From my From my observations, observations,

I would I would describe describe

Simoncini as Simoncini as old, bald and old, bald and cantankerous.cantankerous.

Hello. I am a typical scientist. Hello. I am a typical scientist. Can anyone tell me what Can anyone tell me what

psychologists seek to do—you psychologists seek to do—you know, what are the goals of know, what are the goals of

psychology?psychology?Describe Describe

Explain Explain He is He is

cantankeroucantankerous because s because he is old, he is old, bald and bald and

ugly.ugly.

PredictPredict

We We psychologists psychologists predict what predict what people will people will

think or feel think or feel in various in various situations. situations.

So. . . If So. . . If Simoncini Simoncini

does not get does not get therapy, he therapy, he may go off may go off

the deep end the deep end and dye what and dye what is left of his is left of his hair blonde.hair blonde.

InfluencInfluencee

I need to I need to control his control his behavior in behavior in

helpful helpful ways; so I ways; so I will advise will advise him to get him to get cognitive cognitive

behavioral behavioral therapy and therapy and accept his accept his middle age middle age

woes.woes.

In doing their jobsIn doing their jobs, , to ensure to ensure accuracy, psychologists use accuracy, psychologists use

thethe scientific method. scientific method.

Question Question

HypothesisHypothesis

A A hypothesis hypothesis

is an is an educated educated

guess. It is guess. It is a a

researcher’s researcher’s prediction prediction about the about the expected expected

results of a results of a study.study.

Experiment Experiment

Results Results

ConclusionsConclusions Theory Theory

A theory is usually A theory is usually a complex a complex explanationexplanation

based on findingsbased on findingsfrom many from many

experiments.experiments.

The first type of research The first type of research we shall discuss is the we shall discuss is the

experiment.experiment.

The experiment is the most The experiment is the most powerful analytic tool used in powerful analytic tool used in science. Cause-and-effect science. Cause-and-effect relationships can be established relationships can be established onlyonly through the use of well- through the use of well-controlled experiments.controlled experiments.

We shall now discuss We shall now discuss variablesvariables. . What are they?What are they?

Conditions and behaviors that are Conditions and behaviors that are subject to change.subject to change.

Independent VariableIndependent VariableExperimenters manipulate so they Experimenters manipulate so they can observe its effects.can observe its effects.

A variable that researchers believe A variable that researchers believe will be affected by the independent will be affected by the independent variable.variable.

Dependent VariableDependent Variable

Here are examples of Here are examples of independent and dependent independent and dependent variables that I used in the variables that I used in the

previously-discussed previously-discussed psychology experiment I did psychology experiment I did back when I had this goatee.back when I had this goatee.

The attention experimentIndependent variable: the televisionIndependent variable: the television Experimental group: onExperimental group: on Control group: off Control group: off Dependent variable: the story Dependent variable: the story I read to the two classes I read to the two classes Never read the same way twice, no Never read the same way twice, no matter how hard you try matter how hard you try

Experimental Experimental groupgroup

Not exposed to Not exposed to the the independent independent variablevariable

Necessary in Necessary in all all

experimentsexperiments

Exposed to the Exposed to the inde-pendent inde-pendent variable.variable.

Control Control groupgroup

Solomon Asch’s Experiment Solomon Asch’s Experiment Conformity Experiment Conformity Experiment Subject asked to match one of Subject asked to match one of three lines to a “standard line;”three lines to a “standard line;” the answer was obviousthe answer was obvious

Standard Standard LineLine

Comparison Comparison LinesLines

When I did my research, I When I did my research, I used several techniques. used several techniques. We shall cover some of We shall cover some of those techniques in this those techniques in this

class.class.

B. F. Skinner B. F. Skinner

Validity Validity

Is the data valid? Does Tiger Woods really drive Buicks?

Extraneous (confounding): Extraneous (confounding): anything that differs between the anything that differs between the control & experimental group control & experimental group besides the independent variable besides the independent variable

Designing Psychological experimentsDesigning Psychological experiments

Basic inquiry (Question) Basic inquiry (Question)

Hypothesis Hypothesis Establish variablesEstablish variables Independent, dependent, extraneous Independent, dependent, extraneous

Ensure you have controls Ensure you have controls Select your samples Select your samples Begin the experiment Begin the experiment

Test a Test a relatively relatively small group of small group of the population. the population.

Samples Samples

Random selection Every third cheerleader

““What do What do Mustang J. V.Mustang J. V.cheerleaderscheerleadersthink about. . .” think about. . .”

Deliberate Deliberate selectionselection Sample only blondes Sample only blondes

RepresentativeRepresentative——avoid biasavoid bias

Disclaimer: note most “blondes” in the below Disclaimer: note most “blondes” in the below photo are, in reality, fake blondes.photo are, in reality, fake blondes.

Note: random sampling means Note: random sampling means that all members of the that all members of the population have an equal population have an equal chance of being selectedchance of being selected

Correlational Studies Correlational Studies Relationship between two Relationship between two sets of observations.sets of observations.

