French Coking

8/13/2019 French Coking

1/183


2/183

First Edition, 2012

ISBN978-81-323-2024-1

All rights reserved.

Published by:Library Press

4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg,Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,Delhi - 110002Email: [email protected]


3/183

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - French Cuisine

Chapter 2 - How to Make Vanilla Flavoured French Toast

Chapter 3 - How to Make Stuffed French Bread Pizza

Chapter 4 - How to Make French Onion Chip Dip

Chapter 5 - How to Make a Vegetarian Cassoulet

Chapter 6 - Foie Gras

Chapter 7 - Italian Cuisine

Chapter 8 - How to Make Italian Fish Soup

Chapter 9 - How to Cook Pasta

Chapter 10 - How to Cook Lasagne

Chapter 11 - How to Make a Quick Italian Spaghetti

Chapter 12 - How to Make Green Spaghetti

Chapter 13 - How to Make Ricotta Cheese

Chapter 14 - How to Make Gnocchi

Chapter 15 - How to Make Pierogies

Chapter 16 - Meal Structure in Italy


4/183

Chapter- 1

French Cuisine

Basil salmon terrine

French cuisineis a style of cooking originating from France, that has developed fromcenturies of social and political change. In the Middle Ages, Guillaume Tirel (a.k.a.Taillevent), a court chef, authoredLe Viandier, one of the earliest recipe collections ofMedieval France. In the 17th century, La Varenne and the notable chef of Napoleon andother dignitaries, Marie-Antoine Carme, moved toward fewer spices and more liberalusage of herbs and creamy ingredients, signaling the beginning of modern cuisine.Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally andnationally, with many variations and appellation d'origine contrle(AOC) (regulatedappellation) laws.


5/183

French cuisine was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier tobecome the modern version of haute cuisine; Escoffier, however, left out much of theregional culinary character to be found in the regions of France. Gastro-tourism and theGuide Michelinhelped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine ofthe French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great

influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were onceregional have proliferated in variations across the country.

National cuisine

There are many dishes that are considered part of the nation's national cuisine today.Many come from haute cuisinein the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishesthat have become a norm across the country.

History

French cuisine has evolved extensively over centuries. The national cuisine startedforming in the Middle Ages due to the influence of the work of skilled chefs and varioussocial and political movements. Over the years the styles of French cuisine have beengiven different names, and have been modified by various master-chefs. During theirlifetimes, these chefs have been held in high regard for contributions to the culture of thecountry. The national cuisine developed primarily in the city of Paris with the chefs toFrench royalty, but eventually it spread throughout the country and was even exportedoverseas.


6/183


7/183

Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was developed. Meals often ended with an issuede table, which later changed into the modern dessert, and typically consisted of drages(in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese andspiced wine, such as hypocras.

The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the churchcalendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and otherpreservatives. Late spring, summer, and fall afforded abundance, while winter mealswere more sparse. Livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was oftensalted, while pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in thechimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined aswell, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetableswould be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were consideredfish, so during Lent, the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.

Artificial freshwater ponds (often called stews) held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and

other fish. Poultry was kept in special yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved forthe elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare,rabbit, and birds. Kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue,pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and veryexpensive at that time they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and mace.Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs, long pepper(both from vines similar to black pepper), grains of paradise, and galengale. Sweet-sourflavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegars and verjuscombined with sugar(for the affluent) or honey. A common form of food preparation was to finely cook,pound and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to bebeneficial to make use of nutrients.

Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example,juices from spinach and the green part of leeks. Yellow came from saffron or egg yolk,while red came from sunflower, and purple came from Crozophora tinctoriaorHeliotropium europaeum. Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces and brushedwith egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as tourte parmeriennewhich was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coatedwith gold leaf. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was roast swan or peacocksewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak being gilded. Since bothbirds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled withthe cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken.

The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was Guillaume Tirel, also knownas Taillevent. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. Hisfirst position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to Philip VI, then the Dauphinwho was son of John II. The Dauphin became King Charles V of France in 1364, withTaillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death hewas buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in armor,holding a shield with three cooking pots, marmites, on it.


8/183

Ancien rgime

During the ancien rgime, Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, andas such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets inParis such asLes Halles, la Mgisserie, those found alongRue Mouffetard, and similar

smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food. Those thatgave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the guild system, whichdeveloped in the Middle Ages. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government aswell as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinaryindustry to operate only within that field.

