From Kūkaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian Sky Martha H. Noyes

This article was downloaded by: [Trinity International University]On: 05 October 2014, At: 15:08Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: MortimerHouse, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology,Consciousness and CulturePublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtam20

From Kūkaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian SkyMartha H. Noyesa

a Martha Noyes has written about the culture and history of Hawaii since 1990. Sheis completing a master's degree in cultural astronomy at the University of WalesTrinity Saint David.Published online: 28 Nov 2013.

To cite this article: Martha H. Noyes (2013) From Kūkaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian Sky, Time and Mind: The Journalof Archaeology, Consciousness and Culture, 6:2, 159-174

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175169713X13589680081777

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”)contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensorsmake no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitabilityfor any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinionsand views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy ofthe Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources ofinformation. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands,costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial orsystematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution inany form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtam20

http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175169713X13589680081777

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Time and Mind Volume 6—Issue 2—July 2013, pp. 159–174

Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology, Consciousness and Culture

Volume 6—Issue 2July 2013pp. 159–174DOI: 10.2752/175169713X13589680081777

Reprints available directly

from the publishers

Photocopying permitted by

license only

© Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

2013

From Kukaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian SkyMartha H. Noyes

Martha Noyes has written about the culture and history of

Hawaii since 1990. She is completing a master’s degree in

cultural astronomy at the University of Wales Trinity Saint

David. [email protected]

AbstractThis article is about Sirius as it was understood and used on the island of O‘ahu in Hawaii. Kukaniloko, best known as one of two royal birthing sites in the Hawaiian Islands, was—is—the piko, or navel, of the islands, or at least of the northern kingdom (O‘ahu and Kaua‘i). Research over the past few years has shown that landscape markers visible from or invisible but along the line of a star’s rise or set azimuth from Kukaniloko were named for the rise and set points of calendar stars. Sirius is a particularly important calendar star, and especially so from the point of view of Kukaniloko. Among the findings is that although there is nothing in the literature to suggest it, Sirius in Hawaii has an association with dogs or a dog. Another is that among the many Hawaiian names for Sirius there are categories, among them names having to do with subsistence, names having to do with the visible characteristics of the star, and names having to do with human sacrifice. There is also a suggestion that there may have been a Sirius “year.”

Keywords: Hawaii, Kukaniloko, astronomy, Sirius

IntroductionThis article reports on the association of the central O‘ahu

site Kukaniloko with the star Sirius and the implications of

these associations for the functions of both Kukaniloko and

Sirius in the culture. The many Polynesian names of Sirius

were analyzed, and the names of landscape features were

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4

160 From Kukaniloko Martha H. Noyes


examined to see whether they marked

the rise or set of Sirius. Eleven landscape

makers were found. Of the eleven, nine are

beyond view of Kukaniloko, a fact which has

implications for the functions of Kukaniloko.

Among the names of Sirius and of the

landscape features are words suggesting the

star was associated with sacrifice, including

human sacrifice.

Archaeoastronomer Clive Ruggles

referred to the dialogue between

archaeologist Keith Kintigh and

archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni regarding

the framing of archaeoastronomy (and

presumably cultural astronomy) using

historical, ethnological, and archaeological

evidence so that it contextualizes research

and findings (Aveni 1992: n.p.; Kintigh 1992:

n.p.). He said that more “culturally embedded

studies … begin to reveal greater subtleties

and start to address meaningful questions”

(Ruggles 2007: 314). He wrote that the

presumption that sites had alignments

to solstice sunrises or sunsets, among

other presumptions regarding Polynesian

astronomy, could not be proven true. “The

obvious conclusion is that in Polynesia it may

be unproductive, and indeed misleading,

to apply this particular western ‘tool kit’ of

astronomical targets. Polynesians, apparently,

had different astronomical predilections”

(Ruggles 2007: 315).

This article is one product of a larger

research project I undertook to get some

understanding of how celestial events

were embedded in Kukaniloko, how those

events were understood and used within

the culture, and whether researchers might

apply such understanding to guide further

inquiries. Among the questions that framed

the research was the question begged

by Ruggles’s term “culturally embedded

studies”—what constitutes a culturally

embedded study? Another was whether

“astronomical targets” were the “tool kit.”

As a non-Hawaiian, I am an outsider.

As someone who has lived since early

adolescence in Hawaii and whose life and

work have been influenced by Hawaiian

culture I am somewhat of an insider. The

culture is, at least to an extent, embedded

in me. That may not qualify my work as

“culturally embedded” in the sense Ruggles

intended it. I do, however, come to the table

with different preexisting knowledge sets

than many cultural- and archaeoastronomers

do.

A central principle in Polynesian

understanding is the interrelatedness of

things (Jollands and Harmsworth 2007:

719). That applies to the sky, the land, and

everything in/on them. It is easy to write that

as a concept, but its applications are complex

and layered. This is true also with antitheses

and metaphor, common elements in cultural

expression (Elbert 1951: 349–50). Translating

knowledge embedded in cultural expressions

to fit scholarly language is challenging as they

have to do with epistemology, heuristics, and

ontology, and the ways they differ between

Western culture and the indigenous one.

