From Professor Tsang in the first lesson, we have:A. IT as man-made means in handling information

i. Receiving informationii. Collecting informationiii. Codifying informationiv. Storing informationv. Interpreting informationvi. Generalizing informationvii. Communicating information

B. IT in human historyi. Before the Gutenberg Galaxy

Spoken languages as media Speaking and memorizing as IT

ii. The Gutenberg Galaxy Printed languages as media Writing and printing as IT

iii. The Internet Galaxy Digital signals as media Computer, …… Internet as IT

Herbert Marshall McLuhan(1911-1980), a Cambridge-educated professor of literature, wrote two books "The Guthenberg Galaxy" (1962) and "Understanding Media" (1964)

The modes of thinking, behavior, and social organization spawned by literacy and printing were not natural or everlasting. Just as literate modes of thought had come to override oral modes of thinking, electronic modes of thought and experience were about to override literate ones.

Media are not simply channels for conveying information between two or more environments, but rather themselves shapers of new social environments. On the macro level, medium questions address the ways in which the addition of a new medium to an existing matrix of media may alter social interactions and social structure in general. "The medium is the message"

• Which and how many senses are required to attend to the medium;

• Whether the communication is bidirectional or unidirectional; • How quickly messages can be disseminated; • How much training is needed to encode and decode in the

medium and how many "level of skill" are involved; • How many people can attend to the same message at the same

moment. Medium theorists argue that such variables influence the

medium's use and its social, political, and psychological impact.

New media will bring new changes:Media play a role in defining the boundaries of social situations. For literate culture, for example, an advice book for parents or teachers functions as an isolated "place" for adult communication that cannot be "overheard" by young, preliterate children. Conversely, the presence of a television camera can transform a "private" adult conversation into that is accessible to children (as happens daily with TV talk shows.)

Time zones in history:McLuhan divides history into three major periods: oral, writing / printing, and electronic. Each period, according to McLuhan, is characterized by its own interplay of the senses and therefore by its own forms of thinking and communicating.

• The preservation of ideas depends upon the living memory of people. Ideas are generally put in the form of rhythmic poetry.Laws and traditions are conveyed through familiar stories.

• Orality requires physical presence, oral cultures have few if any ways of interacting with the thinking of those who do not live with them physically.

• "Individuality" is limited, because they are difficult to remember and almost impossible to pass on to any significant number of others.

• Changes is slow because cultural and personal survival depend so heavily on memorizing what is already known and what has already been done and said. Creativity and newness are discouraged as potentially destructive forces.

Writing begins to prevail over the oral mode of thinking because•It offers a way to construct and preserve prose and to encode long strings of connected ideas that would be almost impossible for most people to memorize.•The development of writing alters not only dissemination patterns but also the content of what is disseminated.•Writing establishes the potential for true "literature"、 "science"、 and "philosophy". The important thing isinnovations -> new form of knowledge -> new needs

Unlike speech and hearing, writing and reading are not "natural" means of communicating. They require much learning and rote practice.

Writing creates the need for a more formal "school".

In the circular world of hearing、 a person is always at the center of whatever he or she is experiencing. But the visual、 typographic person is、 in a sense、 always on the edge、 an observer、 who has time to think before reacting. A listener interrupts a speaker with a response、 but a reader must let a writer have his or her "say" before drafting a reply.

The break from intense、 ongoing aural involvement distances people from sound、 touch、 and direct response and allows people to become more introspective and more individualistic. "Rationality" which comes to be highly valued、 resembles the form of printed type: step-by-step abstract reasoning along a continuous line of uninterrupted thought. The isolation of stimuli fosters cause-and effect thinking.

The development of printing -> the spread of schooling and the growth of literacy from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries.The ability to share the same knowledge across wide areas and the continual possibility of adding to、 modifying、 and correcting texts also fosters a new form of incremental growth of knowledge. The spread of print supports compartmentalization and specialization. The new emphasis on reading as a source of wisdom and religious salvation widens the gap between those who can read and those who cannot. -> schooling

The late nineteenth century sees the drive toward universal literacy、 but during the same years the first electronic media begin to be widely used: the telegraph and the telephone herald the future age of radio、 television、 computer and beyond.Electronic media bring back a key aspect of oral societies: simultaneity of action、 perception、 and reaction. Sensory experience again becomes a prime form of communicating. Unlike spoken communication、 electronic communication is not subject to the physical limitations of time and space. Electronic messages can be preserved、 and they can be experienced simultaneously by large numbers of people regardless of their physical locations.

