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From Construct to Structure:Information Architecture from Mental Models
Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen
Adaptive Path
http://adaptivepath.com/workshops/ui6
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 2
Introductions – Peter Merholz
Partner, Adaptive Path
Formerly Creative Director of Epinions.com
Memberships – AIGA Experience Design, ASIS&T Information
Architecture SIG, ACM SIGCHI
Conferences – Web.Builder, Web ‘98 to ‘01, ASIS&T Summits 2000,
2001, IA2000 Conference
Roustabout on mailing lists (notably SIGIA-L and CHI-Web)
Publisher of http://peterme.com/ - Personal musings
I practice information architecture, but don’t call myself an information
architect
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 3
Introductions – Jeffrey Veen
Partner, Adaptive Path
Former Executive Director, Interface, at Hotwired/Lycos
Author, The Art and Science of Web Design and The Hotwired
Guide to Style
Advisory Board Member, Web ‘99 to ‘01
Conferences – User Experience World Tour, Thunder Lizard,
others too numerous to mention
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 4
What Is Information Architecture?
Information architecture is the
structural design of the information space
to facilitate intuitive access to content
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 5
Structural Design of the Information Space…
IA is the means by which we get from a pile of stuff to a
structured experience.
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 6
…To Facilitate Intuitive Access to Content
Intuitive access means meeting user expectations.
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 7
Common Information Architecture Problems
Information structures that resemble a company’s org chart– Your users don’t care what department you’re in
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 8
Information structures that reflect a designers’ bias
– Jargon, industry standards
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 9
Structures that are not extensible
– Making changes requires starting from scratch
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 10
Structures that are not extensible
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 11
How Do You Create an Intuitable Information Architecture?
At the highest level, you….
1. Research target population
2. Develop mental model diagrams from that research
3. Map content to the mental models
4. Derive a top-down structure based on audiences and their
tasks
5. Derive a bottom-up structure based on content attributes
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 12
What is a Mental Model?
How the user thinks about and approaches
their tasks and goals,
usually defined within a system of interaction
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 13
What is a Mental Model?
Grocery Shopping
Prepare shopping list
Look in fridgeTalk to spouse
Does the car need gas?
How much time do I have?
Plan meals
Look for discounts
Clip coupons
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 14
Approach for This Workshop
Present a methodology for taking user research data and
deriving an information architecture from it
Combination of lecture and activities (single and group)
Process-oriented—step-by-step
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 15
Ultimate Design Goal
An information architecture that corresponds to your users’
mental models…
Prepare shopping list
Look in fridgeTalk to spouse
Does the car need gas?
How much time do I have?
Plan mealsLook for discounts
Clip coupons
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 16
Ultimate Design Goal, Pt 2
An information architecture that corresponds to your users’
mental models…
…that also meets your business’ needs
Prepare shopping list
Look in fridgeTalk to spouse
Does the car need gas?
How much time do I have?
Plan mealsLook for discounts
Clip coupons
$
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 17
The High-Level Process – Two Tracks
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 18
Why Perform Task Analysis?
Prototyping does not provide any rigorous and thorough way
to ensure the design meets all the user and business
requirements. Prototyping is hit-and-miss.
Provides a way to trace back all aspects of the user interface
to the user task flow and business requirements.
Helps designers focus on the operational problems to solve
rather than implementation problems.