Inherent in the research process for

me was that while presuming astronomical

associations were present was appropriate,

presuming in advance what “targets” I would

look for was not. To quote a beloved mentor,

“You’ll know when you know. Your na‘au

[gut] knows first. From that comes the ‘ike

[knowledge]” (Moe Nalani Keale, personal

communication). Still, the research and its

results must meet acceptable standards of

scholarship in the academic community.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4

Martha H. Noyes From Kukaniloko 161


Hawaiian Cultural Astronomy to DateHawaiian cultural astronomy and Hawaiian

archaeoastronomy have not been widely

investigated, although there has been

increasing attention to the subject in recent

years, following upon the publication of

native Hawaiian folklorist Dr Rubellite

Kawena Johnson’s and John Kaipo Mahelona’s

1975 publication of Na Inoa Hoku, an

explanatory catalog of Hawaiian and

Polynesian stars. Maud Makemson, director

of the Vasser College Observatory, published

two papers on “Hawaiian Astronomical

Concepts,” one in 1938, the second in 1939.

She also wrote The Morning Star Rises on

Polynesian Astronomy. Armando Silva and

Rubellite Kawena Johnson (1982) published

a study of astronomical alignments at Ahu a

‘Umi on Hawaii Island in 1982, archaeologist

Patrick V. Kirch (2004) published a study of

astronomical alignments at Kahikinui on Maui,

and Clive Ruggles (2007) has written about

alignments on Kaua‘i.

Hawaii is the easternmost island group

in Polynesia and thus shares much culturally

and linguistically with other Polynesian groups.

Thus material from other Polynesian regions

has provided astronomical information useful

in understanding Hawaiian astronomy. Elsdon

Best wrote several important works, including

Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori (1922).

Percy Smith’s translation of the Maori Lore of

the Whare Wananga (1913) provides insight

into the sacred aspect of Polynesian star

knowledge. Other works, including those of

Sir Arthur Grimble (1972), Te Hiroa Rangi

(Sir Peter S. Buck, part-Maori director of

the Bishop Museum) (1959), half-Tahitian

daughter of a missionary to Tahiti, Teuira

Henry (1907) and Henry and Orsmand

(1928), and E.E.V. Collocott (1922), are

useful references for Polynesian astronomy.

Also important are nineteenth-century

native ethnographic sources such as Samuel

Kamakau (1891, 1964, 1991), John Papa I‘i

(1959), David Malo (1951), and Kepelino

(1932). As Ruggles pointed out, there are also

living descendants with some knowledge of

the culture’s astronomy (Ruggles 2007: 293).

Hawaiian Cultural Astronomy at KukanilokoIn 1982, retired US Army Major Harry Kurth

visited Kukaniloko and identified a diamond-

shaped stone as similar to Gilbertese (now

Kiribati) star compasses (Kurth and Johnson

n.d.: n.p.). He died before writing his findings,

but from his notes Rubellite Johnson

wrote a paper that encouraged interest in

astronomical and navigational associations

of Kukaniloko (Kurth and Johnson n.d.: n.p.).

Bishop Museum planetarium director Will

Kyselka sent a memorandum to the State

of Hawaii entitled “Preliminary Thoughts on

Ku-kani-loko” in which he argued for a study

of astronomy at Kukaniloko (Kyselka 1983:

n.p.). Three years ago the Office of Hawaiian

Affairs commissioned a Traditional Cultural

Property Study of Kukaniloko which included

a small amount of astronomical material

related to the site. This study has not yet

been published. Nevertheless, no scholarly

study of the site’s astronomically oriented

possibilities has been done prior to the

project of which this article is one result.

Sirius in PolynesiaSirius is the brightest star in the sky and

not surprisingly one of the most noted in

nearly every part of the world. It is one

of the month stars for the island of O‘ahu

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



(Malo 1951: 32). Elsdon Best noted that

Sirius is among the stars marking seasons

in Aotearoa, New Zealand (Best 1922: 57).

William Wyatt Gill and Best both reported

myths in which Sirius plays roles (Gill and

Muller 1876: 43; Best 1959: 49). Makemson

referred to Sirius as one of the “food-

bringing stars” of Aotearoa (Makemson

1941: 119). Sirius appears repeatedly in

The Kumulipo (Beckwith 1918), the best

known of Hawaii’s cosmogonic chants, and

in Rubellite Johnson’s The Kumulipo Mind, an

interpretation of the chant (Johnson 2000).

Suggestively, James Cowan wrote that in

Aotearoa, New Zealand, “There are chants

to Rehua [a Maori name for both Sirius and

Antares], or Sirius—Rehua the Man-eater he

is called,” although Cowan understood “Man-

eater” as referring to the heat of summer

(Cowan 1930: 86).

Location and BackgroundBest known as the royal birthing stones,

Kukaniloko was, and for many people still

is, the piko—navel—of Hawaii (Hawaii

State Parks (a) n.d.; Wahipana.org; Kirch

and Babineau 1996: 35). A child born to a

chiefess at Kukaniloko received high chiefly

status (Yent 1995). However, Kukaniloko was

more than a royal birthing site. It was also a

pu‘uhonua—a place of refuge—and may have

had other functions as well (Lenchanko et al.,

personal communication; Kamakau 1991: 38,

136).

Kukaniloko sits on the high plain of Lıhue

in central O‘ahu. To the west is the Wai‘anae

Mountain Range, to the east the Ko‘olau

Mountain Range (Figure 1). Once part of a

larger complex, the stones of Kukaniloko are

what remain visible at the site (Hawaii State

Parks (a) n.d.) (Figure 2).

To understand the relationship between

Kukaniloko and stars important in the

culture, the names of features both within

the viewscape and beyond view were

examined to see what relationship they

might have had with Sirius from the point of

view of Kukaniloko. Likewise, names for stars

known to be associated with Kukaniloko

were translated to see whether those

meanings might shed light on how the stars

were understood and used in the culture.

