From a Han cultural city to a World Heritage Site

8/8/2019 From a Han cultural city to a World Heritage Site

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Title: From a Han cultural city to a World Heritage Site

By Shu-Yi Wang, Ph.D. Candidate

School of Architecture and City Planning, University of Colorado

Tel: 303 408 4073

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The development of heritage tourism facilitates urban conservation of an historic city

because of the economic value that tourism generates, especially in developing or less

developed countries. However, the physical environment is always the focal point andthe socio-cultural fabric is usually ignored on the conservation process. In this

exploratory research, the case study of the Ancient City of Pingyao in China will be

introduced to discuss the imbalance between the conservation of a living heritage site andthe satisfaction of the curiosity of the tourist industry.

The Ancient City of Pingyao is a World Heritage city with outstanding universal value,and it is on the highest level in the field of historic preservation. The physical

environment in this urban context has remained intact for a long period of time and will

be highly protected after it is designated. The street system, the building types, and

historic monuments will remain intact, but the functions of buildings and the spatialstructure could change according to the need of the society of the time. In contemporary

China, the policy of tourism development and urban conservation is the major factor

affecting the continuity of local culture.

Historical background of the Ancient City of Pingyao

The Ancient City of Pingyao in Sanxi Province was founded around 1368 during the lateMing Dynasty, and is the original birthplace of the banking/financial system in China.

After the city declined around 1911, Chinas public and private sectors neglected Pingyao

because it lacked the natural resources necessary for industrial development. However,


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this eventually saved the city from major destruction and kept the city intact until thepresent. Today Pingyao is a vibrant city of 45,000 people living in an area of 2.25 square

kilometers. From a successful financial city in the Ming and Ching Dynasties to a living

city during the communism era, Pingyao offers much historical richness. Now the cityhas become a domestic and international tourism destination; it has experienced different

social and cultural impacts since it was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1997 dueto its historical significance and architectural integrity. This recognition has increasedPingyaos worldwide reputation and brought the chance for transformation to its social,

cultural, financial and physical environment.

The entire Sanxi providence was famous for its Jin Merchant culture and the bankingsystem, and the Ancient City of Pinayo was famous for its establishment of the first draft

bank. Most buildings in the city were built during the heyday of Jin Merchant culture.

The integrity of the architectural setting and the city layout enable the Ancient City ofPinyao to develop cultural tourism. In order to maximize the economic value of the site

and to receive attention from domestic and international tourism, the city has been

developed into a museum of escort companies and financial banks from the Ming andChing Dynasties. The delineation of the tourist district has become the tourist-only place

for its tourism oriented business and its newly restored buildings. Indeed, the entire

tourist district exists more as a cultural industry than a cultural heritage site. The

tourism-driven preservation and interpretation in the tourism district is extremelysymbolic and political.

Despite the existing issues in Pingyao, this mechanism of developing a cultural industryhas played a successful role in some developing countries. It has helped preserve their

rich cultural essences, keeping them alive and viable, and supplementing these citieslack of financial support from the central government.

Theoretical background


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One of the meaningful purposes of the designation of World Heritage site is itseducational function for all the peoples of the world to understand the history better, and

then to past it on to next generation. This statement echoes the mission of The

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage andThe Brundtland Report. In which, The Convention is related to the protection of

World Heritage, and The Brudtland Report is about the sustainability of culturalheritage. However, most historic cities are facing the inevitability of tourismdevelopment after the designation. Not only does the designation bring a local cultural

significance onto a global stage, but it also creates the possibility of cultural

commodification and the destruction of the continuity of local culture.

- Heritage tourism and commodification

Because of their cultural value, historic townscapes have become popular tourismdestinations. Tourists visiting historical cities are attracted by the spatial concentration

of historic buildings as a setting for sight-setting and the range of opportunities for

cultural activities such as visiting museums (Nasser, 2003). The competition betweensites and the need to provide tourists with amenities and modern facilities pressure the

towns to develop. The high demand of the tourist industry induces functional changes

and structural changes to old buildings, and eventually also leads to the demolition or

replacement of significant buildings. Many researchers see tourism development as apanacea for developing and less-developed countries. However, if the conservation of a

place is based on tourists needs, it changes its character in unintended ways, as tourists

themselves inscribe their presence upon place. Indeed, it is the relation between visitorand space that constitutes the commodity being consumed (Fainstein & Gladstone,

1997).