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 19
The Goal of Task Analysis
A complete mental model diagram – collections of tasks in ever-
more-general groupings
Refine Requirements
Find Out What OtherPeople Say
Set TechnologyRequirements Get Proposals
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Find Vendors
Get Input from Peoplewithin Company
Research CorporateNeeds
UnderstandExistingProcess
Determine theROI
Set Requirements
Set FeatureRequirements
Set ReportRequirements
Set DataStorage
Requirements
Set SecurityRequirements
Set IntegrationRequirements
Solicit End-User Input for
Features
Get Buy-Infrom KeyPlayers
Get Buy-Infrom IT
DepartmentFind Vendors
Write Requestsfor Proposals
ReadProposals
Get Input fromOther
Customers
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
Read ReviewsAttend
Conferences
Explore Web-Based
Solutions
ExploreWirelessSolutions
RefineRequirements
Based onResearch
Research the ProductsResearch the Needs
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 20
In The Beginning, We Talk to the Users…
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 21
Types of User Research
Conceptual research (User Interviews, Contextual Inquiry,
Surveys)
Preference research (Surveys, Focus Groups, Interviews, Card
Sorting)
Ability research (Prototypes, Usability Testing, Log Analysis,
Customer Feedback Analysis)
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 22
User Research – Understand Your Audience
Examine target market data
Examine competitive analysis data
Examine usability data
Examine log data
Form groups of target audiences with descriptions and
priorities
Later, possibly re-define the groups as users define
themselves
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 23
User Research – Prepare Interview Questions
Select a workflow to explore.
Learn domain vocabulary and player names.
Employ ethnographic inquiry—to encourage open answers,
rather than to lead the interviewee in any preconceived
direction.
The written questions become prompts in a conversation,
rather than a verbatim script.
Determine if face-to-face or telephone interviews are
appropriate.
Alternate: user representatives
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 24
User Research – Conduct Interviews - Protocol
Alter the questions as needed to meet the mood, tone,
personality, and professional status of each interviewee.
Focus on exploring all the tasks in the workflow.
The key verb is “do” not “feel.”
Don’t assume the Web or other technological solutions
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 25
User Research – Conduct Interviews - Process
Take as-close-to-verbatim notes as is feasible– Type yourself– Have someone else listen and type– Tape-record and transcribe (get permission!)
Estimate 1 hour per interview, plus one hour cleaning up notes
Interview at least 5 people per audience type
End Result: Detailed notes from a series of interviews
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 26
…And Then We Begin To Analyze The User…
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 27
User Data Analysis – What It Is
An extremely detailed analysis of your users’ tasks in
accomplishing their goal
A de-personalized method of understanding your target
audience– All users within a particular audience set are lumped together
Less concerned with sequential order of tasks than with
sensible grouping of tasks
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 28
User Data Analysis – Analyze Notes
Read over interview transcripts, scanning for ‘tasks’
Copy each task to the atomic task table.
As you interview more users, you will notice patterns. Group
similar atomic tasks together under one task name.
Change these groups as the patterns grow and shift.
Alternate: white board task analysis
Estimate 4 hours per interview
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 29
User Data Analysis – Develop Conceptual Groups
Group the Tasks into conceptual groups based on:– Steps the users described– Similarity of tasks
Determine which conceptual groups apply to the system.
Do this for each audience, if there are multiple audiences.
Compare results between audiences and combine if
appropriate.
Alphabetize conceptual groups for easy reference
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 30
User Data Analysis – End Result
A set of conceptual groups and their constituent tasks for each
audience
An appreciation for which tasks are common and more
important
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 31
…Leading To A Model Of The User’s Understanding…
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 32
Mental Model Diagram – What It Is
A simple visualization of an audience’s collective mental
model
With Task Analysis, you broke things down into their most
basic elements
With the Mental Model, you build them back up into
meaningful groups
Meaningful groups are presented left-to-right, across a
landscape
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 33
A Portion of a Mental Model
Refine Requirements
Find Out What OtherPeople Say
Set TechnologyRequirements Get Proposals
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Find Vendors
Get Input from Peoplewithin Company
Research CorporateNeeds
UnderstandExistingProcess
Determine theROI
Set Requirements
Set FeatureRequirements
Set ReportRequirements
Set DataStorage
Requirements
Set SecurityRequirements
Set IntegrationRequirements
Solicit End-User Input for
Features
Get Buy-Infrom KeyPlayers
Get Buy-Infrom IT
DepartmentFind Vendors
Write Requestsfor Proposals
ReadProposals
Get Input fromOther
Customers
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
Read ReviewsAttend
Conferences
Explore Web-Based
Solutions
ExploreWirelessSolutions
RefineRequirements