The ResearchFor three years I have been studying this site

and its associations with celestial objects.

The overall study includes in-site alignments

and alignments with landscape features

beyond the site. Research thus far includes

the calendar stars for O’ahu, the solstices,

equinoxes, solar zeniths, and solar nadirs. This

article is confined to the relationships and

associations between Kukaniloko and the star

Sirius.

Ruggles suggested there was a different

“tool kit” of astronomical targets in Hawaii.

Rather than assuming specific targets, I began

Fig 1 The location of Kukaniloko. Map drawn by

author based on USGS map of Oahu.

Kukaniloko

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



with two questions—what celestial object(s)

or event(s) were they looking for? And what

did those celestial object(s) or event(s) mean

to them?

Methods and MaterialsMultiple site visits, as often as twice a week,

and sometimes only once a month, over

three years took place at varying times of

day. Some visits included talking with people

whose families have lineal connections to

the site. Some were to take measurements

with compasses and a theodolite phone

application. Many combined activities.

Off-site work included planetarium

software set to the latitude and longitude

of Kukaniloko and the year AD 1300, a large

scale USGS map of O‘ahu, a Monarchy

period survey map from 1886, Territorial

period (AD 1893–1959) survey maps of

O‘ahu, and literature searches. A 360-degree

protractor was used with the maps to check

compass bearings in order to compare

them to celestial object azimuths. This

methodology was checked with people

experienced in similar reckoning of bearings

and azimuths. Among those people were

Clive Ruggles and my brother, Paul Noyes, an

accomplished ocean sailing captain licensed

by the US Coast Guard.

Hawaiian and Maori (New Zealand)

names of celestial objects were gathered

from multiple sources. I translated the

names using the Pukui and Elbert Hawaiian

Dictionary (1986), the Lorrin Andrews

Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language (2002

[1922]), and the Edward Tregear Maori-

Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (1891). In

this article names of celestial objects do not

contain diacritical marks because the various

star lists, except for a few compiled after the

1960s, do not use them and inserting them is

Fig 2 Photograph of Kukaniloko. Photo: Author.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



likely to alter the intent of those who named

them long before any Polynesian language

was written. Written language in Hawaii

started with the American missionaries who

began arriving in the Islands in 1820.

Tradition holds that from Kukaniloko

the equinox sun rises over Pu‘u Ka‘aumakua

in the Ko‘olau Range and sets over Mauna

Ka‘ala in the Wai‘anae Range, and azimuths

for the rising and setting equinox confirm

this tradition (Tom Lenchanko, Walt

Mahealani Mix-Kealekupuna, Glen Kila,

personal communication). This suggests that

landscape features functioned as foresights

and was a line of investigation in my research.

Because I am well-acquainted with the

culture I was aware that practitioners of

the Kane traditions understand sites to

have relationships with one another even if

they are so widely separated by geography

as to not be visible from one to another,

so I looked for landscape features beyond

view from Kukaniloko to see whether their

names suggested possible relationships with

Kukaniloko’s observations of the sky. That

Kukaniloko is the piko, which means not only

navel but also the center, made it likely that

such relationships existed.

The Names of SiriusSirius has more than thirty names in

Polynesia. The number of names testifies

to the importance of Sirius in the culture.

The number of names for Sirius, names

for Sirius that are also names for other

stars, and the meanings of the names led

me to hypothesize that the names related

to cultural or culturally relevant functions

of the star. I found seven categories of

names for Sirius: (1) lono names, (2)

offering or sacrifice, (3) joy and spirituality,

(4) subsistence, (5) cosmology and myth,

(6) appearance, and (7) seasonality (see

Table 1).1

FindingsThe year 1300 AD was used to locate the

stars in a time well before European contact

(1778) and before the southern chiefs had

conquered the northern islands of O‘ahu

and Kaua‘i (mid-1700s) (Cordy 2002: 44).

The state’s archaeologists dated construction

of Kukaniloko to between AD 1200 and

AD 1300 (Yent 1995: n.p.). The site’s kahu

(keeper), though, said it was constructed

in AD 1060 (Tom Lenchanko, personal

communication).

Using Starry Night planetarium software,

I determined that in the year AD 1300,

Sirius made its first evening appearance

in early January, reached the meridian at

sunset in mid-March, and set at sunset in

the last week of May. The star made its first

sunrise appearance in the second week

of July, reached the meridian at sunrise in

mid-September, and set at sunrise in the last

week of November. It was absent from the

sky from the last week of May to the second

week of July and again from the last week of

November to the first week of January (see

Table 2).

Sirius reached the meridian in March,

about six weeks after the close of the annual

Makahiki celebrations, and again in mid-

September, a few weeks short of the start

of Makahiki, an annual event triggered by

the October/November rise of the Pleiades

and ending when the Pleiades culminated

(Kyselka 1983: 5, 1993: 183; Johnson 2000:

37). During Makahiki, war and sacrifice

ceased. Thus Sirius at the meridian coincided

closely with the boundaries of the period of

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Table 1 The many Hawaiian names of Sirius, with translations

Category Name Translation

Lono LonomaiLonoakaikaiKahailonoAikikauelonoLonoHikikauelonoHikikaulonomeha

Lono is comingLono is lifted upOffering for/to LonoLittle season of Lono or shining little season of LonoLonoSeason of Lono arrivesSeason of Lono silence/ aloneness arrives

Offering/sacrifice KahailonoKaulua-ihai-mohaiHikikauliaLoaa ke kaneHikawaolenaKau-ano-mehaHikikaulonomehaKaulua

