From field to factory: agronomy to starch and beyond

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From field to factory: agronomy to starch and beyond

Tin Maung AyeFriday, 26 August 2016

Cali, Colombia

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Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)

Northeast of Brazil

Africa

Asia

has been spreading throughout the Asia since beginning of 17th

century by Spanish merchants

o Reported in Indonesia in

1740

Share of global cassava production – Asia is about 33%

• While initially an important food crop, early stages of commercialisation began during the late 19th Century

FAO Stats, 2016

Diverse cassava production system

Cassava production in Asia


In Asia, cassava production is a very attractive option for

smallholders, many of whom have relatively few other

options for raising income and improving their livelihoods.

• ~8 million farmers grown cassava in AsiaMore than 3 million farmers in Greater Mekong Subregion (Myanmar unknown)Another 1.5 million households in southern China Another 3 million households in Indonesia

• ~4 million haMore than 1 million ha in each of Thailand and Indonesia

>500,000 ha in Vietnam~ 500,000 ha in China

•> US$3.5 billion / year in GMSThailand: industry ~ US$1.5 billion Vietnam: export revenue ~US$1.2 billionCambodia: export revenue ~US$ 800 million

Major impact on the livelihoods of the poor

~ US$1 billion/yr additional income due to higher yields



Country Land area

(‘000 ha)

Acid soil (‘000

ha)

% of total Area cassava

harvested

(‘000 ha)*

Production

(‘000

tons)*

Fresh root

yield

(t/ha)*

Cambodia 17,652 10,565 59.9 350 8,000 22.86

East Timor 1,1487 274 18.4 7 27 4.08

Indonesia 181,157 122,289 67.5 1,066 23,937 22.46

Lao PDR 23,080 19,009 82.4 45 1,120 25.17

Malaysia 32,855 26,185 79.7 3 45 14.52

Myanmar 65,755 40,642 61.8 49 630 12.86

Philippines 29,817 13,743 46.1 217 2,361 10.89

Thailand 51,089 38,630 75.6 1,385 30,228 21.82

Vietnam 32,549 23,317 71.6 544 9,743 17.90

Total 445,441 294,654 63 3,666 76,091 17

Land area and cassava production, harvested area and yield in SE Asia (2013)

Sources: *FAOSTAT 2015


Cassava production systems in Asia have been developing

at a rapid rate due to a range of drivers including increasing regional market integration (commodities, capital, and labor), changing labor availability for agriculture, and government policies to encourage subsistence agriculture to market-oriented agriculture.

Increased ProductionInfluence of new varieties?

• High and stable yields and high starch content

o Major impact on the growth of cassava production in SE Asia

o ↑ starch yield per ha

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Relative Change in Area, Yield, and Production for Asia

Production Index Area Index Yield Index

Yield increase:• Mostly genetics• Only partly agronomy/ fertilizers

Transformation of Cassava from a Staple to Major Cash Crop

• Cassava has become a major industrial raw material, providing animal feed and starch


Cassava yields are usually low in smallholder systems

For example: Average farmers yields in Vietnam for cassava (around 16 t t/ha) are far below than achievable yields while Farmers in Tay Ninhprovince of Vietnam can produce 40-50 t/ha.

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From field to factory:

Inputs• Cassava

varieties• Land and water• Technology• Labour• Fertilizers• Etc.

Outputs• Leaves and

roots • Dried chips• pellets• Starch• By-products • Etc.

Factories• Animal feed• Dried chip • Ethanol• Starch• Etc.

