Frontiers in Sedimentary Geology

Frontiers in Sedimentary Geology A.H. Bouma Editor-in-Chief

Submarine Fans and Related Turbidite Systems A.H. Bouma, W.R. Normark, and N.E. Barnes (editors)

New Perspectives in Basin Analysis K.L. Kleinspehn and C. Paola (editors)

Microstructure of Fine-Grained Sediments: From Mud to Shale R.H. Bennett, W.R. Bryant, and M.H. Hulbert (editors)

R.H. Bennett W.R. Bryant M.H. Hulbert Editors

Microstructure of Fine-Grained Sediments From Mud to Shale

W.A. Chiou, R.W. Faas, 1. Kasprowicz, H. Li, T. Lomenick, N.R. O'Brien, S. Pamukcu, P. Smart, C.E. Weaver, and T. Yamamoto Associate Editors

With 458 Illustrations in 708 Parts

Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona

Richard H. Bennett Seafloor Geosciences Division Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004 USA

William R. Bryant Department of Oceanography Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843 USA

Matthew H. Hulbert IMC/Pitman-Moore, Inc. Terre Haute, IN 47808 USA

Series Editor Arnold H. Bouma School of Geoscience Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4101 USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Microstructure of fine-grained sediments, from mud to shale I R.H.

Bennett, W.R. Bryant, M.H. Hulbert, editors. p. cm. - (Frontiers in sedimentary geology)

Includes index. ISBN-13 :978-1-4612-8766-7

I. Clay-Analysis. 2. Sediments (Geology) 3. Rocks, Sedimentary-Analysis. I. Bennett, Richard Harold, 1939- II. Bryant,

William R. III. Hulbert, Matthew H. IV. Series. QE471.3.M53 1990 551.3'04-dc20 90-37343

CIP

Printed on acid-free paper

© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Copyright is not claimed for chapters authored by U.S. Government employees (2, 6, 14, 15,20,44,47,48,52,58). Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or here­after developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchan­dise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

Typeset by Publishers Service of Montana, Bozeman, Montana.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-13 :978-1-4612-8766-7 e-ISBN-13 :978-1-4612-4428-8 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4428-8

Series Preface

The Frontiers in Sedimentary Geology series was established for the student, the researcher, and the applied scientist to enhance their potential to stay abreast of the most recent ideas and developments and to become familiar with certain topics in the field of sedimentary geology. The series deals with subjects that are in the forefront of both scientific and economic interests. The treatment of a subject in an individual volume, therefore, is a combination of topical, regional, and interdisciplinary approaches. The interdisciplinary aspects are becom­ing more and more important because most studies dealing with the natural sciences cannot any longer effectively stand alone. Although this thrust may sound simple, in reality it is not, basically because each discipline has developed its own jargon and definitions of terms. Communication among disciplines is a major issue and can be accomplished more construc­tively when people with different backgrounds join together at the same symposium and can read from the same volume rather than confining themselves only within the world of their own specialty meetings and journals. Books in this series provide this connective link between disciplines.

Each book in this series provides a continuous and connected flow of concepts throughout the volume by the use of introductory chapters that outline a topic sufficiently to grasp its problems and to understand the contributions that follow. The individuality of each paper will be maintained as much as possible by preserving the major aspects of the personal style of the author(s). Such an approach reduces the jumpiness typical of an edited book. A broad integrated presentation, on the other hand, is difficult to be discussed by a single person.

The Frontiers in Sedimentary Geology series thus strives to present books in such a manner that the reader can become well informed in a minimum amount of time. This volume, Microstructure of Fine-Grained Sediments: From Mud to Shale, fits the criterion of the series very well. The publication is the result of a workshop held in 1988 that was attended by a large group of leading scientists and engineers representing several discipliries and subdis­ciplines. It is fascinating to realize how many parts of our life deal with aspects of fine-grained sediments, both the consolidated and unconsolidated types. A rather complete list is presented in the last chapter of the book and it suffices to say that it not only includes geology, sedimentology, and the oil and gas industry, but even more seriously the waste disposal, groundwater contamination, preservation, biology, chemistry, ceramics, agriculture, and at least another dozen other fields. Such a broad utilization of the fine-grained sediments and the large number of study directions involved makes communication extremely difficult but nevertheless worthwhile and rewarding. Organization of this book proceeds from very basic

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vi Series Preface

concepts and principles to the applied problems. The reader quickly appreciates the im­portance of a thorough understanding of the basic scientific principles and processes for effective utilization of fine-grained soft sediments and rock in practical applications. The breakdown of all contributions into a number of major categories with each category having its own introduction facilitates understanding of some of the nonfamiliar chapters.

