FUNAI Journal of Science and Technology 3 (1), 2017, 134-148 · levels of Pb were above the...

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FUNAI Journal of Science and Technology

3 (1), 2017, 134-148

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ABANDONED MINES IN JOS, CENTRAL

NIGERIA: A GEOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION APPROACH.

1Sikakwe, G. U.,

1Datok, E. P and

2Obioha, E. Y.

1Department of Physics/Geology/Geophysics, Federal University Ndufu Alike-Ikwo, Nigeria

2Department of Geosciences Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria

(Received 20 December 2016; Revised 15 July 2017; Accepted:19 July, 2017)

Abstract

Geochemical investigation of the environmental impact of the abandoned Jos Tin mines was

carried put in this study. In this investigation, soil mine dumps and plants were sampled and

analysed for potentially toxic elements (Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn , Ni ) and major cations (Mg, Na, K).

Potentially toxic elements were analysed using AAS instrument and major cations were analysed

using ion chromatography. Soil pH was measured insitu using pH meter. Low mean levels of

potentially toxic heavy metals were recorded in all media in the sample locations in the study.

Maximum mean levels of Fe (34.45mg/kg), Mn (0,315mg/kg), Pb (0,62mg/kg), Ni (0.31mg/kg

and Zn (0,62mg/kg) were obtained in the study area. Due to oxidation of sulphide minerals,

acidic condition, with pH value of 4.80 was recorded at Rayfield. The control point at Dong had

a mean pH level of 7.44 which is near neutral. The mean levels of heavy metals obtained in all

the mines were below standards recommended by WHO (2006) and Dutch Standards (2008) for

normal uncontaminated soils. The mean concentration of heavy metals recorded in plants were

much lower than those obtained in soil samples. These mean values of metals in plants, were also

found to be lower than prescribed standards for metal concentrations in uncontaminated plants

by these world bodies. The study area, therefore is not polluted by the investigated heavy metals:

Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn.

Keywords: environmental impact, potentially toxic, uncontaminated, polluted

1. Introduction

There is no gainsaying the fact that the

exploitation of mineral deposits of a nation

is central to its rapid economic development.

Mining activities have been identified as

having the potential to boost the economy of

The environmental impact of abandoned mines... Sikakwe, et. al.

FUNAI Journal of Science and Technology, 3(1), 2017 Page 135

a nation endowed with economic mineral

deposits. Tin and columbite were

extensively mined in Nigeria with more than

90 percent of the cassiterite ore mineral

being mined from Jos Plateau highlands.

The mining activities however extended to

the south as far as Wamba in the west

Kafanchan in north to Bura and to the east to

the Jawara Hills. Tin production went

through the leaps and bounds from 1.36 tons

in 1904 to 5.573 tons ten years later (Mallo,

2012). In 1943, production of cassiterite and

tin reached a peak of 15,842 tons. The

Makeri smelting Company was later

established in 1961 in Jos for the purpose of

smelting high grade alluvial to concentrates

in standard oil fired reverberator furnace

(Mallo, 2012).

Contributory factors such as oil boom and

indigenization decree of 1972, led to the fall

of organized mining leading to the

emergence of artisanal mining in Nigeria.

Mining activities which are of significant

economic and social values, stripped

thousands of square miles of top soil from

arable land across Nigeria, consequently,

forest, animal and fish habitats have been

destroyed (Mallo, 2012). Wastes rocks and

tailings, which are products of mineral ore

extraction and processing respectively,

constitute environmental pollution and

health hazard to humans due to their toxic

heavy metals contamination (Aigbedon and

Iyayi, 2007).

Previous work in the study area by Daniel,

et al., (2014), examined heavy metal

contamination in surface soil at a depth of

10m at tin mine ponds at Barkin Ladi.

Results showed that, the soils were acidic

and heavy metals such as Zn, Pb, Fe, Co,

Cu, and Ni recorded high levels, except Cd

which was not detected. Wapwera, et al.,

(2015), also investigated heavy metal

contamination in soils around Jos tin mines

and established that heavy metals such as

Pb, As, Cu, Cr, Cr and Ni exceeded WHO

standards for uncontaminated soils.