0

30

45

15

60

75

Average Yield - Climatic; Varietal; Crop management; Soil related; Disease and Pests constraints-Socio-economic limitation

Inputs

90

Biological Potential Yield under Optimum Growing ConditionYields of 30 tons of dry roots (70 – 100 tons of fresh roots) per ha per year appear to be close to the theoretical yield limit without supplementary irrigation (Cock et al., 1979)

Comparative advantage of cassava is under sub-optimal conditions (with good varieties and agronomy)

Cas

sava

ro

ot

yie

ld (

t/h

a/ye

ar)

Achievable yield (Howeler, 2014 unpublished)

Asia 16 t/ha

Contribution of Various Inputs to Cassava Yield

46

35

World 11 t/ha

Yield potential


Source: Reinhardt, 2014 (unpublished)

10

18

22

38

25

Climate Varietal traits Crop management Soil related Pests and diseases

Yie

ld g

ap (

%)

Among the various production constraints, the soil related constraints are estimated to be the most important constraints in Asia (Henry and Gottret, 1996; Howeler, 2014b unpublished)


Yield Gap of Cassava in Asia

Source: Reinhardt, 2014 (unpublished)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Weed control Planting material Planting time

Estimated Yield Loss by Crop Management

Cassava varieties/traits

Adoption of new, higher yielding varieties is still likely to increase cassava yields


A

B

A

B

Rayong 1

- Yield » 13.6 t/ha.- Starch content » 18-24%- Year » 1975

KU50

- Yield » 26.6 t/ha.- High starch content » 22-28%- Year » 1992

Rayong 72

- Yield » 25 t/ha.- Starch content » 20-25%- Year » 2000

Rayong 9

- Yield » 30.6 t/ha.- Starch content » 24-30%- Recommend for ethanol production (180 lit./ton)- Year » 2006

HB60

- Yield » 30 t/ha.- High starch content » 25-30%- Year » 2003

Soil Texture Suitable varieties

Sandy / Loamy sand KU50; Huay Bong 60; Rayong 72

Sandy loam KU50; Huay Bong 60; Rayong 7; Rayong 9

Loamy clayHuay Bong 80; Rayong 5; Rayong 7; Rayong 11

Alkaline Rayong 5; Rayong 11

(กอบเกยีรต,ิ2554 ดดัแปลงจากอจัฉรา แลคณะ, 2551)

Recommended cassava varieties in Thailand

Country Variety nameYear of release

Clonal code or pedigree Location of hybridization

Main features

Cambodia Malaysia 2) KM 94 = KU 50 KU high yield, high starch

China Nanzhi 188 1987 CM321-188 CIAT high yieldNanzhi 199 1987 MPan19 CIAT high yield, high starchGR 891 1998 MCol2215 CIAT high yield, high starchGR 911 1998 MBra35xCM523-7 CIAT high yieldSC5 2002 ZM9057 CATAS high yieldSC 6 2002 OMR33-10-4 RFCRC high starchSC 7 2005 ZM8639 CATAS high yieldSC 8 2005 CMR38-120-10 RFCRC high yieldGui Re 3 2006 CMR 36-31-1 RFCRC high yield, high starch

Philippines VC-1 1986 CM323-52 CIAT high yield

VC-2 1988 CMC40 Brazil high yield, edibleVC-3 1990 CM3590-1 CIAT dual purposeVC-4 1990 CM4014-3 CIAT high yield, dual purposeVC-5 1990 MCol1684 Colombia high yield, bitterPSB Cv-11 1995 CM3419-2A CIAT dual purposePSB Cv-12 1995 SM972-20 CIAT dual purposePSB Cv-15 1999 CM3422-1 CIAT dual purposePSB Cv-19 2000 SM808-1 CIAT mite resistantNSIC Cv-22 2008 Kasetsart 50 KU high yield, high starch

Thailand Rayong 3 1983 MMex 55xMVen 307 CIAT high starchRayong 2 1984 MCol 113xMCol 22 CIAT for snack foodRayong 60 1987 MCol 1684xRayong 1 RFCRC high early yieldSriracha 1 1991 MCol 113xMCol 22xRayong 1 KU high DMRayong 90 1991 CMC 76xV 43=CMR 21-1 RFCRC high DM, rel. high yieldKasetsart 50 1992 R1xR90=MKUC28-77-3 KU high yield, high DMRayong 5 1994 CMR27-77-10xR3=OMR25-105-112 RFCRC rel. high yield, high DMRayong 72 1999 Rayong 1xRayong 5 RFCRC high yield, drought tol.Huay Bong 60 2003 R5xKasetsart50 = MKUC 34-114-206 KU high yield, high starchRayong 7 2005 CMR35-64-1=CMR30-71-25xOMR29-20-118 RFCRC high yield, high starchRayong 9 2005 CMR35-48-196=CMR31-19-23xOMR29-20-118 RFCRC good for ethanol productionHuay Bong 80 2008 R5xKasetsart50 KU high yield, high starch