Based onResearch
Research the ProductsResearch the Needs
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 34
Mental Model Diagram – Building It
Copy all the conceptual groups into a drawing tool (we use
Visio)
Gather these groups into increasingly general super-groups
Arrange the super-groups into a meaningful order, if possible
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 35
Mental Model Diagram – Principles
A team effort – though started by an individual, iterated with
feedback from team members and clients
Make your super-groups verbs, not nouns
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 36
Meanwhile… Someone Soaks In The Content
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 37
The Content Audit
Developed by another member of your team
A content audit is an inventory of all the content and
functionality on the current site, or otherwise available to the
project
Doesn’t need to be detailed, but does need to be thorough
This inventory is crucial for the next step in the process
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 38
…So We Can Figure Out How What We Have Compares To What They Want
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 39
Comparison of Mental Model to Current Features, Content, and Business Goals
This is where it begins to come together
Slot content, functionality, and business goals where it
supports audiences’ mental model
Make sure to address every significant content area
If this is a new property and there are not many explicit
features, etc., use this to drive product requirements
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 40
Comparison – Very Much a Team Effort
Clients and stakeholders are essential in this process
Need domain expertise to ensure completeness
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 41
Comparison – Gap Analysis
Ideal – Every task in the audiences’ mental model is served by
content and functionality
Practical – That is never the case
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 42
Comparison – Gap Type 1 – User Needs But No Supporting Material
Determine if new material is needed here
Could simply be where the user will not be engaged in the
Web site
Refine Requirements
Find Out What OtherPeople Say
Set TechnologyRequirements Get Proposals
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Find Vendors
Get Input from Peoplewithin Company
Research CorporateNeeds
UnderstandExistingProcess
Determine theROI
Set Requirements
Set FeatureRequirements
Set ReportRequirements
Set DataStorage
Requirements
Set SecurityRequirements
Set IntegrationRequirements
Solicit End-User Input for
Features
Get Buy-Infrom KeyPlayers
Get Buy-Infrom IT
DepartmentFind Vendors
Write Requestsfor Proposals
ReadProposals
Get Input fromOther
Customers
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
Read ReviewsAttend
Conferences
Explore Web-Based
Solutions
ExploreWirelessSolutions
RefineRequirements
Based onResearch
Research the ProductsResearch the Needs
(Improved)InteractiveDiagram
Super Demo
Product Tour
BusinessSolutions
White PaperDownload
(Improved)Product
Module Page
eBusiness IQTest
Advisor ToolsWizard (future
version)
Partner ProfilesCyber
SeminarsRegistration
CyberSeminars
PackageSolutions
Descriptions
IndustrySolutions
Descriptions
Product LineDescriptions
See HowComponents Relate to
One Another
Customer Listby Product or
Industry
ProductConfigurators
ProductConfigurators
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 43
Comparison – Gap Type 2 – Supporting Material But No User Need
Could be extraneous material not worth maintaining
Could be important material not addressed in the mental model for
some reason (i.e., didn’t talk to a certain type of user)
Refine Requirements
Find Out What OtherPeople Say
Set TechnologyRequirements Get Proposals
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Find Vendors
Get Input from Peoplewithin Company
Research CorporateNeeds
UnderstandExistingProcess
Determine theROI
Set Requirements
Set FeatureRequirements
Set ReportRequirements
Set DataStorage
Requirements
Set SecurityRequirements
Set IntegrationRequirements
Solicit End-User Input for
Features
Get Buy-Infrom KeyPlayers
Get Buy-Infrom IT
DepartmentFind Vendors
Write Requestsfor Proposals
ReadProposals
Get Input fromOther
Customers
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
Read ReviewsAttend
Conferences
Explore Web-Based
Solutions
ExploreWirelessSolutions
RefineRequirements
Based onResearch
Research the ProductsResearch the Needs
(Improved)InteractiveDiagram
Super Demo
Product Tour
BusinessSolutions
White PaperDownload
(Improved)Product
Module Page
eBusiness IQTest
Advisor ToolsWizard (future
version)
Partner ProfilesCyber
SeminarsRegistration
CyberSeminars
PackageSolutions
Descriptions
IndustrySolutions
Descriptions
Product LineDescriptions
See HowComponents Relate to
One Another
Customer Listby Product or
Industry
ProductConfigurators
ProductConfigurators
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 44
Let’s Look At What We Have
A diagram depicting the audience’s mental model across the
top, and the company’s supporting material beneath it
‘Fuzzy’ user data has developed into a solid, rigorous model
A foundation from which to build the information architecture
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 45
And Now We Can Put It All Together…
TASK ANALYSIS
Initial DiscoveryBusiness
Requirements,StakeholderInterviews
User ResearchUser DataAnalysis
Mental ModelDiagram
Slot Content toMental Model
DesignInformationArchitecture
Content Audit
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 46
Designing the Information Architecture
So how do we get from the pile of content and features to
a meaningful structured experience?