The symposium itself was a very successful event and it helped to bridge some of the com­munication gaps. The organizers took the task on themselves to play the roles of editors and subeditors. As a series editor I am very pleased that the editors opted for their book to become part of the Frontiers in Sedimentary Geology series.

Arnold H. Bouma

Preface

This book presents a comprehensive cross section of recent research and present concepts of basic and applied studies on the clay microstructure of fine-grained sediments and argilla­ceous rocks. The book is a compilation of peer-reviewed technical papers, most of which were presented at an international symposium-workshop entitled "The Clay Microstructure of Fine-Grained Terrigenous Marine Sediments: From Muds to Shale;' convened at the Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, U.S.A. in October 1988. The theme of the symposium and the thrust of this book focus on (1) the fundamental role of microstructure (microfabric and physicochemistry) as a determinant of fine-grained sediment properties, (2) the significance of microstructure to diagenetic, mass physical and mechanical, static, dynamic, and geoacoustic properties, and to microscale sedimentary features, and (3) the relationship and importance of these factors to basic research and applied problems.

The book is organized into three major sections under the titles Basic Clay Microstructure, Applied Clay Microstructure, and Future Research Directions and Recommendations. The contents of these major comprehensive sections focus on the following topics: microstructure signatures, environmental processes, modeling, measurements and techniques, and applica­tions. Each major section is preceded by an overview that provides the reader with a synopsis of the chapters to follow and ties the book together as a coherent entity. The third major section directs the reader to future directions and recommendations that summarize the con­sensus of the workshop participants who defined significant future research areas and recom­mendations focused on clay microstructure. A major element in the task of identifying these areas of future research was the input by outstanding researchers and engineers representing a wide range of specialties and technical fields. This last section also emphasizes the sig­nificance of clay microstructure to an enormous variety of technical disciplines, and an important objective of this recommendation section is to stimulate and to guide new thrusts in research and engineering practice involving clayey sediments and argillaceous rocks. The book directs the reader to numerous areas where a more complete knowledge of the micro­structure would add significantly to understanding of the fundamental physics, chemistry, and sedimentology of fine-grained sediments.

Review of the book reveals that new breakthroughs in highly specialized disciplines and the advancement of technology will require an understanding of clay microstructure, which will come as a result of effective interdisciplinary studies addressing the very fundamental nature of the interacting organic and inorganic parts that together comprise the complex sedimento-

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V11l Preface

logical system as a whole. Technical papers confirm, again, the principle that basic research is the backbone of technology. Without such basic research as a foundation to decision mak­ing, important controls on our environment will not be effectively realized as man continues to utilize the rocks and sediments for waste disposal, agriculture, industrial and military applications, and construction.

Although the field of clay microstructure is presently in a rudimentary and somewhat primitive posture, the concepts, observations, and principles presented in this book will stimulate new thought and be a "springboard" for exciting novel research. As editors, we expect that this comprehensive book will minimize the convoluted and sometimes static and dead-end research paths that were common during the early history of research on clay microstructure and related sciences. These early years of pioneering research and engineer­ing, dating back to Henry Sorby, Arthur Casagrande, and Karl Terzaghi, focused on the dis­ciplines of colloid chemistry and the physics of fine-particle behavior in relationship to sedimentological processes and the geotechnical properties of soils. These studies, although rudimentary in nature, provided an important underpinning for the advancement of the field of clay microstructure that is now making use of emerging high technology instrumentation and computer applications that are introduced in this book.