Vietnam KM 60 1993 Rayong 60 RFCRC high early yield

KM 94 1995 Kasetsart 50 KU high yield, high starchSM 937-26 1995 SM937-26 CIAT high yield, high starchKM 95 1995 OMR33-17-15 RFCRC high yield; dual purposeKM 95-3 1998 SM1157-3 RFCRC high yield; dual purposeKM 98-7 1998 SM17-17-12 CIAT high yieldKM 98-1 1999 Rayong 1 x Rayong 5 RFCRC high yield; dual purposeKM 140 2005 KM36xKM98-1 IAS high yield, dual purpose, early

KM 98-5 2005 Rayong 90xKM 98-1 IAS high yield, dual purpose, early

CIAT-related cassava varieties in Asia and their most important characteristics

Peter Jennings: Found semi-dwarf gene at IRRI (IR8) Later moved to rice program at CIAT

One-off increase in rice yields in LAC with introduction of semi-dwarf rice in favourable environments (~2t/ha)

No major increase in yield with the release of a further 400 semi-dwarf varieties over next 30 years

Improve rice agronomy:» time of seeding» seedling density» seed treatment to control insects » weed control => additional 2t/ha » fertilizer use» irrigation management

Impact: Genetics + AgronomyExample: Green Revolution Rice in LAC



The importance of good agricultural practices (GAP) in cassava value chains

The GAP offers benefits to cassava communities (i.e farmers, processors and traders) to meet specific objectives of production efficiencies, quality of products (i.e starch), livelihoods, environmental protection and the national economy as a whole.

Adoption of GAP from field to factory will help improve sustainable cassava cropping systems and contribute to meeting national and international environmental and social development objectives.

China India Indonesia Philippines Thailand Vietnam

Labor Costs ($/ha) 167.40 421.70 185.37 218.80 167.18 213.60

Labor costs ($/manday) 1.86 1.29 1.11 2.00 3.24 1.78

-land preparation (mandays/ha) 7.5 1.5 45 8.1 2.4 5

-preparation planting material - 1.9 5 - - 5

-planting 15.0 14.8 15 9.4 9.1 10

-application fert. and manures 5.0 10.7 12 2.5 6.4 5

-application other chemicals - 0.3 - - - -

-irrigation - 51.9 - - - -

-weeding and hilling up 40.0 208.6 40 26.9 8.0 40

-harvesting (includes loading) 22.5 37.2 50 37.5 25.7 55

-transport and handling - - - 25 - -

Total (mandays/ha) 90.0 326.9 167 109.4 51.6 120

Other Costs ($/ha) 260.22 242.15 80.55 163.25 198.73 171.07

- Fertilizers and manures 130.11 159.39 79.44 53.75 61.97 80.36

- Planting material - 26.83 1.11 25.00 - -

- Other materials (herbicides, sacks) 37.17 2.23 - 20.00 25.84 -

-Transport of roots - - - - 70.38 -

-Land preparation by tractor 92.94 53.70 - 64.50 40.54 90.71

Total Variable Costs ($/ha) 427.62 663.85 265.92 382.05 365.91 384.67

Total Production Costs ($/ha) 520.56 900.35 312.59 382.05 414.80 444.67

Yield (t/ha) 20 40 20 25 23.40 25

Cassava production costs (US$ /ha) countries in Asia in 1998-2000

Land preparation

Methods of land preparation have a significant effect on the cassava root yield but not on the root starch content (Jongruyasub, et. al., 2007)

Farmers should be able to select the most appropriate land preparation practice for their situation


GAP in healthy seed materials

There is a need to foment the use of healthy planting materials through viable sustainable seed system.