Offering for/to LonoKaulua lift up offeringFearful season approachesProcure the manFlow upland or inland yellow (yellow-lena-is a name for Sirius)Season of awe or season of sacred solitudeSeason of Lono’s solitude or silence arrivesThe ulua (substitute for a person)

Joy/spirituality HaaaAaaMeremereHulumalailenaKau-ano-mehaHikikaulonomehaKaulua

Sirius (lena) esteemed with peaceSend up greetings, joy at greeting a loved oneVoice of joySirius (lena) esteemed with peaceSeason of awe or sacred solitudeSeason of Lono’s solitude or silence arrivesTwo-natured

Subsistence AHikikaueliaKaloloaaTe KokotaAaKauopaeHoku opaeHokukauopaeHikawaolena

Booby birdDigging season arrivesTaro harvestShellfishBooby birdShrimp seasonShrimp starShrimp season starFlow inland or upland Sirius (lena)

Cosmology/myth KapoulenaManuTe pou o te rangiAamoa

The yellow pillarBirdThe pillar of heavenGlittering chicken

Appearance LenaMereMeleALenawaleAaTakurua

YellowYellowYellowGlitteringYellow/Sirius aloneGlowWinter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



war and sacrifice. It seemed that Makahiki,

which coincided closely with the period

between Sirius at the meridian in March and

Sirius at the meridian in September, may have

been what determined when sacrifice was

permitted.

There is, however, another possibility. At

the latitude of O’ahu the rises and sets of

Sirius occur on or close to the two solar

zeniths and two solar nadirs (see Table 3).

The Makahiki season, then, corresponds

closely with the period from the first to the

second nadir which in turn coincides with

the November set and January rise of Sirius.

Although understudied, the importance of

the solar nadir in Hawaii is apparent from the

number of landmarks I found associated with

the event. From Kukaniloko there are eleven

markers for Sirius, eleven for the solstices

(June and December combined), and nine

for the nadirs. Sirius was, thus, important as a

sun station marker, and it may have been the

period between the second solar nadir and

the first solar nadir which marked the period

of war and sacrifice, and/or that the Makahiki

period and the absence of Sirius for most of

it worked together to require that war and

sacrifice cease.

The rise azimuth of Sirius from

Kukaniloko was 110 degrees, the set azimuth

251. I next consulted the USGS map for

landscape features at those azimuths from

the point of view of Kukaniloko. Three

were east of the Ko‘olau Mountains, thus

not visible from Kukaniloko, two were

visible from the site, and six were west of

the Wai‘anae Mountains and not visible.

The azimuths of Pu‘u Ka‘ ı lio and Eleao,

the two features visible from Kukaniloko, I

also checked, although seeing Eleao is rare

because of the clouds that usually cover the

upper region of the Ko‘olau Mountains (see

Table 4 and Figure 3).

The names of almost all the landscape

features can be interpreted as having to

do with human sacrifice—human sacrifice

was practiced in Hawaii and other parts of

Polynesia (Levin 1968: 411; Valeri 1985).

(Although not directly relevant to this study, it

is interesting to note that Sirius was associated

with sacrifice in other cultures too, although

it was animals that were offered: Ceos in

the Aegean (Brosch 2008: 25); dogs were

sacrificed to Sirius in Rome and, according

one source, also in modern Greece (Gout

n.d.; Sergis 2010: 73). Sirius was also associated

with sacrifice in the Persian Avesta’s “Hymn

to Trishta” [the god of Sirius] (Darmesteter

1898). This hymn repeats variations of the

Table 2 Sirius and the seasons AD 1300

Rise—east Local N–S meridian Set—west Season

5 January sunset 13 March sunset 26 May sunset Ho‘oilo

9 July sunrise 18 September sunrise 28 November sunrise Kau

Table 3 Sirius, solar zeniths, and solar nadirs

AD 1300

Sirius set 28 November AM First nadir

Sirius rise 5 January AM Second nadir

Sirius set 26 May PM First zenith

Sirius rise 9 July PM Second zenith

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



phrase “I will offer him a sacrifice,” and the

conclusion says “We sacrifice unto Tishtrya,

the bright and glorious star.”)

Discussion

Kaulua StarsOne of the best known names for Sirius

is Kaulua. Generally translated as “double

canoe,” the word also means “two-natured.”

There are, though, other possible meanings,

as both kau and lua have several meanings.

The Pukui and Elbert (1986) dictionary

includes these meanings:

Kau

1. vt. To place; impose, as a law; to levy,

as a tax; to place in sacrifice, as a pig; to

come to rest, as the setting sun; to arrive,

come to pass.

2. n. Period of time, lifetime; any season.

Lua

1. n. Hole, pit, grave, den, cave.2. num.

Two, second, twice, double; doubly,

much.

The name Kaulua may also be ka ulua, the

(ka) crevally, jackfish, or pompano fish (ulua).

Ulua could be used to substitute for a human

sacrifice (Levin 1968: 413; Valeri 1985: 355.)

The Pukui and Elbert (1986) dictionary gives

the meanings of the word ulu in the word

ulua as the reason for this substitution—

“Possessed by a god; inspired by a spirit, god,

ideal, person; stirred, excited; to enter in and

inspire.” In the English-to-Hawaiian section

of the Pukui and Elbert dictionary both ulua

and kanaka are listed as words for “sacrifice.”

Kanaka means person, man, human being,

laborer, servant, which repeats the meaning

of kane—man—in the name Loaa ke kane

for Sirius.