In the 1980s, global travel became a popular tradition as a result of the improvement in

transportation and the economy. The convergence between heritage and tourism hasbrought tourism development into a different era and has enabled the trading of culture

for economic power. Mass production and communication technology in the post-

Fordism era changed the pattern of consumption and created a different view of life andleisure. Tourism development is the most obvious one. The shift of vacation styles from

the sun and sea holiday type to rich personal and cultural experiences shows the shift of

the tourism industry from product driven to consumer driven (Richards, 1996).

Inevitably, all destinations are participating in competition in a consumption-driventourism market.

Cohen addresses the inevitable agenda of commodification in tourism development, andargues that commodification is a process by which things (and activities) come to be

evaluated primarily in terms of their exchange value, in a context of trade, thereby

becoming goods (and services) (Cohen, 1988). During the trading process, theauthenticity of local culture is possibly lost. Greenwood, who conducted one of the first

studies on the commodification of culture through tourism, ruefully expresses the

situation by saying, [t]ourist-oriented products frequently acquire new meanings for thelocals, as they become a diacritical mark of their ethnic or cultural identity, a vehicle of


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self-representation before an external public (Greenwood, 1989). In order to attractmore tourists, the destination areas of tourism are conscious constructions of images to

be sold, involving a selection of elements to be displayed for sale (Lask & Herold,

2005). While the locals are trying to please and attract more tourists, they are alsoexperiencing the biggest threat of commodification to them at the same time, namely, the

loss of the meaning of culture: the commoditized cultural products lose in the processtheir intrinsic meaning and significance for the local people, who in turn lose theirenthusiasm for producing them (Greenwood, 1989).

The influence of commodification is not restricted to the products (local culture)

themselves, but also affects the physical environment (place itself). Tourismdevelopment gives the majority of demanding tourists traveling to destinations a

preconceived mindset. Places become investment targets that are created for the trade of

services and goods. They are also places of consumption [that] capitalize on thelucrative tourism/leisure market. (Meethan, 1996). However, the commodification

process does not only change the value of place, but also affects the activities that happen

within the place. These two factors are usually intertwined, for the symbolic meanings ofplaces have been changed according to the emergence of tourist activities. Thus the

situation of commodification is clearer, and as a result, it will have a dramatic influence

on the urban landscape itself. As Sack (1992) states, heritage places are places of

consumption and are arranged and managed to encourage consumption; suchconsumption can create places, but is also place-altering (Graham, 2002).

- Cultural continuity

An historic city is a place with a rich cultural fabric that accumulates for severalgenerations and will hopefully be carried into the next generation through the

evolutionary process. Based on Rapoport and Williams definition, culture is expressed

in daily life and in social structure (Rapoport, 1984). The function of culturalsustainability is to sustain social structure and possibly transform the institutional

behavior in the evolutionary process. A sustainable culture is not only a matter of the

past, but it is also a matter of the future. It links the past with the future and propels theliving culture into later generations. This sums up the uniqueness of the city, the so-

called sense of place or Genius Loci. Sense of place is the integrity of local daily life and

the buildings that facilitate these daily activities.

Authors like Nasser (2003) and Rodwell (2003) both mention the important role that

traditional architectures play in cultural construction and the responsibility that traditional

architectures have to continue local culture. Nasser even suggests that in order for citiesto be sustainable, we will have rely in great measure on the knowledge and wisdom

imbued in their cultural heritage, whether it is using traditional architecture and city form,

or using established social and philosophical mechanisms dealing with change anddecision-making (Nasser, 2003). Traditional architecture such as temples, churches,

towers, old government structures, and retail districts are media that can be used to create

the historical townscape and to establish social and spatial structures. These traditional


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elements are key to achieve cultural sustainability in an historical city, and are also theconveyors that carry or transform culture in later generations.