• Selection criteria (purity, health of mother plant, number of nodes and internode length, size of stakes, signs of illness)

• Recognizing signs and symptoms of insects and diseases

Plating methodsMount, ridge and furrowPlant population (10,000 -

18,000 per ha)

Planting on ridges is recommended during periods of heavy rainfall, but planting without ridges is better during dry periods as the ridged soil tends to dry out faster.

Stake positionVertical, Slant, Horizontal

In light textured sandy or sandy loam soil, cassava stakes can best be planted in a vertical or inclined position, especially when planting coincides with a dry period.

In heavy clay soil, it is advised to plant horizontally, as the roots tend to grow closer to the soil surface, making harvesting easier.


FAO soil group Approx. area of Acid soilin SE Asia (M ha)

Fluvisols 18

Gleysols 18

Andosols 3

Cambisols 43

Podsols 3

Acrisols 163

Nitosols 15

Ferralsols 15

Histosols 17

Total 295 (64% of land)

Cassava can grow reasonably well on soils that are too infertile for other crops or soils that have been depleted by other crops

Existing generalizations concerning cassava are either false or half-truths.

1# Cassava does not need to apply fertilizers

2# Cassava degrades the soils


P deficiency in Xieng Khouang, Laos

K deficiency in Kampong Cham, Cambodia

Identify major soil fertility problems

Balanced application ofN, P, K mineral fertilizerswill increase yields by 50 to 100% in manyareas and even more in poor soils.

The right rate of K application will alsoincrease the root starch content and starchyields and even decrease the plant’s hydrogencyanide (HCN) content.

However, over fertilization of N may promoteleaf and stem growth without increased rootyields.

Long term NPK trial in Khon Kaen, Thailand.


Location/Soil/System N: P2O5: K2O (kg/ha)

Nanning, Guangxi, China 100:50:100

Danzhou, Hainan, China 200:100:200

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India 100: 50:100

Tamanbogo, Lampung, Indonesia / cassava mono crop 90:25:90

Tamanbogo, Lampung, Indonesia / intercropped cassava 90:50:90

Baybay, Leyte, Philippine 60:90: 60

Ubay, Bohol, Philippine 120:60:120

La Granja, Negros Occidental, Philippine 100: 50:50

Hung Loc Center, Dong Nai, Vietnam 80:40:80

Serdang, Malaysia / mineral soils 60: 30:160

Johor, Malaysia / peat soils 50:30:40

Optimum fertilizer application for cassava production in various locations, soils, and systems in Asia

Right place to apply N, P and K basal fertilizer in the vertical planting and thehorizontal planting

4 R Nutrient Management: The right source

of plant nutrients at the right rate, the right time, and in the right place are essential in the management of plant nutrition to increase sustainability of cassava systems


Nutrients removed with the harvested leaves, roots and stems

Material N P K Mg Ca S

Leaves* 20-30 2-3 13-20 2.5-3.0 10-15 1.5-2

Stems* 5-8 1-2.5 13-20 1.5-2.0 7-10 1-2

Nutrient contents of cassava leaves and stems (kg/t)


A combination of 80 kg N, 20 kg P and 80 kg K per hectare plus returning plant tops can achieve up to 40 t/ha of cassava root yields

Make recommendations for improvements

Crop ProductYield

t ha-1

Total uptake

(above-ground biomass)

kg ha-1

Removal

(root yield)

Kg t-1

N P K Ca Mg S N P K Ca Mg S

Cassava Root 20 95 15 91 50 15 10 1.7 0.5 2.5 0.4 0.2 0.2

Targeted cassava root yield Fertilizer recommendation rates (kg ha-1)

N P2O5 K2O MgO S

Low (12 t ha-1) 40 20 20 5 5

High (20 t ha-1) 200 80 100 20 20

Source: Dierolf et. al., 2001


Right time of plant nutrients to be applied to cassava according to the various fertilizer sources

Pedro A. Sanchez, 2015: The plant doesn’t care whether the nutrients come from fertilizer solutions, SOM mineralization, or decomposition of manures, roots or crop residues

Roots take up the nutrients in their ionic form: NO3-, NH4+, H2PO-, K+, Ca++, etc.