The importance of microstructure to sedimentary geology and the underpinning concepts are based on the principle that the microfabric and the physicochemistry of fine-grained geo­logic materials are the fundamental "building blocks" of clayey sediments and rocks. Thus the microstructure determines the characteristic physical, mechanical, and geoacoustic proper­ties of fine-grained sediments and rocks under static and dynamic stresses. Basic research studies presented in this book that address the fundamentals of clay sediments and argilla­ceous rocks are prerequisite to achieving a functional understanding of the sediment and rock properties and their response to natural and man-induced stresses, and to the resulting effects on our environment. An important goal will be achieved if this publication stimulates new thought and insight in clay microstructure and provides a new rational basis for understand­ing the developmental history of fine-grained sediments by revealing important fundamentals of the chemistry, physics, and biology, and the interplay of processes. The success of engineering practice applied to most sediments and rocks depends critically on a thorough quantitative understanding of basic and applied clay microstructure. The symposium­workshop and this book clearly reveal the importance of an integrated multidisciplinary approach. Basic research and engineering studies of clay microstructure benefit enormously from the interaction among different disciplines, as demonstrated by the numerous chapters in this book.

Richard H. Bennett Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity

Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

Acknowledgments

The efforts of numerous contributors and reviewers of the technical papers and a few key sponsors made this book possible. The sponsors who recognized the importance of advancing fundamental research and engineering studies of the microstructure of fine-grained sedi­ments and rocks include the Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity (NORDA), the Office of Naval Research/Contract Research Division (ONR/CRD), the Department of Energy (DOE)/Chicago Office, and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Special appreciation is given to Dr. William Moseley (NORDA), Dr. Herbert Eppert (NORDA), Mrs. Halcyon Morris (NORDA), Dr. Joseph Kravitz (ONR), Mr. John Kasprowicz (DOE), Dr. Steven Stow (ORNL), and Dr. Thomas Lomenick (ORNL), each of whom gave encourage­ment in making the symposium-workshop (October 1988) a success and this book possible. NORDA, ONR, and DOE/ORNL provided financial support for the symposium-workshop, and NORDA supported the first editor during the compilation of the numerous peer­reviewed papers in this book. The efforts of Ms. Margaret Chenault of the staff of the Univer­sity of Southern Mississippi's Division of Lifelong Learning are gratefully acknowledged for assistance in administering the workshop.

Several NORDA staff members assisted in numerous activities that made the work­shop and book possible. These persons are due special recognition as follows: appre­ciation is extended to Ms. F. Lee Nastav for her faithful assistance in preparing the workshop program booklet with abstracts and for assisting in various and numerous tasks during the assembly of this book; the late Mr. John Burns provided invaluable logistics during the symposium-workshop and, as always, interfaced effectively with visitors in the NORDA tradition; Mr. Samuel Tooma gave encouragement during the planning of the workshop and throughout the preparation of this book; Dr. Huon Li assisted in various aspects of the symposium-workshop logistics and in the interchange with numerous par­ticipants. The encouragement and assistance of Dr. Li on various parts of this book are greatly appreciated. Sharon Vreeland arranged the domestic and foreign travel for the workshop participants.

The encouragement and support by the management of Pitman-Moore, Inc., for the third editor, are gratefully acknowledged. The associate editors provided valuable assistance dur­ing the technical paper peer-review process, and their efforts were very important in provid­ing high quality manuscripts and well-organized sections of this book. Thanks go to the many critical reviewers for their efforts and work with the session chairmen. The editors appreci-

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x Acknowledgments

ate the suggestions and assistance of Dr. Arnold Bouma, Series Editor for Springer-Verlag, during the planning of this book.

This publication has been approved for public release by NORDA with distribution unlimited. NORDA special project #056:360:88.

Contents

Series Preface ......................................................... v Arnold H. Bouma

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Richard H. Bennett

Acknowledgments ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xvii

Part I Basic Clay Microstructure A. Microstructure: Signatures

1 The Signatures of Clay Microstructure-Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Richard W. Faas and Neal R. O'Brien

2 Determinants of Clay and Shale Microfabric Signatures: Processes and Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Richard H. Bennett, Neal R. O'Brien, and Matthew H. Hulbert

3 Millimeter-Scale Sedimentary Structure of Fine-Grained Sediments: Examples from Continental Margin Environments ................ . . . . . . . . 33 S.A. Kuehl, T.M. Hariu, M.W. Sanford, CA. Nittrouer, and D.J. DeMaster