Opawula, et al., (2012), performed heavy

metal assessment in soil and plants in Lafia

metropolis which is in a similar geologic

setting with Jos area and discovered that

levels of Pb were above the standard for

agricultural soils, while levels of Cu, Fe, Ni,

Pb and Zn in crop plants were below the

level recommended by WHO in vegetables.

The aim of this study, is to evaluate the

environmental impact of potentially heavy

metals distribution in soil, mine waste and

plants and ascertain their degree of toxicity

with given world environmental guidelines.

The objective is to assess the health



implication of mining on the wellbeing of

the residents around these mine sites.

1.3. Study area description

Jos town lies in central Nigeria. It is

approximately 104km long from North to

south and 80km wide from east to west

covering an area of 8, 600km2. The Jos

Plateau has steep escarpment edges with a

descent of about 600m to the surrounding

plains. The southern part of the Jos Plateau

is in the Benue lowlands extending towards

the River Benue flood plain. Jos plateau in

central Nigeria is situated between latitudes

100 11’ and 8

0 55’ north and longitudes 8

0

21’ E and 90 30’E (Fig. 1). The study area

lies between latitude 80 50’ N and 9

0 00’N

and longitude 90 45’E and 9

0 50’E, (Fig. 2),

with a total area of 22km2. The study area

has an elevation of 1150m above sea level

and a highest peak of 20km east ward from

Jos-Hill, rising to 1777m above mean sea

level (Morgan, 1979). The high relief in Jos

confers on it a cool climate. Jos has near

temperate climate with an average

temperature between 180C and 22

0C. The

hamarttan winds causes the coolest weather

between December and February. The warm

temperatures usually occur in the months of

March and April. The mean amount of

rainfall varies from 131.75cm in the

southern part to 146cm. The highest rain fall

is recorded during the wet season; which

occurs in the months of July and August

with an altitude of 1217m above sea level.

Jos experiences a more temperate climate

than most of the rest of Nigeria. It has an

average monthly temperature, ranging from

210C to 25

0C. The cool climatic condition

makes Jos a choice holiday resort for Tourist

and Expatriates based in Nigeria.

The vegetation of the study is mostly

grassland, commonly used for grazing of

cattle and cultivation. Woody plants are

found in the south eastern part of the study

area. Jos is a popular tin and columbite

mining city in Nigeria. Subsistence

agriculture is their major occupation. The

soils are mostly ferruginous, which are

much thinner on the high plateau but

attained greater depths in the southern part

of the state (Udo, 1970). The soils are

susceptible to erosion due to high mining

activities in the Jos plateau. Jos town is

situated almost at the geographical center of

Nigeria and about 179km from Nigeria’s

capital; Abuja. Jos is linked by road, rail and

air to the rest of the country (Adepetu and

Dung, 1999).



Fig. 1 Map of Plateau State showing study area



Fig.2. Geological map of Nigeria Showing study area

2. Geology

Jos Plateau, is an erosional relic covering an

area of about 7,780km2. It is a product of

distinct phases of volcanic activities where

younger granitic rocks extensively intruded

into the older basement complex rocks. Each

phase of volcanic activities was followed by

a long period of weathering and erosion

when tin bearing rocks were deposited in the

valleys and buried by flood of basalt from

subsequent volcanic eruptions (Udo, 1970).

Three groups of rocks have been identified

in Jos Plateau; the oldest group is the

Basement Complex of Precambrian age

which consist of the older granite and

migmatites. Secondly, is the Younger

Granite of Jurassic to Triassic in age which

are uniquely alkaline. The third is the Newer

Basalts of quaternary age. The Younger

granite form ring complexes throughout the



Plateau which have been associated with tin

occurrence. The most predominant type

among the Younger Granite are biotite

granites which has three distinct types

(Ozoko, 2014, Macleod, et al., 1971, Olade,

1980). The geology of the area comprises

Precambrian Basement Complex rocks

trending N-S. The rocks include migmatites,

gneisses, and schist which are dated to be

Archaen to Pan African age. The intrusive

granite of Jurassic age with cross cutting

contact against older rocks referred to as

older granites (Ekwueme, 1993). (Fig.3)

Fig. 3. Geological Map of study area



3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sample collection

Sampling equipment such as hand trowel,

hand driven auger, pH meter, cotton wool,

deionized water and beaker were used.