Schools may be in great trouble today primarily because their traditional structure, with teachers as all-knowing authorities and with step-by-step, graded dispensing of information, developed only with the spread of literacy and was matched to the step-by-step mastery of the ability to read graded texts. Schools in a print culture not only controlled much of the flow of information to children; they also controlled the teaching of the literate skills that children needed to gain further information.

McLuhan did believe that the "very technology that now cries out for a new mode of education creates means for getting it." Each student may become an explorer, a researcher, a huntsman who ranges through the new educational world of electric circuitry and heightened human interaction just as a tribal huntsman ranged the wilds. Children, even little children, working alone or in groups, will seek their own solutions to problems that perhaps have never been solved or even conceived as problems.

McLuhan saw technological changes as demanding a restructuring of education as well as providing new tools for the new form of education, a form of educating that would be open-ended, playful, cooperative vs competitive, exploratory, student vs teacher-driven, open to the resources of the larger community.

Shift in Education• Progressive era during the post Civil War period “assumed progress would

come from cooperative rather than competitive efforts” (Bork, 41)• Schools were established with the purpose to bring economic strength to

the community.• Children were shaped to become skilful and productive workers.

Behavioural Modification• British Lancasterian system was popular

in the early 19th century, with which the idea was that the school would operate normally even at the absence of its master.

• As a monitorial system, its characteristics was recursive delivery of instruction, where students passed information unto others upon learning, better known as peer tutoring in today.

• Emphasis was not on learning, but conformity, order, and obedience.

Joseph Lancaster

Classroom Management• William Bagley, 1874 – 1946,

influential American educational theorist, who emphasized efficiency in education.

• Noted on advocating classroom management by a strict chain of commands.

• Aimed to develop socially efficient individuals in education.

• Established model for preparing students to become effective and productive assembly line worker.

Superintendent

Principal Principal

Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher

Students Students

Business and Education• During mid 1800, businesses pressed for replacing traditional subjects like

literature with a range of gender-specific skills.• Industrialization also demanded division of labour and specialization• National Association of Manufacturers was afraid of falling behind

Germany in exports, and wrestling with unions for work force control.• Early 1900s, NAM advocated development of vocational and industrial

schools. Effectively shifting worker training for certain skills and responsibilities from businesses to schools. In turn, workers were trained at public expense.

• Time and motion studies by Fredrick Winslow Taylor helped promoted the view of worker as a machine.

Business and Education• Powerful business leaders were promoting public education.• Under the banner of social efficiency, business leaders drove public school

development, and social program and services to enhance productivity.• Public schools of the 20th century were organized to meet the needs of a

corporate state and consequently, to protect the interests of the ruling elite and the technological machine” (Spring, 1972)

• Differentiated education was promoted to train students in specific vocational areas, making assumptions on behalf of students and preparing them accordingly.

• World’s first satellite launched by the Soviets on 4 Oct, 1957.

• 58 cm (~23 in) in diameter

• weighed around 83.6 kg

• took about 96 minutes to go around the Earth

Russia Challenge• Soviet’s 1957 launch of Sputnik

signified Soviet space exploration program is ahead of the Americans.

• Americans were shock; the U.S. government and media considered the Sputnik not only a scientific breakthrough, but also a threat to U.S. on world leadership.

Academia Reaction• John R. Dunning, dean of the

Columbia University School of Engineering, urged more national funding and effort in technology and technological education.

• Dr. C.C. Furnas, a chemcial engineer and guided missile expert, chancellor of the University of Buffalo, recommended funding for scientific research and education for scientists and engineers.

Consequence• 1958, National Defense Education Act provided $1 billion for training

American youth in science, math, and modern foreign languages.• Higher education spending on scientific research and development tripled

from $172 million in 1956 to $540 million in 1961.• Science, along with math and computers dominated educational reform,

overshadowing language and literature.• Curriculum design and evaluation shifted to scientific approach, resulting

in rise in behavioural objectives and measurable product of education.

Establishment of Public Education• Productivity and specialization are key focus in ensuring economic

supremacy.• School is a source for skilled work force for business.

Post-Sputnik Changes to Education• Heavy funding provided to boost scientific development in higher and K-12

education and K-12.• Focus shift to science and math in curriculum.• Change in curriculum design and evaluation, emphasising measurable

outcome.

Dawn of PC Revolution• Mass production of personal computers in late 1970s shifted machines

from hobbyist to business.• Presence of computers firmly established in business, mounting pressure

for progress in the form of computer instruction in classroom.Calling for Education Reform

• Early 1980s: outpouring of special reports on American education crisis and rise of computer use in schools.

• Reports agreed that education tied to social, political, and economical issues; hence education renewal is key to American renewal.