4 Problems of Particle Delamination and of Stepwise Aggregation in Clay Swelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 E. T. Stepkowska

5 The Nature and Significance of Gas-Generated Microvoids as "Secondary" Microfabric Features in Modern and Pleistocene Marine and Estuarine Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Stanis las Wartel, Sethi Parvinger Singh, and Richard W. Faas

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xii Contents

6 Clay Fabric of Fine-Grained Turbidite Sequences from the Southern Nares Abyssal Plain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 L.E. Shephard and A.K. Rutledge

7 Microfabric and Physical Properties Characteristics of a Consolidated Clay Section: ODP Site 697, Weddell Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 William R. Bryant, Richard H. Bennett, Patti J Burkett, and F.R. Rack

8 Physical Property Changes Accompanying Deep Burial of Clay-Rich Sediments, Barbados Convergent Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 lane Schoonmaker Tribble, Fred T. Mackenzie, and lozseJ Urmos

9 Sedimentary Structures: Textures and Depositional Settings of Shales from the Lower Belt Supergroup, Mid-Proterozoic, Montana, U.S.A.. . . . . . . .. 101 lurgen Schieber

10 Porosities, Permeabilities, and Microfabrics of Devonian Shales . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109 David K. Davies, William R. Bryant, Richard K. Vessell, and Patti J Burkett

Part I Basic Clay Microstructure B. Environmental Processes: A Continuum

11 Environmental Processes: A Continuum-Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123 William R. Bryant

12 Interparticle Grain Size Relationships Resulting from Flocculation. . . . . . . . . .. 125 Kate Kranck

13 The Changing Microfabric of Suspended Particulate Matter-The Fluvial to Marine Transition: Flocculation, Agglomeration, and Pelletization ........ 131 J P. M. Syvitski

14 Microstructure of Suspensates: From Stream to Shelf l.W. Pierce

15 The Influence of Organic Carbon Flux on the Deposition of Clays in the

139

Marine Environment: Implications with Respect to Microstructure. . . . . . . . . .. 147 Kathleen M. Fischer

16 Mass Arrival Mechanisms and Clay Deposition at the Seafloor. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161 W.B. Dade, A.R.M. Nowell, and P.A. lumars

17 Distinguishing Features of Layered Muds Deposited from Shallow Water High Concentration Suspensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167 R. Kirby

18 Effect of Bed Shear Stresses on the Deposition and Strength of Deposited Cohesive Muds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175 Emmanuel Partheniades

19 Fluidization of Soft Estuarine Mud by Waves Mark A. Ross and Ashish j Mehta

185

Contents xiii

20 The Significance of Sediment-Flow Dynamics on Clay Microstructure Development: Riverine and Continental Shelf Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193 Huon Li and Richard H. Bennett

21 Silt Microfabric of Detrital, Deep Sea Mud(stone)s (California Continental Borderland) as Shown by Backscattered Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 203 Suzanne Reynolds and Donn S. Gorsline

22 Physical Properties and Microstructural Response of Sediments to Accretion-Subduction: Barbados Forearc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213 Elliott Taylor, Patti J. Burkett, Jerri D. Wackier, and John N. Leonard

23 Anomalous Stress History of Sediments of the Northwest Pacific: The Role of Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 229 Kathleen A. Dadey, Margaret Leinen, and Armand J. Silva

Part II Applied Clay Microstructure A. Modeling-Past and Present: New Directions

24 Modeling-Past and Present: New Directions-Overview .................. 239 Sibel Pamukcu

25 Influence of Some Physicochemical Activities on Mechanical Behavior of Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241 Sibel Pamukcu and Mustafa Tuncan

26 Organization of Clay Particles in Aqueous Suspension as Inferred from Spectroscopy of Organic Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 Jos Cenens, Robert A. Schoonheydt, and Frans C. De Schryver

27 Some Effects of Vicinal Water on the Sedimentation Process, Compaction, and Ultimate Properties of Sediments .................................. 259 W. Drost-Hansen

