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Road Decommissioning Success on the Fremont Winema-Forest Service

based on Vegetation Regeneration

Brittany CramerClair Thomas M.S

March 2009

Lake County Resource InitiativeChewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew

25 North East StreetLakeview, OR 97636

www.lcri.org


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Table of Contents

Title Page.iTable of Contentsii

List of Illustrations.iii

Glossaryiv

Executive Summary....v

Introduction..1

Decommissioning Roads in Relation to Erosion2

Road Decommissioning Methods..4Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew.7

Blocked Sites..11

Scarified Sites ..14

Blocked verse Scarified Sites.16

Conclusion..19

Recommendations.20

References21


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List of Illustrations

Figures

1. Skidder4

2. Caterpillar (crawler)4

3. Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning TransectOne8

4. Quadrat from Timber Salvage10

5. Road Decommissioning Site One, RD-01, Excel Spreadsheet.12

6. Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning TransectOne14

Graphs

1. Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.13

2. Vegetation Integration of Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads inTimber Salvage Sites..15

3. Plant Species Abundance.17

4. Number of Plant Species..18

Tables

1. Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.13

2. Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.15


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Glossary

Blocking To use large boulders, fallen trees, mounds of dirt or a combination of

the three to prevent motorized vehicles from using the road

Caterpillar Heavy piece of logging equipment used to drag logs; also called acrawler

Erosion - The group of natural processes, including weathering, dissolution,abrasion, corrosion, and transportation, by which material is worn away from theearth's surface

Excavator Piece of equipment a ripper bar can be attached to in the scarifyingor subsoiling process

Greenline - The thirty meter tape stretch between the A and B stakes used forcollecting vegetation information; also called line-intercept

Interval A three meter segment on a thirty meter tape

Rebar Reinforcing bars, placed in the ground, that make up the A and B ofthe greenline

Ripper Implement attached to a tractor or excavator to scarify or subsoil a road

Rhizome - Underground root system which can sprout new above ground sprouts

Scarifying The use of four to six inch teeth to break up and loosen the topsoil

Skidder - Heavy piece of logging equipment used to drag logs

Subsoil - The layer or bed of earth beneath the topsoil.

Subsoiling The use of twelve to eighteen inch teeth to break up subsoil

Topsoil The top part of the soil

Transect 1/10 acre plot formed by the greenline where data is collected

Turbidity - Having sediment or foreign particles stirred up or suspended; usuallyrefers to water quality

Quadrat A sampling plot, usually one square meter, used to study and analyzeplant life


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Executive Summary

The subject of the technical report is Road Decommissioning Methods on the

Fremont-Winema Forest Service; Blocking versus Scarification. The Fremont-

Winema Forest Service is decommissioning roads to reduce the overall road

density because the density now exceeds the current stipulations of 2.5 miles of

road per square mile of forest.Some areas are over 11 miles of roads per square

mile of forest. With new roads being built on the forest for logging, research and

various other purposes, the forest service must decommission roads at an

equivalent rate. While decommissioning of the roads is certain, the method of

decommissioning is not.

The three possible ways to decommission a road are blockage, scarification and

subsoiling. The general consensus is subsoiling should only be used in highly

compacted areas such as main roads. The research done by the Chewaucan

Biophysical Monitoring Crew and interpreted by Jacinda Thomas and Brittany

Cramer (technical report author) suggests scarification is the preferred road

decommissioning method in the Fremont Winema Forest because it best

encourages vegetation regeneration and integration best. Vegetation regeneration

is vital to anchor soils and decrease erosion from rain.

The decision on how to decommission a road depends on each individual road.

However, the data from this report supports scarification to be the primary

method used by the Forest-Service to decommission roads because it encourages

vegetation regeneration best.


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Introduction

New roads are built on the forest at a rapid pace for logging, research and

various other purposes. During a phone interview Nina Hardin (2009), Assistant

Centre Manager for the Lakeview Fire District, stated, The Fremont-Winema

Forest Service is decommissioning roads to reduce the overall road density

because the density now exceeds the current stipulations of 1.5 miles of road per

square mile of forest. Jolene Albertson (2009), Road Engineer for the Fremont-

Winema Forest added, Some areas are over 11 miles of roads per square mile of

forest. As new roads are being built on the forest the Forest Service must

decommission roads at an equivalent rate. While decommissioning of the roads is

certain, the method of decommissioning is not.