Sample containers such as polyethylene bags

were used for soil collection. Instruments

such as AAS, were used in the laboratory for

heavy metals analysis in soil and vegetation

samples. A pH meter was used to measure the

acidity of soil across the study area.

Representative samples of soil and vegetation

were collected from the MTC Rayfield tin

mine, Cavitex Kuru Jenta Mine, Bariki Ladi

Mine and Nung Dong village which serve as

control. During sample collection, general

information was collected and identification

of sample numbers, their location, sample

collector, date and hour, sample type were

also recorded in the field. Four soil samples

and four plant species were collected from the

different mine sites. A total of four soil

samples, twelve mine wastes and four plant

species were collected from the field.

3.2. Laboratory investigation

A soil sample of 0.5g was put into a 100ml

conical flask and add 20ml of concentrated

HNO3. The mixture was swirled and allowed

to stand until a visible reaction stopped. The

conical flask was covered using a watch glass.

The flask was placed on a heater and

maintained a temperature of 120C for 30

minutes. The pH and temperature of soil

samples were determined using pH meter and

clinical thermometer.

Digestion was used to analyze for the

presence of heavy metals and their subsequent

concentration in soil samples. Measure 100ml

of the sample into a conical flask and add 5ml

of concentrated HNO3 to the sample. Place

the solution in a fume cupboard equipped

with hot plate heated at a temperature of 90-

950C. Heat the sample solution until there is

considerable decrease in volume to about 5-

25ml. Allow the solution to cool then filter to

remove turbidity which could negate the

functioning of the AAS. Record the value of

the filtrate before dilution with deionized

water. Transfer the diluted filtrate into clean

test tubes. It is then taken to sensitive heavy

metal laboratory for further analysis.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Heavy metal concentrations in soil

The range and concentration of heavy metals

in soils in mg/kg from the study area are

presented in tables 1 and 2. In MTC tin mine

at Rayfield, Mn levels ranged from 0.21-

0.44mg/kg with a mean and standard

deviation of 0.317+0.94. Iron has the highest

mean concentration of 5.24+2.835 and ranged



from 2.74-9.22mg/kg. Such a high

concentration of heavy metal may be from

sources such as local geology or

anthropogenic (Yassir and Alain 2015). Zinc

and Ni had mean values and ranges of

0.213+0.352, 0.027+0.021 and 0.00-

0.62mg/kg and 0.01-0.05mg/kg respectively.

Major elements Mg, Na, and K recorded

mean levels of 0.465+0,210, 0.465+0,210,

0.285+0.081 and 0.187+0.062 respectively.

Minerals such as albite, orthoclase and biotite

may be principal sources of major elements

from the surrounding rocks. The elements Fe,

Zn and and Mn are essential for human health

when ingested within acceptable limits

(Adams and Happiness 2010). In Barkin Ladi

Tin mine, Fe top the list of heavy metals with

a mean of 9.927+12.411 and ranged from

0.00-24.2mg/kg (Table 1). Next on the line is

Mn with a mean of 0.135+0.148 and Nickel

had a mean value of 0.103+0.179. The mean

value of Zinc is 0.017+0.009 while Pb had the

lowest mean concentration of 0.022+0.026.