28 Rheology and Microstructure of Concentrated Illite Suspensions ............ 267 D.J. A. Williams and P. R. Williams

29 A Coupled Fluid Expulsion/Deformation Model of Dewatering Sediments. . . .. 273 F Tom Chang, GP. Lennon, Sibel Pamukcu, and B. Carson

30 The Floc Camera: A Three-Dimensional Imaging System of Suspended Particulate Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 281 J.P.M. Syvitski, K.W Asprey, and D.E. HeJjler

31 Characterization of Clay Fabric ....................................... 291 A.G. AltschaeJjl and S. Thevanayagam

32 Microtexture and Microchemistry of Clay-Rich Sediments ................. 297 R.E. Ferrell, Jr. and P.K. Carpenter

33 Quantitative Rock Mineral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303 George D. Brunton

xiv Contents

Part II Applied Clay Microstructure B. Measurements/Techniques/Sampling Strategy

34 Applied Clay Microstructure: Measurements, Techniques, and Sampling Strategies for Clay Fabric Research - Overview 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 307 Peter Smart and Him-An Chiou

35 Techniques for the ~Preparation of Submarine Sediments for Electron Microscopy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 309 Roy 1. Baerwald, Patti 1 Burkett, and Richard H. Bennett

36 Observation Technique for Wet Clay Minerals Using Film-Sealed Environmental Cell Equipment Attached to High-Resolution Electron Microscope 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 321 Akira Fukami, Kurio Fukushima, and Norihiko Kohyama

37 Clay Fabric of Gassy Submarine Sediments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 333 W.Ao Chiou, William Ro Bryant, and Richard H. Bennett

38 Objective Measurement and Classification of Microfabrics and Their Relationship to Physical Properties 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 353 Cynthia Mo Ross and Robert Ehrlich

39 Automatic Analysis of Microstructure of Cohesive Sediments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 359 Peter Smart, N.Ko Tovey, X. Leng, MoW. Hounslow, and I. McConnochie

40 The Application of Image Analysis Techniques to Microstructure Studies in Geotechnical Engineering 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 367 Shobha K. Bhatia and Aly Soliman

41 Quantification of Clay Fabric: A Simple Technique 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 379 W.Ao Chiou, William Ro Bryant, and Richard H. Bennett

42 Measurements of Bond Energy of Clays and Ocean Wave Attenuation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 389 Kolchi Ando and T. Yamamoto

43 Geoacoustic Properties of a Marine Silt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 395 RoD. Stoll

44 Sediment Shear Waves: A Comparison of In Situ and Laboratory Measurements 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 403 Michael Do Richardson, Enrico Muzi, Luigi Troiano, and Bruno Miaschi

45 Geoacoustic Properties in the Near-Surface Sediment in Response to Periodic Deposition 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 417 Charles Libicki and Keith W. Bedford

46 Elasticity of Fine-Grained Abyssal Sediments, Brazil Basin, South Atlantic Ocean 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 431 Thomas H. Orsi and Dean Ao Dunn

Contents xv

Part II Applied Clay Microstructure C. Applications: Present Requirements

47 Applications: Present Requirements, Waste Disposal, Containment, and Packing Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449 Thomas F. Lomenick and J. D. Kasprowicz

48 Disposal of Radioactive and Hazardous Wastes into Clay-Rich Rocks. . . . . . . .. 451 Thomas F. Lomenick and J.D. Kasprowicz

49 Preliminary Geotechnical Considerations of Borehole Facilities as Waste Repositories in Clay Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 465 Mysore S. Nataraj

50 Hydrocarbon Liquids and Clay Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469 Robert M. Quigley and Federico Fernandez

51 Effects of Hydrothermal Treatment on the Engineering Properties, Microstructure, and Composition of Oilwell Cements ..................... 475 Eliza Grabowski and J. E. Gillott

52 The Role of the Microstructure of Pacific Red Clays in Radioactive Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 489 Patti J. Burkett, Richard H. Bennett, and William R. Bryant

53 Influences on the Rheology of Marine Sediments Composed of Low-Activity Minerals ............................................ , 509 J. Kenneth Torrance

54 The Geotechnical Importance of Clay Flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 515 N.B. Aughenbaugh

55 The Microfabric of Some Hong Kong Marine Soils ....................... 519 N.K. Tovey

56 Application of Microstructure Classification of Marine Sediment to Engineering Geological Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 531 Gao Guorui