• Action for Excellence claimed American success (esp. against Japan and West Germany) depend on improving its education, called for closer tie among business, labour, and education

Calling for Education Reform (Continued)• Education Americans for the 21st Century called for deep involvement in

school planning by computer and related industries, in preparing the young to coupe with challenges from Germany, Japan, and South Korea.

• A Nation at Risk claimed that new generation of Americans is scientifically and technologically illiterate, posing a threat to national security, and that growing demand for highly skilled workers in new fields are posing a risk to the nation.

• Most reports used quantitative measures in analyses (mainly standardized tests) and recommendations (increasing hours in specific subject areas).

• Common notion is that that schools need to produce computer-literate workers needed by businesses.

• Less emphasis among reports in the uncertainty in using technology in curriculum. (Education Commission of the States, 1983)

Commercial Influence• 80s and 90s: corporate

America continued to see education as a source for skilled workers to compete in global market.

• Computer companies poured money and free computers into education, competing for shares of the education market.

• Media painted a picture of computer illiterate as being illiteracy.

Source: Business Week

Despite enormous resourceSchool computing resource utilization in learning is low…

Impact of Computers in Education Development • Education reforms brought much progress in technological

aspects, but not necessary in humanistic aspects. As computing resources are utilized by the high performing and highly motivated students, learning needs of the mediocre and weak performing students are overlooked or restricted, increasing social stratification.

• The focus has been primarily on technology itself, whereas applying technology for education is often neglected, as show by the next section computer literacy development.

Stage 1: FOCUS: Hardware = visibility Ignored: Hardware + Training = Education EnhancementStage 2: In search for a purpose for the computer purchased, programming was learned by students, and became a reason for the computer purchases

Problem:•Lack of curriculum material for learning programming•Lack of competent teachers for teaching programming•Programming skill generic problem solving skill•Computers are not put into use for other subjects

Computer

Programming

Stage 3: Teach Computer LiteracyCommon argument: computers will be widely used in future, so students need to be computer literate Problem: no clear definition on computer literacy, so wide difference in implementations

Stage 4: Train TeachersReasoning: most teachers know little about computersProblem: focus on the skills of using computers, but not in the context of applying teaching materials

Stage 5 show areas of development that happen not in any particular order

Stage 5.1: Use Advanced HardwareFor few selected institutions, the most advanced hardware is pursued

Stage 5.2: Develop Programs for Standard CoursesInitially developed by teachers, small programs in generalOften maintain form and content of old printed materials, and low qualityProducts include tutorial, simulation (mostly non-interactive), and microcomputer-based laboratory

Stage 5.3: Use Authoring SystemCommercial product which promised producing learning materials with ease of use, but failed despite resources, finances, and time spentSimple materials were produced, but quality materials require sophisticated users developing materials as professionals

Stage 5.4: Catalogue Existing SoftwareLimited usefulness in general

Stage 5.5: Evaluate Small ProgramsIllustrated that little effective learning material existed

Stage 5.6: Teach Tools to Students Imposing business tools into school

Stage 5.7: Use NetworksFocus shift from PC centric to networking of computers, but learning is not the focus

Stage 5.8: Management SystemsCourse management and information management provided tangible support for students and teachers

In the Past• Ambiguity on the term computer literacy, resulting in

implementations ranging from explanations of basic components, skills in using general office software, to programming.

• Though computer education curriculum used “good citizen” and “social impact” as supporting argument, critical thinking and computer’s social role are lacking.

In the Future• New (interactive) courses and curricula: adopting to the

current needs of the society• Teacher training: in context of new course content• Evaluation of new courses: provision for improvement• Implementation: overcoming the status quo

• Neo-progressive educators suggested that• “Cyber-simulations of natural and social processes

can substitutes for real-world experiences, e.g. SimCity”

• 1970s and 1980s – Simulation games start to grow• 1990s – Computer simulation continue to grow

• Educative VS Mis-educative sides

• Universality and accuracy• Many complex real life experience can be

simulated• Can be developed to desired level of accuracy• E.g. How's Things Work in Busy-town (Richard

Scarry)• SimCity

• Sensory-motor enrichment• With multimedia aids, e.g. audio and graphic• More realistic (in the environment)• Optimize engagement in terms of sensory level

• Complexity of problems• Can be set at any desired level of complexity,

depending on individuals' needs• E.g. Different levels, roles, scenes and equipments

• Safety• Eliminate risks especially for children• E.g. Learn to cook (for children)• E.g. Virtual Hunting (New York State Department

of Environment Conservation)

• Limited sensitivity and flexibility• Ready-made (well definite) living experience

(models of life) vs indefinite and emergent world experience

• Pre-selected sensory features, pre-selected problem types, pre-selected response types