In addition, Rodwell (2003) also indicates that the identity of an historical city is revealedthrough the evolution of its physical heritage and its human culture: [i]t does not seek to

fossilize either the tangible or the intangible culture. It anticipates continuity and workswith it (Rodwell, 2003). This reflects the notion that for an historic city to besustainable we have to foresee that [i]f conservation and regeneration are to succeed in

maintaining the integrity, cultural identity, and historical continuity of these centres, then

the contention is that an understanding of the meaning of these places its cultural

manifestation in physical forms is paramount (Nasser, 2003). Otherwise, the historiccity will only become a museum that hardly accommodates the needs of the locals.

Conflicts between tourism development and cultural sustainability in Pingayo

From the Ming-Ching draft banking origin to a Communist living city to a World

Heritage city today, the Ancient City of Pingyao has gone through historically social andspatial changes. The recent development has brought significant conflicts to local life

that are detrimental to the continuity of local culture.

- The selection of the past

One of the purposes of urban conservation is to continue historic essence to the next

generation and to establish local pride, especially in developing and less-developedcountries. The process of the selection of the representative history is usually involved

with political power and is dominated by the elite of the society or local politicians. Thisis reflected in the philosophy and methodology of urban conservation of the time, in

which the physical setting is the catalyst of historic preservation, and the social and

cultural context is ignored during the selecting process. Naturally, physical settingbecame the theme of tourism development. The selection of the history was cynical due

to its geographical convenience. The phenomena can be explained by the case of the

Ancient City of Pingyao and can be extended broadly to other heritage sites in China.

The selection of history in the Ancient City of Pingyao is a typical example of elite

selection. Civil Wars in Chinese history caused a population shift throughout the entire

nation when Ching Dynasty was overthrown. Most of the population currently living inthe Ancient City of Pingyao are new immigrants from the society reform after 1949. In

addition, the social network system has been destroyed and the usage of the monuments

became irreverent to their original function during the Cultural Revolution. Most oftraditional architectures were converted into schools, government office, community

centers and hospitals. All commercial and residential buildings were confiscated and

converted into the people's commune or government-owned retails. Thus, the meaning oftraditional architecture to the locals is different from their original purpose. On the

contrary, buildings established after 1949 indeed have more significant meaning and life

memory to most of the existing population than those original buildings within the walledcity.


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In the Ancient City of Pingyao, the gap between the elite and the local people concerning

the interpretation of history and local pride reflects the issue of divergence of local

identity. History after 1949 is intentionally ignored; therefore, buildings symbolizing thenew era of the nation during the Communist period has been temporally buried in more

ancient history.

- The publicity of public buildings

In traditional Han culture, ritual buildings are anchor elements in the city planning. They

played an important role in the city for their social and cultural meaning and sometimesFeng Shui significance. When the city was built, those ritual buildings operated as the

center of each community; social gatherings, religious worship, political events, and

festival celebrations were just some of the public functions held there. They were socialand cultural symbols in a feudalistic system that kept up local identity and social

coherence. In addition, the traditional relationship and the formation of the urban grid

next to ritual buildings were the core to formulate spatial environment and to make thecity livable.

During the communist period, the social fabric changed, and the religious system was

reformed under the pressure of solo political party. All religious buildings weretransformed into government offices, schools, and community centers after 1949. The

severe Culture Revolution between 1966 and 1976 destroyed most of the traditional

customs and belief system. The functions of these buildings in this period were differentthan their original ones, thus the spatial system changed along with the function.

However, these public buildings retained their publicity; they were opened to public use.

After the Ancient City of Pingyao was designated as one of the World Heritage Site, the

entire city was restored back to the date of Ming-Ching dynasty to accommodate itsphysical landscape. To both local people and the government, heritage tourism was the

opportunity for environmental and economic improvement; furthermore, heritage tourism

protected the historic city from the threat of new development. In order to attract moreinternational and domestic tourists, the historic city provides a tourist-friendly

environment and tourist-only destinations. All religious buildings are opened to people

with high admission. Activities that used to happen inside and outside of buildings no

longer exist. These tourist driven policies change the social network, traditionalrelationship and spatial system. The bonding force created by local people and anchor

buildings is fading away.