According to Ryan Schaffer (2003), an intern with Wildlands CPR, Road

decommissioning has been defined as the physical treatment of a roadbed to

restore the integrity of associated hillslopes, channels, and flood plains and their

related hydrologic, geomorphic, and ecological processes and properties. This

report will look at road decommissioning only in the Fremont-Winema Forest

Service. Specific examples of blockage and scarification will be from the

Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring website. Greenline and Quadrat surveys done

by the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew will measure vegetation

regeneration. Subsoiling and subsoiling techniques are discussed under road

decommissioning methods but specific examples are not given.


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Decommissioning Roads in Relation to Erosion

Jacinda Thomas (2007) wrote in her article,Determining the best method

of road decommissioning based on vegetation succession, Secondary logging

roads were never built to last. They were built along steep slopes that were prone

to landslides or near waterways. These roads may cause more erosion and

sediment delivery to streams compared to primary, managed roads. These

decaying logging roads are a large reason Forest Service road stipulations are

exceeded.

According to Chapter 3D: Road Management is National Management

Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Forestry, Proper closure,

decommissioning, and obliteration are essential to preventing erosion and

sedimentation on roads and skid trails that are no longer needed or that have

been abandoned (Environmental Protection Agency, 2005). According to the

report, Erosion and channel adjustments following forest road decommissioning,

by Carolyn Cook and Adam Dresser, Erosion should be avoided to reduce:

soil loss

embankment washout

mass wasting

sedimentation

turbidity

damage to fish habitat


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The most efficient way to prevent erosion is to encourage vegetative

regeneration. Vegetation protects soil from erosion due to the soil binding

capacity of the rhizome and the reduction of raindrop splatter on the soil.

Rhizomes, underground stem systems, can sprout new above ground shoots, with

accompanying roots which anchor soil in place. Leaf surface area intercepts

raindrops that would otherwise land on the soil, knocking loose clay and silt

particles that fill pore spaces reducing the soils ability to absorb and hold water.

Therefore, the best way to determine if a road is successfully decommissioned,

and will not increase erosion, is to measure vegetative regeneration.


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Road Decommissioning Methods

The three most common ways to decommission roads are blocking,

scarification and subsoiling. The intent behind decommissioning a road through

the blockage method is to obstruct the road so no motorized vehicles can get

through. The blocking method involves using large boulders, fallen trees, mounds

of dirt or a combination of the three to prevent motorized vehicles from using the

road. However, large pickup trucks can often climb over the obstructions using

four-wheel drive. Therefore, instead of physically blocking the road, a large

trench may be dug out so no vehicles can access the decommissioned road.

Scarification and Subsoiling both use teeth to break up and loosen the soil to

allow vegetation access to additional minerals and nutrients for increased plant

growth by providing better aeration of the roots. This aeration is especially

needed in skid trails made during logging operations. During logging heavy

equipment such as skidders (figure 1) and caterpillars (figure 2) weighing

anywhere from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds continuously compress the terrain

(VanNatta, 2005).

Figure 2 Caterpillar (crawler)

Source: VanNatta, 2005

Figure 1 Skidder

Source: VanNatta, 2005


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An excavator or tractor and ripper bar are required to scarify a road. The

ripper bar is an implement attached to the excavator or tractor. According to a

Fremont-Winema Road Engineer, Jolene Albertson (2009), the blades are

twelve to eighteen inches long to scarify a road. However, Clair Thomas (2009),

Biophysical Monitoring Crew Supervisor, delineates between scarification and

subsoiling by limiting scarification to topsoil disturbance (rhizome depth of 4

6) and subsoiling to the mixing of other soil horizons with the topsoil, thereby

destroying topsoil structure and porosity. For the sake of this paper, because the

data is taken from the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crews information,

scarification will be referring to the use of blades four to six inches long. If the

road is not scarified deep enough time and money are wasted for minimal results.