However, the soil does care, because organic inputs provide carbon, the energy source for soil microorganisms for more efficient nutrient cycling while mineral fertilizers do not contain carbon

Plant Nutrition is better with organic fertilizers


Treatment Cassava yield (t/ha)

Dry soil loss (t/ha)

Plowing+disking, no ridges, no fertilizer 15 20

Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer 21 10

Plowing+disking, contour ridges, with fertilizer 22 4

Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer, peanut intercrop 23 6

Plowing+disking, no ridges, with fertilizer, Crotalaria intercrop for mulching

22 10

Plowing only, no ridges, with fertilizer 19 11

Plowing only, no ridges, with fertilizer; vetiver grass hedgerows 23 3

Effect of various cultural practices on the average dry

soil loss due to erosion and the root yield of cassava grown on 12% slope at the Guangxi Subtropical Crop Research Institute (GSCRI), from 1993 to 1995 (3 years).


It is important that how to encourage farmers to prevent soil nutrient depletion and soil losses by erosion from their cassava fields.


Effects of fertilization of mother plants on the yield of daughter

plants (CIAT, 1981)

Fertilizer treatment N-P-K (kg/ha)

Fresh root yield (t/ha)

0-0-0 19.1

100-87-125 26.2


“In a healthy environment, cassava plants haveproper nutrition from the soil and can take up abalance of vital nutrients. Plant health is thenencouraged, and the whole ecosystem can fight,depressing diseases and pests.”

Mealybug infestation Witches broom infestation

Cassava can grow in areas with 400 mm of rainfall a year, once established

Maximum root yields in Thailand were correlated with rainfall totaling about 1 700 mm

Integrated water management

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Rainfed Irrigation

Effect of irrigation on cassava root yield , India

(t/ha)

Source: Nayar et. al., 1985

Combination of most appropriate ways of cultural (i.e. land preparation, intercropping), mechanical, chemical and biological control, etc.

Integrated weed management

Control weeds during the first three months of growth

Intercropping Systems

Intercropping: control weeds but also intensify land resource, stabilize cash flow and prevent soil erosion

Post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) of cassava

Deterioration is observed as blue-black vascular streaking

PPD is a major constraint, and has been strong associated with mechanical damage which occurs during the harvesting and handling operations

Environmental growth conditions have a significant effect on the crop’s development


Harvesting Tool

Improve the efficiency of labourand time

15-20 labors could harvest one ha of cassava while a harvesting tool could harvest 1 ha in 15 - 20 hrs


Appropriate mechanization in cassava systems

Improve the efficiency of labour and time


Harvesting equipment

Planting machine

Cassava: Focus and Challenges

• Agronomy

o Fertilizer

o Intercropping and erosion control

o Seasonality / bulking … crop growth model

• Seed system:

o Propagation systems: rapid proposition - petiole, micro-stake, tissue culture

o On-farm seed multiplication



There are still a lot of research questions we need to answer together with local farmers, extensionistes and researchers, local authorities and private sector.

Farmer participatory research and extension approaches are important

Conclusions


Capacity Building of National Agriculture Research and Extension Staffs and Farmers

Due attention is also focused on the best way to manage other issues, such as socio-economic, ethnic and political situations, which have to be considered to ensure both appropriateness and adoption for improving cassava value chains through good agronomic practices


Agronomic practices must be - Technically reliable, Economically feasible, Socially acceptable, and Environmentally sustainable!


In SE Asia, improved agronomy and integrated soilresearch techniques which CIAT has improved inpast/will continue in future to boost sustainablecassava production.

Eco-efficient agriculture to improve livelihoods in Asia

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From field to factory: agronomy to starch and beyond

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