Four stars or star groups share the

name—Betelgeuse, Gemini, Capricornus,

and Sirius, but the Capricornus identity is

uncertain. The other three’s periods of

visibility overlap. In the year 1300 AD, the

Pleiades culminated 31 January, signaling the

end of Makahiki. Betelgeuse, Gemini, and

Sirius remained visible for some time (see

Table 5). The same is true if Sirius rather

than the end of Makahiki was the signal for

the start of the period in which sacrifice

occurred. These stars probably share the

name Kaulua because they share the same

season and function.

Betelgeuse has among its names Koko

and Kaulua Koko. The usual meaning for koko

is blood. As Kaulua Koko, the name suggests

the (ka) crevally/jack/pompano (ulua) blood

(koko), with the ulua fish representing a

human sacrifice.

Fig 3 Map showing features along the rise and

set azimuth lines of Sirius from Kukaniloko. 1.

Alala Point, 2. Puu Papaa, 3. Puu Pahu, 4. Eleao,

5. Puu Kaili, 6. Kauaopuu, 7. Mauna Kuwale, 8.

Paheehee, 9. Kaupuni Stream, 10. Kaneilio, 11.

Pokai Bay, X. Kukaniloko. Map drawn by author

based on a USGS map of Oahu.

Kukaniloko

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Table 4 Sirius and associated landscape features from Kukaniloko

Landscape feature Translation Feature azimuth

Event Event azimuth

Alala Point Awakening (P)

Crow (bird)

Wail

110 Sirius rise 110

Puu Papaa Scorched hill (P)

Burned hill

108 Sirius rise 110

Puu Pahu Drum Hill 110 Sirius rise 110

Eleao Plant louse (P)

Black (dark) realm

Messenger beware

Door at leeward end of house

110 Sirius rise 110

Puu Kailio Dog hill (P) 245 Sun set at

Sirius rise

246

Kauaopuu Kaua (outcast(s)) hill 250 Sirius set 251

Mauna Kuwale Mountain standing alone (P) 248 Sirius set 251

Paheehee Slippery (P)

Flee

246 Sirius set 251

Kaupuni Stream Place around (P)

Season of puni (ten-month year)

Period of time puni (ten-month year)

245 Sirius set 251

Kaneilio Dog Kane (P)

Kane’s dog

245 Sirius set 251

Pokai Bay Night of the supreme one (P)

Realm of the gods lift up and carry

245–255 Sirius set 251

(P), Pukui et al. (1974).

All other translations based on Pukui and Elbert (1986).

Table 5 Kaulua stars AD 1300

Star AM rise AM set PM rise PM set

Sirius 10 July 28 November 5 January 26 May

Betelgeuse 14 June 24 November 11 December 21 May

Gemini 28 June 22 December 24 December 21 June

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Sirius Landscape Markers from the Point of View of KukanilokoFrom Kukaniloko there are nine named

landscape features whose names suggest an

association with human sacrifice and which

lie at either the azimuth of the rise of Sirius

or the azimuth of the set of Sirius. A tenth,

Pu‘u Ka‘ ı lio, is where the sun sets the day

Sirius rises. With the exceptions of Eleao

and Pu‘u Ka‘ ı lio none of the markers are

visible from Kukaniloko.

The table gives translations, but most

of the place names require additional

explanation. Pu‘u Papa‘a, Scorched or Burned

Hill, refers to the manner of sacrifice. Pu‘u

Pahu, Drum Hill, refers to the pahu drum

used in ceremony and ritual. Eleao as Black

Realm or Dark Time refers to the fearful

nature of human sacrifice, and as door on

the leeward—west—side of a house it may

represent the direction of death and of the

realm of the dead. Kauaopu‘u, Outcast(s) Hill,

refers to the lowest caste in the culture, the

kaua, from whom a man could be taken to

be sacrificed (Pukui and Elbert 1986: 134).

Mauna Kuwale, Mountain Standing Alone,

may refer to the separation of the kaua who

lived apart from other people or to the

aloneness of the sacrificial victim. Pahe‘ehe‘e,

Flee, refers to people fleeing capture to avoid

being sacrificed. Poka‘i, Realm of the Gods

Lift Up, refers to the purpose of sacrifice and

what happens to the sacrificial victim as an

offering to the gods.

With Poka‘i, though, there is a second

meaning and it relates Poka‘i to Ulupo

temple on the opposite side of the island.

Ulupo—inspiration growing in the night—is

on the azimuth of the rising sun the day

of the solar nadir. As earlier stated, the

November set of Sirius occurs on the day of

the first nadir. Poka‘i Bay is where Sirius sets.

Thus the name can also mean that prayer is

lifted up to the gods.

Pu‘u Ka‘ ı lio, Dog Hill, and Kane‘ ı lio, Kane’s

Dog, suggest a relationship between Sirius

and dogs in Hawaii. There is material that

relates dogs with death in Hawaii. Dogs

accompany the Marchers of the Night,

who, although deceased, march on the dark

nights of the moon (Beckwith 1982: 349;

Luomala 1983: 12–14). Dogs are well-known

psychopomps in many cultures, and have that

role in Hawaii also, although by inference.

Kanehunamoku, the island where the dead

who kept the kapu go, can transform itself

into a dog (Fornander 1916: 518; Beckwith

1918: 210). There are also dog petroglyphs

on the leinakauhane (leaping off place of

souls) at Ka‘ena (see Figure 4) (Beckwith

1982: 157).2

Evidence of a Sirius YearMakemson said “in Polynesian minds Sirius

is … connected with the winter solstice”

(Makemson 1941: 99). Evidence shows

priestly knowledge of Sirius probably included

secret/sacred star knowledge and matters of

human sacrifice. Further, there is a suggestion

that there may have been a Sirius year.