Oh, I see: all politicians Oh, I see: all politicians wear suits. Hey! I’m a wear suits. Hey! I’m a

queen and they are queen and they are presidents. We are the presidents. We are the

same!!!same!!!

For a For a blonde, blonde, that is a that is a brilliant brilliant insight.insight. Republican/Democrat = politiciansRepublican/Democrat = politicians

CorrelationCorrelation

She’s skinny. . . But She’s skinny. . . But HOT!!! Can she be HOT!!! Can she be

my intern???my intern???

Surveys Surveys Most practical way toMost practical way to gather data on the gather data on the attitudes, beliefs, and attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of largeexperiences of large numbers of people. numbers of people.

Interviews, questionnaires, combination Interviews, questionnaires, combination

Surveys Surveys Question: What is the best technique for Question: What is the best technique for teaching high school students? teaching high school students?

Hypothesis: Simoncini’s technique is the Hypothesis: Simoncini’s technique is the best best

Questionnaire Questionnaire 10-20 10-20 respondents respondents Demographic section Demographic section

Proof questions section Proof questions section

Questionnaire Questionnaire Demographics Demographics

GenderGender: Male Female : Male Female Age/year in schoolAge/year in school: 9 10 11 12: 9 10 11 12

Ethnic backgroundEthnic background: Latino, Afr. Am, : Latino, Afr. Am, Cauc, Asian, Other Cauc, Asian, Other

Classes taught by Simoncini: 1 2 3Classes taught by Simoncini: 1 2 3

Cum. GPA <2.0 2.0-3.0 3.1-4.0 Cum. GPA <2.0 2.0-3.0 3.1-4.0 >4.0 >4.0 Simoncini’s teaching method is boring. Simoncini’s teaching method is boring. Strongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree SureAgree Sure DisagreeDisagree

Simoncini truly cares about his students. Simoncini truly cares about his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the courses he teaches. courses he teaches. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini has no control over his students. Simoncini has no control over his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Scientific biography Scientific biography of an individual or group.of an individual or group.

Circumstances Circumstances in which thein which the subjects of the subjects of the experiment are experiment are not conscious not conscious that they are that they are part part of an of an experiment.experiment.

Case study (history)Case study (history)-- --

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

Simoncini is such a Simoncini is such a jerk! May the fleas jerk! May the fleas of 1000 camels be of 1000 camels be

in his underwear for in his underwear for a year!a year!

Here is a homework project. Here is a homework project. 1.1. Engage in a naturalistic observation Engage in a naturalistic observation activity. activity.

2. Spend 15-30 minutes in some type 2. Spend 15-30 minutes in some type of eating venue of eating venue (cafeteria, fast (cafeteria, fast

food food restaurant, fancy eatery, or family restaurant, fancy eatery, or family

meal.)meal.)

3. 3. Be as unobtrusive as possible.Be as unobtrusive as possible.

4. Record the various types of 4. Record the various types of behavior demonstrated by the behavior demonstrated by the people you observe.people you observe.

Longitudinal studies Longitudinal studies Study the same group at regular intervals Study the same group at regular intervals over a period of years to determine if their over a period of years to determine if their behavior or feelings have changed and, if behavior or feelings have changed and, if so, how. so, how. Example: Example: study the study the members of members of the OHS the OHS soccer team soccer team every 2 years every 2 years until 2030 to until 2030 to determine if determine if their their unrulinessunrulinesscontinues.continues.

Cross-Sectional Studies Cross-Sectional Studies People are organized into groups that are cross-People are organized into groups that are cross-sections of the population. Then the groups are sections of the population. Then the groups are randomly sampled and the members randomly sampled and the members of each group are surveyed, tested, of each group are surveyed, tested, or observed simultaneously. or observed simultaneously. Example: age cross-sectionsExample: age cross-sections

Teenagers Teenagers Young Young AdultsAdults

ElderlyElderly

Middle-Aged Middle-Aged

Cohort-sequential study—better data Cohort-sequential study—better data

Take aTake a cross section of the population, then cross section of the population, then follow each cohort follow each cohort or groupor group for a short period. for a short period.

Less susceptible to bias; more accurate Less susceptible to bias; more accurate data data

Self-fulfilling propheciesSelf-fulfilling prophecies

There are always potential There are always potential pitfalls in research—pitfalls pitfalls in research—pitfalls that you must try to avoid.that you must try to avoid.

Sometimes yourSometimes your expectationsexpectations about the results about the results of an experiment areof an experiment are so greatso great, , that you mightthat you might inadvertently inadvertently do things thatdo things that skew the resultsskew the results. .

Doh!Doh!

Two types of experimentsTwo types of experiments used to avoid self-fulfilling used to avoid self-fulfilling prophesiesprophesies are single-blind are single-blind

and double blind and double blind experimentsexperiments..Single-blind: participants are Single-blind: participants are

unaware of whichunaware of which participantsparticipants received the treatment and which received the treatment and which ones received the placeboones received the placebo..

Double-blind: neither the experimenter nor the Double-blind: neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received the participants know which participants received the treatment.treatment.