If the road is scarified too deeply existing rhizomes are destroyed and soil peds

are broken down while heavy silt and clay from lower soil horizons fill pore

spaces. Herbs and grasses are difficult to sustain in these coarse soils, though

shrubs and trees are only slightly affected. A scarified road may need to be

blocked to prevent access to the road.

Subsoiling a road is similar to scarification. Again there is a discrepancy on

the exact depth of subsoiling. For the purpose of this report subsoiling will refer

to using blades on the ripper that extend twelve inches or more. Subsoiling turns

up the subsoil between the topsoil and bedrock. According to Archuleta and

Baxter (2008, p. 119) in the article, Subsoiling promotes native plant

establishment on compacted forest sites, Subsoiling is the recommended

treatment for highly compacted soils. Soils can become highly compacted with

repeated long term use or even short term use with heavy logging machinery in


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road such as skid trails. Road blockage may not be necessary after subsoiling

because the road would be highly unpleasant and difficult to navigate. Richard

Hart project lead of the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team (CBMT) from

2002 - 2004 published a report discouraging subsoiling. He states, Subsoiled

areas, while initially releasing compaction, ultimately become more compacted

than their immediate surroundings. The furls formed by the rippers become beds

for invasive plantsloss of effective ground cover are also dramatic. The CBMT

found that many subsoiled areas over 25 years old were not recovering well.


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Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team

According the Lake County Resource Initiative website (2007), The

Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Project, a program of the Lake County

Resources Initiative, examines the relationships within the Chewaucan watershed

and observes trends over time. The Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team

chooses a general area to examine, locates sites within the area and completes

detailed evaluations of the vegetation, canopy and soils. Depending on the

purpose, sites are chosen by the following methods according to the Lake County

Resource Initiatives website:

Dynamic: A base area or individual transect which possesses

ecological factors or elements that are unique in combination

and/or rapidity of change.

Representative: A base area or transect which contains

ecological factors or elements which represent a significantly

larger area than the particular vicinity of a certain base area.

Unique: A base area or transect which contains one or more

ecological factors or elements that are one-of-a-kind or at least

extremely rare in occurrence for the watershed.

Managed: A base area or transect which has been, is being, or

will be managed in some way (e.g. - restoration, treatment,

and/or logging).

Once a site is selected in an area, a thirty meter tape (transect) is stretched

between an A and B rebar stake to create a 1/10 acre plot. Study sites along a

road are randomly selected to ensure a non-biased sampling. The transect tape is

stretched across the road so data could be collected both on and off the road for


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comparison. To give a general overview of the areas characteristics, a canopy and

ground layer survey (figure 3) is conducted and a map drawn. This map is vital to

understanding the relationship of data and for relocating areas for follow-up

surveys.

The Quadrat Method and Line Intercept method also known as the

Greenline are used for gathering vegetation data. The thirty meter tape stretched

between the A and B stakes make up the Greenline. The A and B stakes

are pieces of rebar permanently placed in the ground so sites can be revisited.

According to the Lake County Resource Initiative website (2007),

The 30 meter transect is divided into 10 subsections three meters long.

The species, number of plants, and medium width of each species is

recorded for each subsection. Vegetation measurements of density, cover,

frequency, importance and diversity are then calculated. All plants are

Figure 3 Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning Transect One

Source: Lake Count Resource Initiative 2007


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identified by a six letter code consisting of the first three letters of the

genus followed by the first three letters of the specie.

For example, taraxacum is the genus and officinale is the specie of the plant

commonly called a dandelion. Therefore the dandelions code name is TAROFF.

This information can be recorded using a specialized palm pilot program or hard

copy form made for the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew.