Table 1: Statistical summary of heavy metal concentration (Mg/Kg) in mine spoil and soil samples in the

study area

MTC RAYFIELD MINE BARKIN LADI MINE

PARAMETE

RS

N Range Mean SD N Range Mean SD

Mn 4 0.21-0.44 0.317 0.094 4 0.01-0.30 0.135 0.148

Ni 4 0.01-0.05 0.027 0.021 4 0.0-0.31 0.103 0.179

Fe 4 2.74-9.22 5.24 2.835 4 0.0-24.2 9.927 12.41

Pb 4 0-0.001 0.01 0 4 0.0-0.06 0.022 0.026

Zn 4 0.0-0.62 0.213 0.352 4 0.01-0.03 0.017 0.009

Mg 4 0.21-0.12 0.465 0.210 4 0.02-1.23 0.75 0.515

Na 4 0.2-0.39 0.285 0.081 4 0.36-1.00 0.49 0.351

K 4 0.13-0.20 0.187 0.062 4 0.11-0.27 0.182 0.069

Table 2 Statistical summary of heavy metal concentration (Mg/kg) in mine spoil and soil in the study area

KURU JENTA MINE DONG (Control)

PARAM

ETERS

N Range Mean SD N Range Mean SD

Mn 4 0.01-0.3 0.112 0.137 4 0.0-0.12 0.037 0.055

Ni 4 0.01-0.31 0.182 0.125 4 0.01-0.11 0.057 0.045

Fe 4 12.92-33.06 25.127 8.707 4 27.25-45.9 8.218

Pb 4 0.0-0.02 0.012 0.009 4 0.01-0.03 0.017 0.009

Zn 4 0.0-0.2 0.08 0.094 4 0.0-0.2 0.07 0.113

Mg 4 0.72-1.23 0.975 0.209 4 0.34-1.00 0.71 0.174

Na 4 0.29-0.45 0.355 0.072 4 0.01-0.22 0.12 0.086

K 4 0.13-0.25 0.217 0.073 4 0.12-0.24 0.175 0.052



Table 3: Average pH of soil samples in the four mines and respective temperatures

Sample Id 1 2 3 4

PH 4.80 6.45 5.53 7.44

Temperature( 0C) 29.7 29.8 30 30

In Kuru Jenta Tin mine, Fe still recorded the

highest mean level 25.127+8.707 and ranged

from 19.92-33.06 next to Mn that had a mean

value of 0.112+0.137 with a range 0f 0.01-0.3.

In this mine, Ni recorded a mean of

0.182+0.125. The mean of Zinc is 0.08+0.094

followed by Pb which had the mean of

0.012+0.009 and ranged from 0.0-0.02mg/kg.

Heavy metal mean levels recorded at Dong,

the control site exhibited Fe mean levels of

34.459+8.218 and ranged from 27.25-

45.9mg/kg next to Ni with a mean value of

0.057+0.045 and ranged from 0.01-

0.11mg/kg. In this control point Mn mean

value of 0.037+0.055 was recorded and

ranged from 0.0-0.12. Zinc had a mean value

of 0.07+0.113 with a range from 0.0-0.2mg/kg

and Pb had the lowest mean value of

0.017+0.009.

The levels of heavy metal in this study is in

this order: Fe> Mn> Ni> Zn>Pb. Fe and Mn

are major elements in rocks of basement

origin (Yassir and Alain, 2015) and are

beneficial to human health (Adams and

Happiness 2010). Zn and Pb are mobile in

tailings and soils which leads to their

concentration. Zinc values recorded in this

study are lower than those values of 12.12-

155.1mg/kg obtained by Ezeh, et al., (2008) in

Eyambi Pb-Zn in Abakaliki area. With the low

pH values, Fe and Mn are easily mobilized

leading to their enrichment. The selectivity of

clay mineral and hydrous oxides absorbents

surfaces in soils and sediments for divalent

metals follow the order: Pb>Cu>Zn, in this

respect, the rate of mobility of these metals in

soils will increase in the reverse order

Zn>Cu>Pb (Angyei, et al. 2009), which is in

agreement with this study. Heavy metals

recorded highest values in Barkin Ladi Mine

than other mines. Iron recorded the highest

mean value at Dong (Control). This may be

due to anthropogenic input. The concentration

of iron and Mn in soil (location 1) (Table 1),

in Rayfield MTC mine, was more than in soil

mine dumps, but iron had the highest value in

control site (Dong) Table 1.