There were two basic groups of guilds first, those that supplied the raw materials;butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners. The second group were those thatsupplied prepared foods; bakers, pastry cooks, saucemakers, poulterers, and caterers.There were also guilds that offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as thecharcutiersand rtisseurs(purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply cooked

meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issues with butchersand poulterers, who sold the same raw materials. The guilds served as a training groundfor those within the industry. The degrees of assistant-cook, full-fledged cook and masterchef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerablerank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economicand job security. At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under the guild hierarchy,but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leavingthe service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' guildregulations allowed for this movement.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items

from the New World. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets showCatherine de' Medici serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner. The dish called cassoulethas its roots in the New World discovery of haricot beans, which are central to the dish'screation, but had not existed outside of the New World until its exploration byChristopher Columbus.

17th century - early 18th century

Haute cuisine ("high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef namedLa Varenne. As author of works such as Cvisinier franois, he is credited with publishingthe first true French cookbook. His book includes the earliest known reference to roux

using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for fasting.His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages, to newtechniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations ofpies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in1667 entitledLe Parfait confitvrier(republished asLe Confiturier franois) whichsimilarly updated and codified the emerging haute cuisine standards for desserts andpastries.


9/183


10/183

Late 18th century - 19th century

The Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it effectivelyabolished the guilds. This meant any one chef could now produce and sell any culinaryitem he wished. Marie-Antoine Carme was born in 1784, five years before the onset of

the Revolution. He spent his younger years working at aptisserieuntil being discoveredby Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Prigord, who would later cook for the Frenchemperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carme hadbecome known for hispices montes, which were extravagant constructions of pastryand sugar architecture.

More important to Carme's career was his contribution to the refinement of Frenchcuisine. The basis for his style of cooking came from his sauces, which he named mothersauces. Often referred to as fonds, meaning "foundations", these base sauces, espagnole,velout, and bchamel, are still known today. Each of these sauces would be made inlarge quantities in his kitchen, as they were then capable of forming the basis of multiple

derivatives. Carme had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire. In his writings,souffls appear for the first time. Although many of his preparations today seemextravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that had existedbeforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine wereLe Matre d'htel franais(1822),Le Cuisinier parisien(1828) andL'Art de la cuisine franaise au dix-neuvimesicle(1833-5).

Late 19th century - early 20th century

Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to themodernization of haute cuisine and organizing what would become the national cuisine of

France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe andAmerica during the 1880s - 1890s. The Savoy Hotel owned by Csar Ritz was an earlyhotel Escoffier worked at, but much of his influence came during his management of thekitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921. He created a system of "parties" called thebrigade system, which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations.These five stations included the "garde manger" that prepared cold dishes; the"entremettier" prepared starches and vegetables, the "rtisseur" prepared roasts, grilledand fried dishes; the "saucier" prepared sauces and soups; and the "ptissier" prepared allpastry and desserts items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dishon one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish.An example used is "oeufs au plat Meyerbeer", the prior system would take up to fifteen

minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by theentremettier, kidney grilled by the rtisseur, truffle sauce made by the saucier and thusthe dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants.

Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. Hepublished a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence, andthen he finally published hisLivre des menusin 1912. This type of service embraced theservice la russe (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates), which Flix


11/183

Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was thepublication ofLe Guide Culinairein 1903, which established the fundamentals of Frenchcookery. The book was a collaboration with Philas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B.Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate theuniversal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.

Le Guide Culinairedeemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighterfumets, which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This styleof cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces whose function is to add to the flavor ofthe dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past.Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes fromCarme, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's Viander, which had a modern versionpublished in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes thatwere translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine. Expensive ingredients wouldreplace the common ingredients, making the dishes much less humble. The third sourceof recipes was Escoffier himself, who invented many new dishes, such as pche Melba

and crpes Suzette. Escoffier updatedLe Guide Culinairefour times during his lifetime,noting in the foreword to the book's first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes, the bookshould not be considered an "exhaustive" text, and that even if it were at the point whenhe wrote the book, "it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches oneach day."


12/183

Mid 20th century - late 20th century

Paul Bocuse

The 1960s brought about innovative thought to the French cuisine, especially because ofthe contribution of Portuguese immigrants that had come to the country fleeing the forceddrafting to the Colonial Wars Portugal was fighting in Africa. Many new dishes wereintroduced, as well as techniques. This period is also marked by the appearance of the"Nouvelle Cuisine".