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 47
Develop an Information Architecture in 2 E-Z Steps
Organize information according to user expectations
Label content areas using familiar language
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 48
Two Paths to an Information Architecture
1. Task-based information architecture• Top-down approach• Tasks become major content ‘buckets’• Non-standard
2. Analytico-synthetic information architecture• Bottom-up approach• Take all the content and features apart (analysis)• Then put it all back together again (synthesis)• What most people think of when they think of “information
architecture”
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 49
The Two Paths, Diagrammed
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 50
Things To Remember – and Forget
Remember:
Everything needs to have a place in the architecture –
but not necessarily only one way to get to it.
Formality of this process is up to you
Forget:
How content is produced
How your company is structured
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 51
Task-based Information Architecture – Why To Do It
Makes certain that your site’s architecture responds to your
visitors’ goals and tasks
Helps achieve business goals by presenting marketing-
oriented content (e.g., cross-sells, up-sells) in a meaningful
context
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 52
Task-based Information Architecture – Step 1
Mental model super-groups become highest-level
UnderstandWhat Vendoris Doing And
Decide
Research theNeeds
Research theProducts
Make Decision(DecidingFactors)
Implement Train
Home Page
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 53
Task-based Information Architecture – Step 2
Conceptual groups become the second level of navigation
Refine Requirements
Find Out What OtherPeople SayGet Proposals
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Find Vendors
Find Vendors
Write Requestsfor Proposals
ReadProposals
Get Input fromOther
Customers
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
Read ReviewsAttend
Conferences
RefineRequirements
Based onResearch
Research the Products
See HowComponents Relate to
One Another
Understand WhatVendor is Doing
and Decide
Research theNeeds
Research theProducts
Make Decision(Deciding Factors)
Implement Train
Home Page
Find VendorsFind Out High-
Level InformationGet Proposals
Find Out WhatOther People Say
RefineRequirements
See HowComponents
Relate To OneAnother
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 54
Task-based Information Architecture – Step 3
Slotted content and functionality from the Comparison is
placed in appropriate area
Find Out High-LevelInformation
Read VendorMarketingMaterials
DistrustMarketingMaterial
AttendConferences
(Improved)InteractiveDiagram
Super Demo
Product Tour
Feature/BenefitDescriptions
Research theProducts
Find Out High-Level Information
ImprovedInteractive Diagram
Super Demo Product TourFeature/Benefit
Descriptions
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 55
Task-based Information Architecture - Caveats
Best used as a ‘first-pass’ at the information architecture
Some tasks don’t directly translate to navigation nodes
Limited in its depth
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 56
Analytico-Synthetic Information Architecture
Based on time-tested principles of library science and
information retrieval
Take all the content and features apart (analysis)
Then put it all back together again (synthesis)
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 57
Analysis – Types of Content
From the content audit, identify broad types of content
Typical Examples:– Executive biographies– Press releases– Product descriptions– Product documentation– Contact information– Tutorials– Case studies
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 58
Analysis – Core Content Attributes
All content is intended:
For someone (an audience)
Who is trying to do something (a task)
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 59
Analysis – Further Content Attributes (Metadata)
Identify intrinsic attributes of each content type
Start with some simple questions:– What is it? (White paper? Product review?)– Who made it? (Author)– When was it made? (Date Published)– Where was it made? (Location/Company Published)
Key question: What is it about?– Subject (Themes, Objects)
This is metadata– Information about information
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 60
Analysis – Metadata Example
What is it? – Product description
Who is the audience? -- Customers
What is the audience trying to do? – Research products
Who made the content? – Manufacturer
When was it made? – August 15, 2001
Where was it made? – San Francisco, CA
What is it about? – Wine
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 61
Analysis – Subject Attributes (Facets)
All content has a subject– In this case, “Wine”
Subjects exist independent of content
Subject attributes are highly specific to that subject
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 62
Analysis – Facet Example
Wine– Varietal – Chardonnay – Region – Napa Valley– Price per bottle – $15 – Winery – Mondavi
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 63
Analysis – The Attribute Space
The content attributes combined with the subject attributes form
the attribute space.
