined in a particular sequence
Language Structure : Orchestra• The member of an orchestra
are all related to each other as a whole– By their specific roles
• Smaller groups (violinists, bass
player) perform their function in relation to other
• Players cannot be added or taken away without changing its quality
Structure Constitute System• Structure: an order composition of many parts
Order Composition of many parts
Brass
Woodwinds
Violin
Harp
Springs
Cello
Piano
DrumFlute
Elements’ Relationships
Relationship
Paradigmatic Syntagmatic
Paradigmatic Relationship• The relationship between those elements which are similar as
belong to same class/category is PR– Which holds between several elements of same class
within a system • Elements can be replaced by another elements within the same
system and class
The phonological system The syntactic system
The relationship between The relationship
Plosive Consonants between nouns
Syntagmatic Relationship• The particular sequence between elements is
syntagmatic relationship
• In syntagmatic relationship, the elements have to be combined in the proper sequence
• We cannot violate the sequential order
Significance of these Relationships• These relationships are like two intersecting threads– That build up the fabric of language
• On the basis of these relationships, the rules of selection & combination operate and constitutes the structure of a language
• Language has duality of structure– Selection of elements at one level– Combination of these elements at another level– To form a structure unit
• Limited number of elements can construct large number of combinations
Variation & Flexibility• Both selection (paradigmatic) & combination
(syntagmatic) processes unable us to construct different sentences
TO SUM UP
System Set of Paradigmatic R (in elements)
Structure set of Syntagmatic R (each level)
Phonological System Phonological Structure
Vowels/ Consonants Combination of it
Syntactic System Syntactic Structure
Word-classesCombination of it
Sound Level
Sentence Formation
DIACHRONIC&
SYNCHRONICAPPROACHES
Language Study
Synchronic Diachronic (traces)
Chronos Historical development Records
Time Language Changes
Language at particular time in between successive point in time
(as a living whole/ state)
Synchronic Approach• This state of language is:– Accumulation of all the linguistic activities of
language community
Irrelevant time FactorTo study language linguists:• Collect samples of language as it exists
• Describe it regardless of any historical considerations–Which may have influenced the language at any
previous time– Once linguists have isolated a focal point for
synchronic description– The time factor becomes irrelevant
Main Focus of Study• The system of language– as it exists i.e.:
• The system of inter-relationships– that bind together co-existing items– in the collective mind of the community
Diachronic ApproachEquivalent to historical:
• It investigates language changes– as they have occurred from time to time
• The evolution of languages
Inter-relationship of Synchronic & Diachronic• CD is synchronic axis (static)
– All the facts of language co-exist at a particular time
• AB is diachronic axis of successions– AB is an imaginary line moving through
time– The historical path through which
language has travelled & will continue travelling
• CD can intersect AB at any point – because at any given time there will be a
number of facts about language co-existing
• X is the point on AB – where the particular point in time can be
isolated– and the language can be described at that
point as it exists
Synchronic Approach is Prior• Saussure make this distinction• Gives priority in linguistics to the synchronic
approach• He explained this priority by analogy with the
game of chess
Analogy of the Game of Chess• Chessboard constantly changes
with each move• During the game at any moment
a 3rd person can understand the state of game by looking at the position of pieces
• Regardless what kind of moves & how many moves have been made before arriving at this stage
• The game can be described without reference to the earlier moves
Analogy of the Game of ChessGame Rules
• Which are determined before the game – Continue to operate with
each move
Language Rules
• Similarly rules exist in language too
Analogy of the Game of ChessValue of Pieces
•Depends on their position on the chess board
Value of Linguistic Term
• Derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms
Analogy of the Game of ChessChanges in Game
• To pass from one stage to the next
• Only one piece needs to be moved at a time
• Succession of moves can change the outcome of the game
Changes in Language
• In language change effects only isolated elements
• Not the whole language• These changes ultimately
do result in changing the language
Conclusion• Language can & should be described
synchronically• On its own terms without reference to what it
has developed from or what it is likely to develop into
• However, this does not mean that diachronic/historical study cannot be done
• To Saussure ,though the diachronic perspective is not related to the language system
• It does affect/condition the system