The term nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French cuisine.This description was seen in the 1740s of the cuisine from Vincent La Chapelle, FranoisMarin and Menon, and even during the 1880s and 1890s to describe Escoffier's cooking.


13/183

The term came up again, however, during the 1960s, when used by two authors, HenriGault and Christian Millau, to describe the cooking of Paul Bocuse, Jean and PierreTroisgros, Michel Gurard, Roger Verg and Raymond Oliver. These chefs were workingtoward rebelling against the "orthodoxy" of Escoffier's cuisine. Some of the chefs werestudents of Fernand Point at the Pyramidein Vienne, and had left to open their own

restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics ofthis new style of cooking.

The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in cooking. Second, thecooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pts wasgreatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an importanttrend from this characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made withthe freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were abandoned in favor of shortermenus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stoppedusing heavy sauces such as espagnole and bchamel thickened with flour based "roux", infavor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar.

Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes. Eighth,new techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used; Bocuse even usedmicrowave ovens. Ninth, the chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their gueststhrough their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and creatednew combinations and pairings.

Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World War II whenanimal protein was in short supply during the German occupation. By the mid-1980s foodwriters stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs beganreturning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentationsand new techniques remained.


14/183

Regional cuisine

The 22 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica (Corse, lowerright). Paris area is expanded (inset at left).

French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style. Traditionally,each region of France has its own distinctive cuisine accepted by both its bourgeoisie andpeasants and other general citizenry of the regions.

Paris and le-de-France

Paris and le-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country isavailable, as all train lines meet in the city. Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris andalmost any cuisine can be had here. High-quality Michelin Guide rated restaurantsproliferate here.


15/183

Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace

Game and ham are popular in Champagne, as well as the special sparkling wine simplyknown as Champagne. Fine fruit preserves are known from Lorraine as well as thequiche Lorraine. Alsace is heavily influenced by the German food culture; as such, the

wines and beers made in the area are similar to the style of bordering Germany.

Nord--Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Bri ttany

fleur de selfrom Gurande

The coastline supplies many crustaceans, sea bass, monkfish and herring. Normandy hastop quality seafood, such as scallops and sole, while Brittany has a supply of lobster,crayfish and mussels. Normandy is home to a large population of apple trees; apples areis used in dishes, as well as cider and Calvados. The northern areas of this region,especially Nord, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beets and chicory. Thick stews arefound often in these northern areas as well. The produce of these northern regions is alsoconsidered some of the best in the country, including cauliflower and artichokes.Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in the region's galettes, calledjalet, which is where this dish originated.


16/183


17/183

Bordeaux, Prigord, Gascony, and Basque country

An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a terrine)

Bordeaux is known for its wine, as it is throughout the southwest of France, with certainareas offering specialty grapes for its wines. Fishing is popular in the region for thecuisine, sea fishing in the Bay of Biscay, trapping in the Garonne and stream fishing inthe Pyrenees. The Pyrenees also support top quality lamb, such as the "Agneau dePauillac", as well as high quality sheep cheeses. Beef cattle in the region include theBlonde d'Aquitaine,Boeuf de Chalosse,Boeuf Gras de Bazas, and Garonnaise. Highquality free-range chicken, turkey, pigeon, capon, goose and duck prevail in the region aswell. Gascony and Prigord cuisines includes high qualitypats, terrines, confitsandmagrets. This is one of the regions notable for its production of foie gras or fattenedgoose or duck liver. The cuisine of the region is often heavy and farm based. Armagnac is

also from this region, as are high quality prunes from Agen.


18/183

Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron

Black Prigord Truffle

Gers in this region has high quality poultry, while La Montagne Noire and Lacaune areaoffers high quality hams and dry sausages. White corn is planted heavily in the area bothfor use in fattening the ducks and geese for foie gras and for the production of millas, acornmeal porridge. Haricot beans are also grown in this area, which are central to the dishcassoulet. The finest sausage in France is commonly acknowledged to be the saucisse deToulouse, which also finds its way into their version of cassouletof Toulouse. TheCahors area produces a high quality specialty "black wine" as well as high-quality trufflesand mushrooms. This region also produces milk-fed lamb. Unpasteurized ewe's milk isused to produce the Roquefort in Aveyron, while Cantal is produced in Laguiole. TheSalers cattle produce quality milk for cheese, as well as beef and veal products. Thevolcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils. Mineral waters are produced in

high volume in this region as well. Cabcou cheese is from Rocamadour, a medievalsettlement erected directly on a cliff, in the rich countryside of Causses du Quercy. Thisarea is one of the regions oldest milk producers; it has chalky soil, marked by historyand human activity, and is favourable for the raising of goats.