• Low quality of engagement• Sensory engagement• Risk-free (just like a story, not real)• No continuity in learning effect

• Passive pleasure and task avoidance • The emotion is pre-set and given (passive)• Kids just want to have fun"• Avoid frustrations and problems in life, escape

from the tensional aspects

• Fragmentation• A library of unrelated experiences (fragments)• Cannot add up to an integrated actual life in real

world

• Sims are not adequate substitutes for firsthand activities

• With “what if” experiments, as complements and tools to increase control in primary experiences

• “First hand experience was indispensable for the primary school” (John Dewey, 1976)

How to coordinated with other kinds of school and home learning experience

• Misleading data o Majority of the literature focus on assessing the

success of the adoption of computers, does not reflect the real situation.

o Most of the studies was commissioned by government education department or national association.

o result match the government Goal in order to exhort or encourage teachers to follow the model of practice.

• Optimistic crystal gazingo Largely inconclusive results.o Only local and technical import.o The study attempt a wider scope extrapolated far

beyond the classroom data.o extrapolate a optimistic prediction for the

technological reform.

• "from many cases, addition of further technological and technology support resources actually subtracts value from learning and related purposes"o mislearning o frustrated learningo confused learning

• Case of Caleb o creating an artificial learning situation o waste of time , money and effort

• Case of the National Grid of learning (NGfl) o Spaces in the interneto Surveillance, tracking software and spy on student

• Walled garden o safe ? or not Safe? saids who ?

• Majestic (interactive game) o require player to learn how to solve complex

problem using complex media of communication and information.

o It becomes a logical model for learning from the standpoint of computer-culture insiders.

• Mind-set (Barlow)• Pornography on interneto Outsider

Control employment in physical workplaceo Insider

Filters Firewalls Downloaded record on server, display time online Etc.

• Introducing computers would not change the ways that the teachers involved in the study would conduct their lessons and approach (Goodson,2001)

• “teachers don't think they had to do too many things differently because of the ICT”

Assessing the Effectiveness of IT in Education (Hubert Dreyfus, 2009) Systems of information retrieval: Old vs. New

Old Library Culture Hyperlinked cultureClassification

1. Stable2. hierarchically organized 3. defined by specific interests

Diversification 1. flexible 2. single-level 3. allowing all possible association

Careful selection 1. quality of edition 2. authenticity of the text 3. eliminate old materials

Access to everything 1. inclusiveness of editions 2. availability of text 3. save everything

Permanent collections 1. preservation of a fixed text 2. b. interested browsing

Dynamic collection 1. intertextual evolution 2. playful surfing

Assessing the Effectiveness of IT in Education (Hubert Dreyfus, 2009) How far is Distance Learning from Education• Novice: Student learns to recognize the feature and

follow the procedures by drill and practice.• Advance beginner: Practices can be simulated in

difference situations.• Competence: Avoid mistake, the competent performers

seek rules and reasoning procedures to decide which plan to adopt.

Assessing the Effectiveness of IT in Education (Hubert Dreyfus, 2009) How far is Distance Learning from Education• Proficiency: further advancement, positive emotional

experience will strengthen successful response.• Expertise: Skillful activities, see what needs to be done,

but has to decide how to do it.• Mastery: Strongly motive, suggest new perspective,

performers who have developed their own style in performances.

Assessing the Effectiveness of IT in Education (Hubert Dreyfus, 2009) Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age• Encourage everyone to develop an opinion about

everything.• Commented on all public matter without needing any

first hand experience.• Website full of anonymous information from all over

the world.• Newsgroup: anyone, anywhere, anytime can have an

opinion on anything.

Are computers in schools worth the investment? Promoters of computers in school aim at:• More productivity through better teaching and learning.

• Transform teaching and learning from traditional textbook lessons to more learner-friendly, student-centered approaches.

• Students to become sufficiently computer literate to compete in a workplace that demanded high-level technological skills.

Are computers in schools worth the investment? But, the fact is…• Schools can hardly claim full credit for students' growing

technological literacy, when many also pick up computer knowledge and skills at home and in part time jobs.

• As for enhanced efficiency in learning and teaching, there have been no advances over the last decade that can be confidently attributed to broader access to computers.

• Teachers at all levels of schooling have used the new technology basically to continue what they have always done which are far from the project-based teaching and learning that some techno-promoters have sought.

Why widespread access to new technologies in schools seldom led to frequent use in classrooms? • According to slow-revolution explanation: as the infrastructure

matures and teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning evolve, more and more teachers will change their practices and become serious users.

• According to history and contexts explanation: school structures and historical legacies carry so much weight that unless changed they will retard widespread use of technology and hinder substantial changes in classroom practices.