The Quadrat sampling method uses the same six letter vegetation code

system. According to Webster's New World College Dictionary (2009), A

Quadrat is a sampling plot, usually one square meter, used to study and analyze

plant life. The Lake Country Resource Initiative (2007) states, Quadrats are

used to sample unique vegetation found in one-tenth acre plots that are not

necessarily on the line intercept as well as to sample areas in transition within the

plot. A photograph of each quadrat (Figure 4 on page 10) is taken with a

whiteboard that identifies the site, date, and quadrat number because there may

be several for each site. Since a quadrat can gather information about vegetation

not directly on the line it is combined with the intercept data to calculate species

richness (Lake County Resource Initiative, 2007). According to the Lake County

Resource Initiative website, Quadrats from different years can be compared in

trend studies to identify changes that are occurring within the quadrat. These can

be combined with line intercept data to extrapolate changes occurring within the

plot.


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Figure 4 Quadrat from Timber Salvage.

Source: Lake Country Resource Initiative, 2007.


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Blocked Sites

The Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew examined fourteen road

decommissioning sites using the blockage method. To analyze plant regeneration

on the decommissioned road, plant cover is assessed off either side of the road

(control group) and on the road (experimental group). The plant species numbers

and diversity on the decommissioned road versus the plant species numbers and

diversity off both sides of the road measure plant integration and therefore can

tell the success of the road decommissioning method. The blocked roads started

at approximately the twelve meter mark on the transect and ended at the

eighteen meter mark. Therefore, intervals one through four are off of the road,

five and six are on the road, and seven through ten are off of the road. Refer back

to canopy and ground layer map (Figure 3 on page 5) for clarification.

To get the percent cover per interval off the road, individual vegetation

covers from intervals one through four are combined. In RD-01, Road

Decommissioning Site One, there was an average 93.5% cover in each of the four

intervals before the road comprising half of the control group. On the road, our

experimental group, there was an average of 67.5% cover in the two intervals, five

and six, that crossed. Intervals seven through ten, the other half of the control,

had an average interval cover of 63.3%. Since the first four intervals and the last

four intervals were both off the decommissioned road the numbers are combined

and become the combined control. Therefore, the average cover per interval off

the road was 78.4% and the average cover per interval on the road is 67.5%. Table

one (see page 12) shows this process through an Excel worksheet. Average cover


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per interval on and off the decommissioned road was done for fourteen road

decommissioning sites.

RD-01 Excel Spreadsheet Determining Plant Cover On and Off theRoad

IntervalPlantCode

PercentCover Interval

PlantCode

PercentCover Interval

PlantCode

PercentCover

1 LINHAR 0.4 5 BROCAR 3.7 7 ARTTRI 1.8

MIMBRY 0.4 LINHAR 0.4 COLPAR 0.1

LICHEN 5.5 MIMBRY 0.7 MONLIN 0.1

PLASCO 1.2 LICHEN 1.3 SIDORE 0.5

SIDORE 1 PLASCO 1.3 STIOCC 0.7

STIOCC 1.7 SIDORE 1 8 ARTTRI 5UNKSPP 1.1 UNKSPP 1.4 LINHAR 0.2

2 BROCAR 0.5 6 ARTTRI 1.2 SIDORE 0.7

LINHAR 0.7 MIMBRY 0.2 9 ARTTRI 6

MIMBRY 0.1 PLASCO 0.6 BROCAR 0.7

MONLIN 0.3 STIOCC 1.4 LINHAR 0.4

MOSS 4.1 UNKSPP 0.3 MIMBRY 0.1

PLASCO 1.1 SIDORE 0.5

UNKSPP 1.3 WYLAMP 2.4

3 BROCAR 1.6 10 ARTTRI 3.4

LINHAR 0.3 LINHAR 0.1

MIMBRY 0.5 POTGLA 1.5

MONLIN 0.1 SIDORE 1.1MOSS 2.7

PLASCO 1.5

SIDORE 0.8

UNKSPP 0.8

4 BROCAR 3.7

LINHAR 0.4

MIMBRY 0.7

LICHEN 1.3

PLASCO 1.2

SIDORE 1

UNKSPP 1.4

Average Cover PerInterval Before

Road 9.35Average Cover on

the Road 6.75Average Cover

After Road 6.33

Total Average Cover Per Interval Before and After theRoad is 6.75%

Total Average Cover Per Interval On theRoad is 7.84%

Table 1 Road Decommissioning Site One, RD-01, Excel Spreadsheet


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Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked

Roads in Road Decommissioning Sites

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

RD-

01

RD-

02

RD-

03

RD-

04

RD-

06

RD-

07

RD-

08

RD-

09

RD-

10

RD-

11

RD-

14

RD-

16

RD-

17

RD-

18

Site

PercentAverageCover

PerInterval

Off R

On R



0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

RD-

01

RD-

02

RD-

03

RD-

04

RD-

06

RD-

07

RD-

08

RD-

09

RD-

10

RD-

11

RD-

14

RD-

16

RD-

17

RD-

18

Site

PercentAverageCover

PerInterval

Off R

On R



0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

RD-

01

RD-

02

RD-

03

RD-

04

RD-

06

RD-

07

RD-

08

RD-

09

RD-

10

RD-

11

RD-

14

RD-

16

RD-

17

RD-

18

Site

PercentAverageCover

PerInterval

Off Road

On Road

Table one and Graph one show the difference in the percent vegetation

cover per interval on and off the road ranges from -2.5% (the road has 2.5% more

cover that surrounding areas) to 20.5% (the road has 20.5% less cover and

surrounding areas).

OffRoad

OnRoad Difference

RD-01 78.4 67.5 10.90

RD-02 20.8 18.5 2.30

RD-03 22.7 21.5 1.2

RD-04 52.5 55.0 -2.50

RD-06 24.8 21.1 3.70

RD-07 76.8 43.6 33.2

RD-08 83.1 36.1 47.0

RD-09 45.9 36.8 9.10

RD-10 9.3 3.4 5.9

RD-11 45.1 37.4 7.70

RD-14 73.2 52.8 20.4

RD-16 56.2 49.3 6.9

RD-17 69.1 58.5 10.6

RD-18 49.3 43.4 5.90

Table 1 Vegetation Integration on BlockedRoads versus off Blocked Roads in Road

Decommissioning Sites. There is an average

of 11.61% more cover off road than on road.

Graph 1 Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads in RoadDecommissioning Sites


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Scarified Sites

While the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew surveyed Timber

Salvage sites they came across eight scarified roads. Many of these scarified roads

were skid trails. Similar to blocked roads, plant regeneration on scarified roads

was analyzed on and off either side of the road. However, the scarified roads are

not necessarily from the twelve to eighteen meter mark because the sites were

chosen at random in the timber salvage unit and only came across scarified roads

by coincidence. Timber Salvage site number 36s (TS-36) Canopy and Ground

Layer map (Figure 7) shows approximately the last ten meters of the transect on

the scarified road.

Figure 7 Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning Transect One

Source: Lake County Resource Initiative, 2007


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Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off ScarifiedRoads in Timber Salvage Sites

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

TS-36 TS-39 TS-42 TS-51 TS-54 TS-57 TS-62 TS-63

Site

PercentAverageCover

perInterval

Off Road

On Road

Table two and Graph two show the difference in the percent vegetation cover per

interval on and off the road in scarified roads and skid trails ranges from -0.4

(the road has -0.4% more cover that surrounding areas) to 9.7% (the road has

9.7% less cover and surrounding areas).

Blocked Versus Scarified Sites

OffRoad

OnRoad Difference

TS-36 14.5 12.9 1.6

TS-39 15.8 13.6 2.2

TS-42 5.9 5.2 0.7

TS-51 16.3 6.6 9.7

TS-54 11.7 7.2 4.5

TS-57 5.1 5.5 -0.4

TS-62 5.2 1.9 3.3

TS-63 7.9 4.8 3.1

ble 2 Vegetation Integration on Scarified

oads versus off Scarified Roads in Road

ommissioning Sites. There are 3.09% more

plants off road than on road.

Graph 2 - Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads in Timber Salvage Sites


21/26

There is 12.3% more vegetation cover off blocked roads than on them.