19/183

Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cvennes

Restaurants are popular in the area known asLe Midi. Oysters come from the Etang deThau, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Meze, and Ste. Mussels arecommonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Ste,Bourride, TiellesandRouille

de seiche. In the Languedocjambon cru, sometimes known asjambon de montagneisproduced. High qualityRoquefortcomes from the brebis(sheep) on the Larzac plateau.The Les Cvennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game,sausages,ptsand goat cheeses. Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here withdishes like brandade made from a pure of dried cod wrapped in mangold leaves. Snailsare plentiful and are prepared in a specific Catalanstyle known as a cargolade.

Provence and Cte d'Azur

The Provence and Cte d'Azur region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables and fruits andherbs the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these ingredients in France. The

region also produces the largest amount of olives, and creates superb olive oil. Lavenderis used in many dishes found inHaute Provence. Other important herbs in the cuisineinclude thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, savory, fennel, marjoram, tarragon, oregano, andbay leaf. Honey is a prized ingredient in the region. Seafood proliferates throughout thecoastal area. Goat cheeses, air-dried sausages, lamb, beef, and chicken are popular here.Garlic* and anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, as in Poulet Provenal,which uses white wine, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes anchovies, and Pastis is foundeverywhere that alcohol is served. The cuisine uses a large amount of vegetables forlighter preparations. Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the winter. Thirteendesserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert, e.g. quince cheese, biscuits,almonds, nougat, apple, and fougasse.

Rice is grown in the Camargue, which is the most-northerly rice growing area in Europe,with Camargue red rice being a specialty.

Anibal Camous, a Marseillais who lived to be 104, maintained that it was byeating garlic daily that he kept his youth and brilliance. When his eighty-year-old son died, the father mourned: I always told him he wouldnt live long, poorboy. He ate too little garlic ! (cited by chef Philippe Gion)

Corsica

Goats and sheep proliferate on the island of Corsica, and lamb are used to prepare dishessuch as "stufato", ragouts and roasts. Cheeses are also produced, with "brocciu" being themost popular. Chestnuts, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour,which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and polenta. The forest provides acorns usedto feed the pigs and boars that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine. Freshfish and seafood are common. The island's pork is used to make fine hams, sausage andother unique items including coppa(dried rib cut), lonzu(dried pork fillet),figatella,salumu(a dried sausage) salcietta, Panzetta, bacon,figarettu(smoked and dried


20/183

liverwurst) andprisuttu(farmer's ham). Clementines (which hold an AOC designation),lemons, nectarines and figs are grown there. Candied citron is used in nougats and cakes,while and the aforementioned brocciu and chestnuts are also used in desserts. Corsicaoffers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs, including Cap Corse, Patrimonio, Cdratine,Bonapartine, liqueur de myrte, vins de fruit,Rappu, and eau-de-vie de chtaigne.

Specialties by season

French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and fruit dishes arepopular because they are refreshing and produce is inexpensive and abundant.Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruit and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather thansee them rot in the heat. At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appearin stews throughout France. The hunting season begins in September and runs throughFebruary. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes that celebrate the successof the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak when winter turns to spring, and oysters appear inrestaurants in large quantities.

With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned hypermarch, these seasonalvariations are less marked than hitherto, but they are still observed, in some cases due tolegal restrictions. Crayfish, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to catch themout of season. Moreover, they do not freeze well.

Foods and ingredients

Escargot la bourguignonneor "escargot cooked with garlic and parsley butter in ashell" (with a 0.02 coin as scale)


21/183


22/183

Eggs are fine quality and often eaten as:

omelettes hard-boiled with mayonnaise scrambled plain

scrambled haute cuisinepreparation uf la coque

Herbs and seasonings vary by region, and includefleur de sel, herbes de Provence,tarragon, rosemary, marjoram, lavender, thyme, fennel, and sage.

Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, can be purchased either fromsupermarkets or specialty shops. Street markets are held on certain days in mostlocalities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops,especially meat and fish retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic streetmarkets.