Kaupuni Stream, on the west side of the

Wai‘anae Mountains, empties into Poka‘i Bay

near Kane‘ ı lio. Sirius crosses Kaupuni as it sets.

The name Kaupuni may be associated with the

completion of a ritual season. One meaning

of kau is season and one meaning of puni is

completed. A puni, however, is also a ten-

month year, a year known in the Marquesas

and Aotearoa (Tregear 1891: 373; Williamson

1933: 174; Best 1959: 13–15). A passage in

the Kanalu genealogy of Hawaiian star priests

mentions both a fourteen-month year and a

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Fig 4 Dog petroglyph on

the leinakauhane at Ka’ena.

The dog’s head is at the top

of the rectangle, rump at

the bottom, legs to the right.

Photograph by Walt Mahealani

Mix-Kealekupuna, used by

permission.

puni year of ten months (Namakaokeahi 2004:

89–90). Rather suggestive is the Journal of the

Polynesian Society’s report that a widespread

tale of ten two-headed dogs “refer[s] to the

ten-month year” (Journal of the Polynesian

Society 1911: 13).

The puni was probably huna, secret, and

knowledge of it restricted. If it were a Sirius

year, knowledge concerning it may have

been particularly huna and kapu (forbidden,

sacred) because of the association with

sacrifice. That Sirius’s sets coincide with the

first zenith and first nadir, that there are

many names for the zenith but no name

known for the nadir, and that the nadir is

invisible, suggest secrecy and sacredness of

the nadir and of this aspect of Sirius. That

Sirius’s November set coincided with the

start of Makahiki suggests that a Sirius year

began with Sirius’s January rise and ended

with its November set at the first nadir, a

period of ten months.

ConclusionThe attention paid to Sirius from the

point of view of Kukaniloko has several

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



implications for the importance and functions

of Kukaniloko and Sirius in the culture. First,

place names are at the line of the rise or set

azimuth from Kukaniloko, which confirms

Kukaniloko as the center or piko. Second,

in addition, Sirius is/was a calendar star and

this implies that (a) other calendar stars had

similar landscape markers at azimuths taken

from Kukaniloko, and (b) that one function

of Kukaniloko was likely to have been

calendar-keeping. Third, although Kukaniloko

was not a site where sacrifice occurred,

the naming of landscape features having to

do with Sirius and sacrifice is evidence that

some ritual activities at other sites were

determined from celestial events perceived

from the point of view of Kukaniloko,

again confirming Kukaniloko as the piko

(US Department of the Interior 1994: 11;

Schoenfelder 1994: 4; Kawaraharada n.d.).

Fourth, the use of the setting sun over a

landscape feature to determine the day of

the rise of Sirius (because mountains block

the eastern horizon) suggests that stars, at

least calendar stars, were understood to be

related to the sun’s place on the horizon.

Fifth, an apparently single event, such as the

November set of Sirius, may have more

than one meaning and/or function. Sixth,

relationships between events, again such

as Sirius’s set signaling a solar nadir, were

important. Seventh, relationships among sites

can also be seen in the names of sites related

to either star rise/sets or sun stations, such as

Ulupo and Poka‘i, related by the solar nadir

through Kukaniloko.

Fur thermore, it appears that the

many names for Sirius were related to

the timing of terrestrial activities as well

as to the star’s physical appearance and

its place in myth and cosmology. The

classifications seem to have been names

associated with:

and Makahiki;

Sirius evidently played a significant role in

Hawaiian culture. It is also apparent that

stars with multiple names were named for

their associations, terrestrial, calendrical,

cosmological, mythical, and perhaps others.

Finally, there is a suggestion that Sirius may

have been the basis of, or associated with,

the puni, a ten-month year.

Only two sets of astronomical targets

differ from those of cultures in temperate

zones—solar zeniths and solar nadirs—and

the nadirs are invisible. It is not the “targets”

that make up the Hawaiian astronomical

toolkit. The toolkit is the methods used

to locate the targets. This included the

meanings of celestial objects’ names and

the names of landscape features along the

azimuth of (a) the rise and set of a celestial

object, and (b) sunrise and sunset on the day

of a celestial object’s rise or set and/or a sun

station and/or celestial event. The toolkit

also included relationships between events,

an example of which is, again, the set of Sirius

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



also marking the solar nadir. Relationships

among sites can also be seen in the names

of sites related to either star rises/sets or

sun stations, again such as Ulupo and Poka‘i,

related by the solar nadir through Kukaniloko.

Notes

1 Star names resources: Fornander (1878);

Kamakau (1891); Tregear (1891); Stair (1898);

Henry (1907); Levard (1912); Best (1922, 1959);

Makemson (1938; 1941); Beckwith (1951);

Emory (1965); Kingsley-Smith (1966); Johnson

and Mahelona (1975); Pukui and Elbert (1986);

Johnson (2000).