There was no remarkable difference in the

heavy metal levels in the four Tin mine sites

with exception of iron levels. The study

showed a low concentration of potentially

toxic heavy metals in soils and mine dumps.

However, relatively high levels of Fe, Mn and

Ni shows high solubility and geochemical



mobility of these elements in soils and mine

dumps as elucidated in Chon, et al (1999);

Gao and Bradshaw (1995). The mean pH

levels shows relatively acidic condition in

Rayfield (4.80 Table 3) and near neutral

condition (7.44) in the control area. This is

due to the oxidation of pyrite (FeS). Heavy

metals are normally dissolved in acidic

environment, but geochemical mobility is also

a contributory factor (Rose and Cravotta,

1998). The pH of a soil is an important factor

governing the solubility and mobility of trace

elements in the environment. With exception

of the elements Mo, Se As and Cr, most other

trace elements exhibit increase mobility with

decreasing pH due to dissolution and

decomposition in soils (Jung, et al., 1999).

The pH range from low to medium, explains

why heavy metals (Mn, Ni, Zn and Pb)

concentrations are low in soils of this study.

The low pH group may have been also derived

from the weathering of sulphide minerals in

mine tailings whereas high pH group may

indicate some interaction with carbonate

minerals such as calcite in mine tailings (Jung,

et al., 1999; Esshaimi, et al., 2012).

Lead (Pb) was generally reported to be low in

the area. Lead may be present in form of Pb

Phosphate which has very low solubility and

its abundance almost certainly contributes to

low bioavailability of Pb in soils (Thornton,

1996). The mean levels of Pb (0.01mg/kg), Ni

(0.027mg/kg), Zn (0.213mg/kg) obtained in

mine dumps and soil in this study vary

significantly from those values of Ni ranging

from 2-106mg/kg, Pb(38-20000mg/kg and Zn

ranging from 22-20000mg/kg obtained by

Candeias, et al. (2012) and Ekosse, et al.,

(2005) in Adjustrel Mine in southwestern

Portugal and Ni-Cu mine and smelting in

Botswana respectively. Sources of Pb are

exhaust gases of petrol engines, fertilizers, and

pesticides, emissions from mining and

smelting operations. Nickel sources are

burning of coal and natural sewage sludge.

The pH of soil maintained at neutral to

slightly alkaline condition show low mobility

of heavy metals (Sherene, 2010). This

explains why there is significantly low heavy

metal content in soil of this study.

Concentrations of Pb(20.98-40.82mg/kg, Ni

(30.68-33.81mg/kg, Fe (22140-28020mg/kg)

and Zn (138.3-885.3mg/kg were obtained by

Daniel, et al., (2014) in agricultural soils

irrigated with tin water at Heipang district of

Barkin Ladi Plateau state. These

concentrations are many times higher than the

values of these elements obtained in this work.

According to Daniel, et al., (2014), when Pb is

measured less than 20mg/kg in soil sample the

soil sample is uncontaminated with respect to

Pb. The authors also posited that Pb associated



in large amounts with tin residues. The mean

levels of Pb, Ni and Zn in soils in this study

were below both target values of 85 and

140mg/kg respectively set for Dutch standards

for normal and uncontaminated soils.

Major elements (Mg, Na and K) attained

higher mean values in soils and mine spoils

than heavy metals in the study area (Table 2).

The elements showed the trend: Mg>Na>K in

most of the mines. Sodium and potassium are

mostly sourced through dissolution of

feldspars from basement areas. Mg, Na and K

had mean values of 0.465+0.210, 0.285+0.081

and 0.187+0.062 respectively at MTC

Rayfield Tin mine. At Barkin Ladi tin mine

Mg attained mean value of 0.75+0.515.

Sodium had mean value of 0.49+0.351 and K

recorded a mean level of 0.182+0.069. Also at

Kuru Jentan tin Mine, Mg mean value of

0.975+0.209. Sodium recorded mean value of

0.355+0.72 and K had mean level of

0.217+0.013. At the control site at Dong, Mg

had mean value of 0.71+0.274 while sodium

achieved a mean level of 0.12+0.086 and K

recorded mean concentration of 0.175+0.052.