- The historical authenticity of city building

The historic city that grows from the interaction between building form and functionsreflects its social context; thus a different relationship between people and buildings can

be created by creating a new form of spatial system. Urban conservation in historical

cities is not about the protection of physical environment alone; the improvement of thequality of local life and the vitality of the city are more intrinsic to the conservation of a


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historical city. The social fabric in the City of Pingyao has transformed during differentpolitical time frames, and it reflects on the spatial environment.

One of the major threats to the authenticity of the Ancient City of Pingyao is the over-night demolition of authentic old buildings and over-weekend replication of newly-built

old style buildings to satisfy the needs of tourism development. Without properconservation regulations, authentic old buildings have been replaced by the replicas ofother old buildings. This damages the diversity and origin of the urban fabric of the

heritage city due to similarities in building style, materials, motifs and craftsmanship. It

will also damage the authenticity of architectural integrity and affect socio-cultural

sustainability indirectly by way of change of sense of place. In addition, the conversionof old buildings to modern use to satisfy the need of tourists is also a big challenge to the

management of historical townscape.

Urban conservation vs. Tourism development

My research on the Ancient City of Pingyao shows a possible result.

If the representative cultural heritage is recognized by both the elite and the local people,

it should be supported by the local communities, the operators of heritage tourism, and

the government. The more similarity of the interpretation these groups share, the higher

possibility the cultural continuity will succeed. In addition, traditional buildings of the

representative cultural heritage are key components to establish stronger spatial

structure to sustain local culture. The more recognition the traditional elements receive

from the public, the higher possibility the traditional elements will succeed in carrying on

spatial structure with functional adjustment according to the need of the society in time.

Not only does heritage tourism play an important role in the improvement of local

economy and physical environment, but it also provides an impulse to enhance placeidentity. Although the history chosen is quite selective, it should be the pride of the

group of people who live there, and serve as a mutual memory among this group ofpeople. Interpretation and tourism products should present to the tourists the pride of

local people. Only when the recognition of cultural heritage between tourists and the

local population coincide can the historic city/town serve as a heritage tourismdestination and a living town for local people underpinned with a proper urban

conservation.

Traditional elements are the cluster center of the neighborhood spatial structure. No

matter whether these elements are religious centers, community centers, retail centers,

schools, government offices, or hospitals, they remain social networks with services andretails activities around them. In order to retain the socio-cultural attributes, an historic

city/town needs to serve the need of tourists without sacrificing the needs of the local

people; otherwise, the city/town will become a museum that services only tourists andexcludes the local people.

Conclusion


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Cases like the Ancient City of Pingyao can positively indicate that a living heritage sitedoes not have to be separated from its cultural sustainability and from satisfying the

curiosity of the tourist industry. However, as one of the World Heritage Cities, the

conservation plan of the ancient city of Pingyao has never been carefully delineatedaccording to the modern needs of its contemporary society. Restoration efforts have been

focused on the more popular destinations within the walled city. The meaning of theseritual buildings has been removed from their urban fabric and social context.Furthermore, it separates the city into two distinct areas. One area belongs to the local

communities who promote cultural heritage to enhance local economy. The other area

belongs to tourists who consume spectacular culture and history.

Since it takes longer to perceive socio-cultural change, it is usually ignored during

tourism development. This phenomenon is more obvious in China, due to its strong

desire to catch up with the global pace and to accelerate economic development.Tourism development can achieve urban conservation and socio-cultural sustainability, if

physical and socio-cultural change can be integrated through evolutionary processes.

Thus it will aid in finding the proper way to develop a historic city into a livable place forthe local people and a vivid, desirable destination for tourists. Finding a balance point

between tourism-driven displays and the authenticity of daily/local history is the lesson

that the ancient town of Pingyao is learning right now.

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From a Han cultural city to a World Heritage Site

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