2 An association of Sirius with dog in Hawaii is

thought by some to have been the result of

European/American contact. That is possible,

but the association may have accompanied the

Polynesians into Oceania from Asia. Sirius was a

Wolf in China long before there was European

influence. David Pankenier, professor of Chinese

at Lehigh University, provided this information

(personal communication):

Tian lang, “Wolf Star”, is already in the

Treatise on the Celestial Offices by Sima Qian,

composed ca -100 BCE. However, the star lore

in the Treatise is much older, deriving from the

Canon of Stars of Shi Shen (fl. 4th c BCE). It is

also mentioned by name in the poem “Lord

of the East” from the Nine Songs collection

attributed to Qu Yuan (ca 343–278 BCE) from

the southern state of Chu.

In Bonnet-Bidaud and Gry (1991: 195), the

caption accompanying a photograph of ancient

Chinese text says:

The Chinese record taken from the Han

Dynasty (~100 BC) history book called “Shiji”

(Historical Records) compiled by Sima Qian.

The text is from Chapter 27, “Tian guan shu”

(Book of Heavenly Bodies) … It translates

literally as “At east/ there is/ bis [sic]/ star/

called/ Wolf/ … ” Wolf is the Chinese [sic]

name for Sirius.

References

Andrews, L., 2002 [1922]. A Dictionary of the

Hawaiian Language. Honolulu, HI : Island Heritage.

Aveni, A., 1992. “Nobody Asked but I Couldn’t

Resist.” Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy News

6(1): n.p.

Beckwith, M. (trans.), 1918. The Romance of

Laieikawai, S.N. Haleole. Retrieved on 11 January

2010 from http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/

epub/13603/pg13603.html.

Beckwith, M. (trans.), 1951. The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian

Creation Chant. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii

Press.

Beckwith, M., 1982. Hawaiian Mythology. Honolulu, HI:

University of Hawaii Press.

Best, E., 1922. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori,

Genuine and Empirical. Wellington: Dominion

Museum.

Best, E., 1959. The Maori Division of Time. Wellington:

R.E. Owen.

Bonnet-Bidaud, J.M. and Gry, C., 1991. “The Stellar

Field in the Vicinity of Sirius and the Color Enigma.”

Astronomy and Astrophysics 252: 193–7.

Brosch, N., 2008. Sirius Matters. Holland: Springer.

Collocott, E.E.V., 1922. Tongan Astronomy and

Calendar. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Cordy, R., 2002. The Rise and Fall of the O‘ahu

Kingdom. Honolulu, HI: Mutual Publishing.

Cowan, J., 1930. The Maori: Yesterday and Today.

Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd.

Darmesteter, J. (trans.), 1898. Sacred Books of the East,

American Edition. Retrieved on 6 June 2012 from

http://www.avesta.org/ka/yt8sbe.htm.

Elbert, S., 1951. “Hawaiian Literary Style and

Culture.” American Anthropologist 53: 345–54.

Emory, K.P., 1965. Kapingamarangi: Social and Religious

Life of a Polynesian Atoll. Bernice P. Bishop Museum

Bulletin 228. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Fornander, A., 1878. An Account of the Polynesian

Race: Its Origins and Migrations, V. London: Trubner

& Co.

Fornander, A., 1916. Fornander Collection of Hawaiian

Antiquities and Folklore. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum

Press.

Gill, W.W. and Muller, F.M., 1876. Myths and Songs

from the South Pacific. London: H.S. King & Co.

Gout, J., n.d. Encyclopedia Romana. Retrieved on

23 May 2012 from http://penelope.uchicago.

edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/

robigalia.html.

Grimble, A., 1972. Migrations, Myth and Magic from

the Gilbert Islands. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Haleole, S.N., 1918. The Hawaiian Romance of

Laieikawai. Trans. Martha Beckwith. Retrieved on

14 January 2010 from http://www.gutenberg.org/

cache/epub/13603/pg13603.html.

Handy, E.C., Handy, E.G., and Pukui, M.K., 1972. Native

Planters in Old Hawaii. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum

Press.

Hawaii State Parks (a), n.d. Retrieved on 23 June

2012 from http://www.hawaiistateparks.org/parks/

oahu/kukaniloko.cfm.

Henry, T., 1907. “Tahitian Astronomy.” Journal of the

Polynesian Society 16(2):101–4.

Henry, T. and Orsmand, J.M., 1928. Ancient Tahiti.

Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

I‘i, J.P., 1959. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Honolulu,

HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Johnson, R.K., 2000. The Kumulipo Mind, Honolulu:

privately published. Retrieved on 29 March 2012

from http://kumuk.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/

kumulipoversion2000.pdf.

Johnson, R.K. and Mahelona, J., 1975. Na Inoa Hoku.

Honolulu, HI: Topgallant Press.

Jollands, N. and Harmsworth, G., 2007. “Participation

of Indigenous groups in Sustainable Development

Monitoring: Rationale and Examples from New

Zealand.” Ecological Economics 62: 716–26.

Journal of the Polynesian Society, 1911. “The Story

of Te Rapuai and Kahua-Tipua, and Its Equivalent

in the Union Group, Central Pacific.” Journal of the

Polynesian Society 20(1): 12–14.

Kamakau, S., 1891. “Instructions in Ancient

Astronomy as Taught by Kaneakahoowaha.” Thrum’s

Hawaiian Annual for 1891. Honolulu, HI: Thomas

Thrum, pp. 142–3.

Kamakau, S., 1964. Ka Poe Kahiko: The People of Old.

Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Kamakau, S., 1991. Tales and Traditions of the People of

Old. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Kawaraharada, D., n.d. “The Killing of the Cannibal

King.” Retrieved on 6 June 2012 from http://apdl.kcc.

hawaii.edu/oahu/stories/waialua/killing.htm.

Kepelino, 1932. Kepelino’sTraditions of Hawaii. M.