It is obvious that Mg had the highest mean

concentrations in all the sites next to Na and

then K. Magnesium and K are biphilous

elements with low geochemical mobility. The

source of Sodium is mostly from dissolution

of feldspars from basement areas while the

Mg is derived from Magnesium carbonates

(Sikakwe, et al 2015). The low geochemical

mobility of K explains its low concentration in

the study area.

4.2 Heavy metal concentration in plants

Results of heavy metals concentrations in

grasses sampled in each mine site (Rayfield,

Barkin Ladi, Kuru Jenta and Dong (control)

are presented in Table 4. Manganese ranged

from 0.00-0.02mg/kg. This shows a lower

accumulation of Mn in the grasses compared

to soil samples. Lead (Pb) ranged from 0.12-

0.16mg/kg. This is evidence that grass is a

good accumulator of Pb than soil. This is an

indication of lower mobility of lead in soil of

the study area due to desorption and

precipitation. It is probable that, the

environment in the mine is less polluted with

respect to Pb in the mine site than in Jos and

Bukuru area, because Salami, et al., (2007),

obtained mean levels of Pb in Lemon grass of

7.15-19.05mg/kg in Bukuru area. This

elevated Pb value may be contributions from

automobile exhaust in Jos and Bukuru areas.

The value of Zn in this study in grass ranged

from 0.00-0.03mg/kg as opposed to the range

of Zn from 3.53-5.22mg/kg in Jos Bukuru

area. This is also a pointer to the poor heavy

metal accumulation ability of the plant.

However, the range of Zn in the grass

correlate with the value of 0.03mg/kg obtained



by Fang, et al, (2001) in the lettuce plant in

Shuan Ziyang County in China. The values of

Pb and Zn in this study is closed to the values

of 0.018mg/kg and 0.073mg/kg respectively

obtained in Juncus offusus by Yanqun, et al.,

(2004) in Pb-Zn mine area in China.

Table 4: Chemical analysis of giant star grass

in the study area (Mg/Kg)

Elem

ent

RAYFI

ELD

BARKI

N LADI

KURU

JENTA

DONG

(Control)

Mn 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.01

Ni 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02

Fe 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.06

Pb 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.16

Zn 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.00

Cd 0.0019 0.0017 0.0044 0.0034

K 0.01 1.18 1.28 1.21

Na 0.01 0.22 0.23 1.21

Mg 0.56 0.58 0.59 0.60

Low heavy metal concentration in the area

could be due to the fact that the grasses grow

on top of the mine dump which will likely

obtain less heavy metals from the wastes (Shu

and Bradshaw, 1995). The levels of heavy

metals in the study area are lower than the

permissible values by MHPRC, (1991) for Zn

(20mg/kg) and 0.2mg/kg for Pb. In general,

the concentrations were below these

standards. Major cations Mg, Na, and K

recorded mean concentrations in plants

slightly higher than those obtained in soil and

mine dumps.

5 Conclusion

Soils and vegetation in MTC Rayfield, Kuru –

Jenta, Barkin Ladi Tin Mines are not

contaminated by mining activities in the past

with respect to potentially toxic metals (Pb,

Ni, Fe, Zn and Mn). Low mean concentrations

of heavy metals were found in mine dumps

and soil. The mean values of heavy metals in

soils and vegetation were found to be

drastically below prescribed standards by

(WHO2006) and Dutch standards(2008) for

normal soils for cultivation purposes. The

mean levels of heavy metals in the three mine

sites were almost equal to what is obtained at

the control site. The pH of soil samples ranged

from acidic, slightly acidic to slightly alkaline.

The major cations Mg, Na and K were slightly

higher than heavy metals. The major cations

decrease in this order: Mg>Na>K while the

heavy metals decreased in the following order:

Fe>Mn>Ni>Zn>Pb. The method of extraction

of heavy metals from soils, mine dumps and

plants might have a limitation of sensitivity

for detection of heavy metals from the

samples, hence a more sensitive instrument

such as ICP-Ms instead of AAS is

recommended for future work in this area.



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