Content type
AuthorAudience
Date Made
Task Location
Varietal Region
Price
WineryWeight
Subject
content attributes subject attributes
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 64
Analysis – Attribute Relevance
Relevance differs depending on audience and task
Eliminate attributes irrelevant to your audiences and their
tasks
Audiences can have highly divergent sets of relevant
attributes
Use the mental model diagram
Personas and scenarios helpful
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 65
Analysis – Attribute Relevance
Remember – we’re concerned with content organization, not
content presentation
Content type
AuthorAudience
Date Made
Task Location
Varietal Region
Price
WineryWeight
Subject
content attributes subject attributes
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 66
Analysis – Innovation in Classification
Wine.com
Bestcellars.com
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 67
Content Types Revisited
Each type should have a unique set of attributes
Multiple types with identical attribute sets can probably be
combined
Different attribute sets within a type should probably be split
apart
Apply common sense
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 68
Synthesis
Attributes are the basis for organizing schemes
Look for the widest range of:– Audiences– Tasks– Content types
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 69
Synthesis – Taxonomy
Look for commonalities among attributes
Group like attributes into categories
Organize categories into hierarchies
Apply the relevance test
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 70
Synthesis – Primary and Secondary Structures
Multiple overlapping taxonomies are very common
Prioritize taxonomies by relevance
Make less relevant taxonomies secondary
“Edge cases” can usually (but not always) be eliminated
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 71
Synthesis – Primary and Secondary - Wine
Wine.com
Bestcellars.com
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 72
Synthesis – Nomenclature
Appropriate language is the key to success
I say potato, you say Solanum tuberosum
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 73
Synthesis – Determining Nomenclature
How to find out what terms work for your users:
1. Ask them!
2. Read what they read
3. Watch how they work
4. Look at your competitors
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 74
Synthesis – Controlling Vocabulary
Eliminates ambiguity
Minimizes user confusion
Insures consistency of experience
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 75
Synthesis – Principles for Controlling Vocabulary
All terms are clearly defined
A term always means the same thing
Each term is differentiated from others
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 76
Synthesis – Verify with Card Sorting
An information architecture based on mental models ought to
be fundamentally sound
Still, some assumptions are made in the organization process
And the business owners might have insisted on certain
elements
Test your organization and nomenclature with card sorting
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 77
Card Sorting – Working with Users
Similar to building taxonomy, except users do it
Place concept names on cards
Ask the user to sort in piles that make sense– Encourage user to “throw away” any cards that aren’t of interest
Have user label each pile
Talk to the user about motivation, reasons, etc.
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 78
Card Sorting – Analysis
Gut analysis based on what you saw often suffices
Cluster analysis to get the details
Feed back into the information architecture
2 October 2001 Peter Merholz and Jeffrey Veen · {peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com · Patterns and Pathways 79
http://adaptivepath.com/workshops/ui6
{peterme, jeff}@adaptivepath.com