Beckwith (ed.). Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Kingsley-Smith, C., 1966. Maori Star Lore, A Talk to

the Whakatane Astronomical Society, New Zealand.

Retrieved on 6 June 2012 from www.transitofvenus.

co.nz/docs/MaoriStarLore.doc.

Kintigh, K., 1992. “I Wasn’t Going to Say Anything,

But Since You Asked: Archaeoastronomy and

Archaeology.” Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy

News, No. 5:1: n.p.

Kirch, P.V. and Babineau, T.I., 1996. Legacy of the

Landscape. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Kirch, P.V., 2004. “Temple Sites in Kahikinui, Maui,

Hawaiian Islands: Their Orientations Decoded.”

Antiquity 78(299): 102–14.

Kurth, H.G. and Johnson, R.K., n.d. “The Birthstones

of Kukaniloko Heiau: Are They Oriented to Sky

Phenomena?” Manuscript in the Division of State

Parks, State of Hawaii.

Kyselka, W., 1983. “Preliminary Thoughts on Ku-

kani-loko.” Memorandum at State Historic Division,

Department of Land and Natural Resources, State

of Hawaii.

Kyselka,W., 1993. “On the Rising of the Pleiades.”

Hawaiian Journal of History 27: 173–83.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4



Lee, M.K., 2009. Statement to the Office of Hawaiian

Affairs Committee on Beneficiary Advocacy and

Empowerment. Retrieved on 1 July 2009 from

http://www.oha.org/images/stories/files/pdf/trustees/

minutes/bae/baemin090701.pdf.

Levard, A. (trans.), 1912. “The Tahitian Version of

Tafa’i.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 21(1): 1–12.

Levin, S.S., 1968. “The Overthrow of the Kapu

System in Hawaii.” Journal of the Polynesian Society

77(4): 402–30.

Lewis, D., 1978. The Voyaging Stars. New York: W.W.

Norton & Co.

Luomala, K., 1983. “Phantom Night Marchers in the

Hawaiian Islands.” Pacific Studies VII(1): 1–33.

Makemson, M., 1938. “Hawaiian Astronomical

Concepts I.” American Anthropologist 40(3): 370–83.

Makemson, M., 1941. The Morning Star Rises: An

Account of Polynesian Astronomy. New Haven, CT:

Yale University Press.

Malo, D., 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities. Honolulu, HI:

Bishop Museum Press.

Namakaokeahi, B., 2004. The History of Kanalu:

Mo‘oku‘auhau ‘Elua. Trans. M.N. Chun. Honolulu, HI:

First Peoples’ Productions.

Pukui, M.K. and Elbert, S.H., 1986. Hawaiian Dictionary.

Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Pukui, M.K., Elbert, S.H., and Mookini, E.T., 1974. Place

Names of Hawaii. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii

Press.

Ruggles, C., 2007. “Cosmology, Calendar, and Temple

Orientations in Ancient Hawai‘i,” in C. Ruggles and

G. Urton (eds), Skywatching in the Ancient World:

New Perspectives in Cultural Astronomy. Boulder, CO:

University of Colorado Press.

Schoenfelder, J.W., 1994. “Refuge Sites and the

Hawaiian Economy of Forgiveness.” Paper presented

at the Annual Meeting of the Association of

American Geographers, San Francisco, USA, April

1994. Retrieved on 3 July 2012 from http://schnfldr.

bol.ucla.edu/AAG3JWS.PDF.

Sergis, M., 2010, “Dog Sacrifice in Ancient and

Modern Greece: From the Sacrifice Ritual to Dog

Torture.” Folklore 45: 61–88.

Silva, A.M. and Johnson, R.K., 1982. “Ahu a ‘Umi

Heiau: A Native Hawaiian Astronomical and

Directional Register.” Annals of the New York Academy

of Sciences Ethnoastronomy 385(1): 313–31.

Smith, P. (trans.), 1913. The Lore of the Whare

Wananga. New Plymouth: The Polynesian Society.

Stair, J.B., Rev., 1898. “The Names and Movements of

the Heavenly Bodies, as Looked at from a Samoan

Point of View.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 7(1):

48–9.

Steadman, D., Pahlavan, D.S., and Kirch, P.V., 1990.

“Extinction, Biogeography, and Human Exploitation

of Birds on Tikopia and Anuta, Polynesian Outliers

in the Solomon Islands.” Bishop Museum Occasional

Papers 30: 118–53.

Te Rangi Hiroa (Sir P.S. Buck), 1959. Vikings of the

Pacific. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Tregear, E., 1891. Maori-Polynesian Comparative

Dictionary. Wellington: Lyon & Blair.

US Department of the Interior, 1994. National

Park Service, National Register of Historic Places

Registration Form for Kukaniloko, p. 11. Retrieved on

4 June 2012 from http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/

NRHP/Text/94001640.pdf.

Valeri, V., 1985. Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and

Society in Ancient Hawaii. Chicago, IL: University of

Chicago Press.

Williamson, R.W., 1933. Religious and Cosmic Beliefs

of Central Polynesia. London: Cambridge University

Press.

Yent, M., 1995. Kukaniloko Birthstones Monument,

Wahiawa, Oahu. Honolulu, HI: Division of State Parks,

Department of Land and Natural Resources.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tri

nity

Int

erna

tiona

l Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

5:08

05

Oct

ober

201

4

From Kūkaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian Sky Martha H. Noyes

Documents

Transcript of From Kūkaniloko: Sirius in the Hawaiian Sky Martha H. Noyes