No problem! We professors No problem! We professors like serious students. Here is like serious students. Here is

the the Ethics CascadeEthics Cascade

1. Who should decide what is 1. Who should decide what is morally justifiable in the morally justifiable in the conduct of research?conduct of research?2.Are controlled research studies 2.Are controlled research studies ever necessary or appropriate? ever necessary or appropriate? 3. Should all research have a 3. Should all research have a foreseeable practical benefit?foreseeable practical benefit?4. At whom should research be 4. At whom should research be directed?directed?5. What specific topics are worthy 5. What specific topics are worthy of research?of research?6. What particular research metho-6. What particular research metho- dologies are scientifically valid,dologies are scientifically valid, as well as ethically appropriate?as well as ethically appropriate?7. Of the valid methods, which 7. Of the valid methods, which should be used?should be used?

Theodore Newcomb and the BenningtonTheodore Newcomb and the Bennington College experiment College experiment

Can norms of a liberal campus Can norms of a liberal campus have a greater influence than have a greater influence than family traditions and attitudes?family traditions and attitudes?

Yes Yes

Simoncini truly cares about his students. Simoncini truly cares about his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the Simoncini has a strong knowledge of the courses he teaches. courses he teaches. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini has no control over his students. Simoncini has no control over his students. Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Simoncini should be “put out to pasture.” Strongly Agree Not Disagree StronglyStrongly Agree Not Disagree Strongly Agree SureAgree Sure Disagree Disagree

Operational Definitions Operational Definitions

Hey, I’m a math nerd, so I love Hey, I’m a math nerd, so I love this next part. We shall now this next part. We shall now

discuss statistics.discuss statistics.

Frequency DistributionFrequency DistributionWay of arranging Way of arranging data so we know data so we know how often a how often a particular score or particular score or observation observation occurs. One way occurs. One way to to depict data: a depict data: a histogramhistogram

0102030405060708090

1st Test 2nd Test 3rd Test 4th Test

Boys

Nor Girls

Blondes

A few A few extreme extreme

scores can scores can have a have a

disproportiondisproportionateate

effect—pullseffect—pullsmean towardmean towardthe extreme the extreme

scorescore

Describes something about the average Describes something about the average score.score. ModeModeMost frequent scoreMost frequent score

MedianMedianMiddle scoreMiddle score

MeanMeanSum of all scoresSum of all scoresdivided by totaldivided by totalnumber of scoresnumber of scores

M = X / NM = X / N4 + 8 + 5 + 10 + 2 + 9 = 4 + 8 + 5 + 10 + 2 + 9 =

38/6=6.33 38/6=6.33

Central Tendency Central Tendency

Can be Can be skewed:skewed:

Measures of variance (variability) Measures of variance (variability) Provide an index of how spread Provide an index of how spread out the scores of a distribution out the scores of a distribution are.are.Range Range Subtract lowest score from the Subtract lowest score from the highest scorehighest score

Standard DeviationStandard DeviationA measure of distance, describing an A measure of distance, describing an average distance of every score to the average distance of every score to the mean. The larger the standard mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the deviation, the more spread out the scores are. scores are.

CorrelationCorrelationRelationship between two Relationship between two sets of observations or sets of observations or variables.variables. I wonder if you can

draw a correlation between

cumulative gpa’s and scores on this

next test?

Three possible correlations:Three possible correlations:

Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 >4.0>4.0

3.5-4 3.5-4

3-3.493-3.49

2.5-2.992.5-2.99

2-2.492-2.49

<2.0<2.0

Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100

Positive Positive

Three possible correlations:Three possible correlations:

Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 >4.0>4.0

3.5-4 3.5-4

3-3.493-3.49

2.5-2.992.5-2.99

2-2.492-2.49

<2.0<2.0

Negative Negative

Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95100

Three possible correlations:Three possible correlations:

Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 Using GPA to predict test scores: Test 5 >4.0>4.0

3.5-4 3.5-4

3-3.493-3.49

2.5-2.992.5-2.99

2-2.492-2.49

<2.0<2.0

No Correlation No Correlation

Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100Test Sc. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

High scores on both High scores on both variables: variables: positive positive correlation and correlation coefficient; high correlation and correlation coefficient; high scores on one variable and low scores on scores on one variable and low scores on the other: negative correlation and the other: negative correlation and negative coefficient.negative coefficient.The higher the number, the stronger the The higher the number, the stronger the link;link;score of 0 = no consistent relationship score of 0 = no consistent relationship between scoresbetween scores

The correlation coefficient The correlation coefficient helps tell precisely the helps tell precisely the

type of relationship there type of relationship there is between scores.is between scores.

OK, you peopleOK, you people. . For For tomorrow’s class, be sure to tomorrow’s class, be sure to

bring your summer work bring your summer work projects.projects. Some of you are Some of you are

going to present them to the going to present them to the class and critique your class and critique your

methodology, based on what methodology, based on what you read in the textbook.you read in the textbook.

Well, people, that’s about it Well, people, that’s about it for this chapter except you for this chapter except you will have your chapter test will have your chapter test

during our next meeting. In during our next meeting. In the Army, we call that “A the Army, we call that “A

chance to excel—HOOAH!!!”chance to excel—HOOAH!!!”