57 Preliminary Geotechnical Evaluation of Deep Borehole Facilities for Nuclear Waste Disposal in Shales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539 Mysore S. Nataraj

58 Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Selected Shales in Support of Nuclear Waste Repository Studies ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 545 S. Y. Lee, L. K. Hyder, and P. D. Alley

Part III Future Research Directions and Recommendations: Basic and Applied

59 Research Recommendations ofthe Clay Microstructure Workshop. . . . . . . . . .. 563 Matthew H. Hulbert

Index ................................................................. 567

Contributors

P.D., ALLEY, Department of Geosciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA

A.G. ALTSCHAEFFL, Department of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA

K. ANDO, Geo-Acoustics Laboratory, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA

K.W. ASPREY, Geological Survey of Canada, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2, Canada

N.B. AUGHENBAUGH, Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA

Roy J. BAERWALD, Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans-Lakefront, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA

KEITH W. BEDFORD, Department of Civil Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1275, USA

RICHARD H. BENNETT, Seafloor Geosciences Division, Naval Ocean Research and Develop­ment Activity, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004, USA

SHOBHA K. BHATIA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse Univer­sity, Syracuse, NY 13244-1190, USA

GEORGE D. BRUNTON, Geology and Geological Engineering Department, School of Engineering, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA

WILLIAM R. BRYANT, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

PATTI J. BURKETT, Seafloor Geosciences Division, Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004, USA

xvii

xviii Contributors

P.K. CARPENTER, Division of Geological & Planetary Sciences, Caltech, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA

B. CARSON, Department of Geological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

Jos CENENS, Laboratorium voor Oppervlaktechemie, K.U. Leuven, K. Mercierlaan, 92, B-3030 Leuven, Belgium

F. TOM CHANG, Department of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

WEN-AN CHIOU, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA

w.B. DADE, School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

KATHLEEN A. DADEY, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Nar­ragansett, RI 02882, USA

DAVID K. DAVIES, David K. Davies and Associates, Inc., Stonehollow Place, Kingwood, TX 77339, USA

0.1. DEMASTER, Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA

FRANS C. DE SCHRYVER, Laboratorium voor Moleculaire Dynamica en Spectroscopie, Departement Scheikunde, KH Leuven, Celestijnenlaan, 200F, B-3030 Leuven, Belgium

W. DROST-HANSEN, Laboratory for Water Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124, USA

DEAN A. DUNN, Department of Geology, University of Southern Mississippi, Southern Sta­tion, Hattiesburg, MS 39406-5044, USA

ROBERT EHRLICH, Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Colum­bia, SC 29208, USA

RICHARD W. FAAS, Department of Geology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA

FEDERICO FERNANDEZ, Geotechnical Research Centre, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada

R.E. FERRELL, JR., Basin Research Institute and Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4101, USA

KATHLEEN M. FISCHER, Seafloor Geosciences Division, Naval Ocean Research and Develop­ment Activity, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004, USA

AKIRA FUKAMI, Department of Physics, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon Univer­sity, Sakurajousui, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156, Japan

KURIO FUKUSHIMA, Department of Physics, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon University, Sakurajosui, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156, Japan

Contributors xix

IE. GILLOTT, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N IN4, Canada

DONN S. GORSLINE, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0740, USA

ELIZA GRABOWSKI, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada

GAO GUORUI, Nanjing Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute, Nanjing, Jiangsu, Peo­ple's Republic of China

T.M. HARIU, Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

D.E. HEFFLER, Geological Survey of Canada, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dart­mouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2, Canada

MW. HOUNSLOW, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, England

MATTHEW H. HULBERT, IMC/Pitman-Moore, Inc., Terre Haute, IN 47808, USA

L.K. HYDER, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6317, USA

P.A. JUMARS, School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

ID. KASPROWICZ, Department of Energy/Chicago Operations, Argonne, IL 60439, USA

R. KIRBY, Ravensrodd Consultants, Ltd., Taunton TAl 4XW, Somerset, England

NORIHIKO KOHYAMA, National Institute of Industrial Health, Ministry of Labor, 6-21-1, Nagao, Tamaku, Kawasaki 213, Japan