Comparatively, there is only a 3.1% difference in vegetation cover on scarified

roads. This does not mean off the road vegetation is necessarily more numerous

than on the road. It could mean vegetation off the road is larger in size than

vegetation off the road. Considering most of the roads are around twenty-five

years old, this would make sense because vegetation off the road has had more

time to grow. According to Mike Neville (2009), Botanist and Range Manager for

the Paisley Forest Service, As a general rule for vegetation, excluding trees, the

older and larger the plant, the greater the rhizome is. This is significant because

more rhizomes equal less erosion. Therefore, twenty-five years later scarified

roads have a similar rhizome to the surrounding area with a 3.1% difference than

blocked roads with a 12.3 percent difference.

J. Thomas, using the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crews data,

evaluated the difference in species number and diversity. In Thomas (2007)

evaluation she stated, In scarified road areas, 31% of the plant species (pioneer

species) were on the road exclusively and 23% of all plants were greater in

number on the road. Combining these values indicates that 54% of the plant

species found in scarified areas are actively rehabilitating roads and only 46% are

still found exclusively off road. The off road plants are rapidly initiating growth

on the road. Comparatively, in blocked road areas, only 3% of the plant species

were found exclusively on the road and 33% of all plant types were greater in

abundance on the roads. The combined value of 36% of plant species in the road

indicate a slower recovery since 64% of the plants off road were not yet

establishing themselves in the road. When cover (Tables 1, 2) and exclusivity


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Abudance of Plant Species On (I) and

Off (B/A) Decommissioned Roads

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

I >B/A I=B/A I


23/26

Number of Plant Species On (I) and Off (B/A)

Decommissioned Roads

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

I >B/A I=B/A I


24/26

The Forest Service has been assigned the large task of decommissioning

old, unsafe and/or unused roads until the districts is in compliance with the

current road stipulations of 1.5 miles of road per square mile of forest. These

stipulations are set in place for a number of reasons including aesthetic and

environmental. One of the most important reasons to decommission roads is to

stop erosion that can ruin watersheds, increase turbidity and ruin fish habitat.

The three possible ways to decommission a road are blockage, scarification

and subsoiling. The research done by the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring

Crew and interpreted by Jacinda Thomas and Brittany Cramer (technical report

author) suggests scarification is the preferred road decommissioning method in

the Fremont Winema Forest because it best encourages vegetative regeneration

and integration. Vegetative regeneration is vital to anchor soils and decrease

erosion.

References


25/26

Albertson, J. (2009, February 3). Road Engineer. Telephone Interview.

Archuleta, J. and Baxter, E.Subsoiling promotes native plant establishment on

compacted forest sites. Native Plants Journal - Volume 9, Number 2,

Summer 2008, p. 119.

Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring . 2007. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from

http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/ .

Cook, C. and Dresser, A. (n.d.).Erosion and channel adjustments following forest

road decommissioning, Six Rivers National Forest. Retrieved February 11,

2009, from www.stream.fs.fed.us/afsc/pdfs/Cook.pdf

Environmental Protection Agency. (2005, May 1).3D: Road management.

Retrieved February 5, 2009, from

www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdf.

Fremont-Winema National Forests - Welcome. (n.d.). Retrieved February 5,

2009, from http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/.

Hardin, N. (2009, January 27). Assistant Center Manager for the Lakeview Fire

District. Phone Interview

Harmon, T. (2009, January 27). Owner and Operator of Tom Harmon Logging.

Phone Interview.

Neville, M. (2009, February 13). Botanist and Range Manager. Telephone

Interview.

Schaffer, R. (2003, December 11).National Forest Service road
http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdfhttp://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdfhttp://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/


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decommissioning: An attempt to read through the numbers (Field Notes)

| Wildlands CPR. Retrieved February 9, 2009, from

http://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-

decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbers.

Thomas, C. (2009, February 1). Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring

Supervisor. Telephone Interview.

Thomas, J. Determining the best method of road decommissioning

based on Vegetation Succession. Attachment E-mailed to the Brittany

Cramer. 16 Jan. 2007.

Quadrat. (20009). In Webster's New World College Dictionary. Retrieved

February 10th, 2009, fromwww.yourdictionary.com/quadrat.

VanNatta, R. (2005, November 13). VanNatta forestry and logging machinery.

Retrieved February 22, 2009, from http://www.vannattabros.com/
http://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.yourdictionary.com/quadrathttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.yourdictionary.com/quadrat

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