KATE KRANCK, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2, Canada

S.A. KUEHL, Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

S.Y. LEE, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6317, USA

MARGARET LEINEN, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Nar­ragansett, RI 02882, USA

X. LENG, Civil Engineering Department, Glasgow University, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland

G.P. LENNON, Department of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

IN. LEONARD, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

xx Contributors

HUON LI, Seafloor Geosciences Division, Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004, USA

CHARLES LIBICKI, Department of Civil Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1275, USA

THOMAS F. LOMENICK, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA

FRED T. MACKENZIE, Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

I. MCCONNOCHIE, Civil Engineering Department, Glasgow University, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland

ASHISH J. MEHTA, Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

BRUNO MIASCHI, SACLANT Undersea Research Centre, San Bartolemeo 400, 1-19026, La Spezia, Italy

ENRICO MUZI, SACLANT Undersea Research Centre, San Bartolemeo 400, 1-19026, La Spezia, Italy

MYSORE S. NATARAJ, Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA

C.A. NITTROUER, Marine Sciences Research Center, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA

A.R.M. NOWELL, School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

NEAL R. O'BRIEN, Geology Department, S. U. N. Y.-Potsdam College, Potsdam, NY 13676, USA

THOMAS H. ORSI, Planning Systems Incorporated, PSI Engineering Center, Industrial Park, Long Beach, MS 39560, USA

SIBEL PAMUKCU, Department of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

EMMANUEL PARTHENIADES, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Mechanics and Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

J.w, PIERCE, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA

ROBERT M. QUIGLEY, Geotechnical Research Centre, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada

F.R. RACK, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

Contributors xxi

SUZANNE REYNOLDS, M.B. Gilbert Associates, Long Beach, CA 90806, USA

MICHAEL D. RICHARDSON, Seafloor Geosciences Division, Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5004, USA

CYNTHIA M. Ross, Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

MARK A. Ross, Department of Civil Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA

A.K. RUTLEDGE, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

MW. SANFORD, Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Colum­bia, SC 29208, USA

JURGEN SCHIEBER, Department of Geology, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA

ROBERT A. SCHOONHEYDT, Laboratorium voor Oppervlaktechemie, K.U. Leuven, K. Mer­cierlaan, 92, B-3030 Leuven, Belgium

L.B. SHEPHARD, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA

ARMAND 1. SILVA, Department of Ocean Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA

SETHI PARVINGER SINGH, L-2, Duncon Road, Kirkee, Pune-411003, Maharashtra, India

PETER SMART, Civil Engineering Department, Glasgow University, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland

ALY SOLIMAN, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-1190, USA

E.T. STEPKOWSKA, Institute of Hydro Engineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk­Oliwy, Poland

R.D. STOLL, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Palisades, NY 10964, USA

1.P.M. SYVITSKI, Geological Survey of Canada, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dart­mouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2, Canada

ELLIOTT TAYLOR, Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA

S. THEVANAYAGAM, The Earth Technology Corporation, Long Beach, CA 90802-5785, USA

1. KENNETH TORRANCE, Department of Geography and Ottawa-Carleton Centre for Geo­science Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario KIS 5B6, Canada

xxii Contributors

N.K. TOVEY, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, England

JANE SCHOONMAKER TRIBBLE, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

LUIGI TROIANO, SACLANT Undersea Research Centre, San Bartolemeo 400, 1-19026, La Spezia, Italy

MUSTAFA TuNCAN, Department of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

JOZSEF URMOS, Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

RICHARD K. VESSELL, David K. Davies and Associates, Inc., Stonehollow Place, Kingwood, TX 77339, USA

10. WACKLER, Mobil Exploration and Producing U.S., Inc., Midland, TX 79702, USA

STANISLAR WARTEL, Royal Belgian Institute for Natural Sciences (KBIN), Brussels, Belgium

D.IA. WILLIAMS, Department of Chemical Engineering, University College, Swansea, England

P.R. WILLIAMS, Department of Chemical Engineering, University College, Swansea, England

T. YAMAMOTO, Geo-Acoustics Laboratory, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA

Note: During late 1989 the Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity (NORDA) offi­cially became the Naval Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NOARL)