Structure of meals

Breakfast

Cafs often offer Croissants for breakfast

Le petit djeuner(breakfast) is often a quick meal consisting of tartines(slices) of Frenchbread with jelly or jam, croissants orpain au chocolat(a pastry filled with chocolate)


23/183


24/183

consuming alcohol before they reach their early teens. Students and young adults areknown to drink heavily during parties, but usually drunkenness is not displayed in public.Public consumption of alcohol is legal, but driving under the influence can result insevere penalties.

Food establishments

History

The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the late 18th century,diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their local guild member's kitchen and havetheir meal prepared for them. However, guild members were limited to producingwhatever their guild registry delegated them to. These guild members offered food intheir own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The guestwould be offered the meal table d'hte, which is a meal offered at a set price with verylittle choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.

The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that offered restorativebouillons, or restaurants these words being the origin of the name restaurant. This steptook place during the 1760s - 1770's. These locations were open at all times of the day,featuring ornate tableware and reasonable prices. These locations were meant more asmeal replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and suffered from jaded palatesand weak chests."

In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, pastry chef to the future Louis XVIII, opened one of themost popular restaurants of the time the Grande Taverne de Londres in the arcadesof the Palais-Royal. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving

the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution. It wasthese restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to thefull restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolutionand abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income of the FrenchDirectory's nouveau richehelped keep these new restaurants in business.

Categories

English French Description

Restaurant

More than 5,000 in Paris alone, with varying levels of prices andmenus. Open at certain times of the day, and normally closed one dayof the week. Patrons select items from a printed menu. Some offer

regional menus, while others offer a modern styled menu. By law, aprix-fixe menu must be offered, although high-class restaurants maytry to conceal the fact. Few French restaurants cater to vegetarians.The Guide Michelin rates many of the better restaurants in thiscategory.

Bistro(t)Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk board orverbal menus. Many feature a regional cuisine. Notable dishes include


25/183

coq au vin, pot-au-feu, confit de canard, calves' liver and entrecte.

Bistrot Vin

Similar to caberetsor tavernesof the past in France. Some offerinexpensive alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a fullrange of vintage AOC wines. The foods in some are simple, includingsausages, ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what

can be found in a bistro.

Bouchon

Found in Lyon, they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such assausages, duck pt or roast pork. The dishes can be quite fatty, andheavily oriented around meat. There are about twenty officiallycertified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of establishmentsdescribing themselves using the term.

brewery Brasserie

these establishments were created in the 1870s by refugees fromAlsace-Lorraine. These establishments serve beer, but most servewines from Alsace such as Riesling, Sylvaner, and Gewrztraminer.The most popular dishes are Sauerkraut and Seafood dishes. Ingeneral, a brasserie is open all day, offering the same menu.

Caf

Primarily locations for coffee and alcoholic drinks. Tables and chairsare usually set outside, and prices marked up somewhat en terrasse.The limited foods sometimes offered include croque-monsieur, salads,moules-frites(mussels andpommes frites) when in season. Cafsoftenopen early in the morning and shut down around nine at night.

Salon de Th

These locations are more similar to cafs in the rest of the world.These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do not offeralcoholic drinks. Many offer simple snacks, salads, and sandwiches.Teas, hot chocolate, and chocolat l'ancienne (a popular chocolatedrink) offered as well. These locations often open just prior to noon for

lunch and then close late afternoon.

Bar

Based on the American style, many were built at the beginning of the20th century (particularly around World War I, when young Americanexpatriates were quite common in France, particularly Paris). Theselocations serve cocktails, whiskey, pastis and other alcoholic drinks.

Estaminet

Typical of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, these small bars/restaurantsused to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to meetand socialize. Alongside the usual beverages (beers and liquors), onecould order basic regional dishes, as well as play various indoorgames. These estaminets almost disappeared, but are now considered apart of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and therefore preserved and

promoted.


26/183

A bouchon,Le tablier(the apron), in Vieux Lyon


27/183

Restaurant staff

Cooks at work

Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and are commonly referredto as either the kitchen brigadefor the kitchen staff or dining room brigadesystem for thedining room staff. This system was created by Georges Auguste Escoffier. Thisstructured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals that specialize incertain tasks. The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and diningrooms brigades in France:


28/183

Chapter- 2

How to Make Vanilla Flavoured French Toast

Don't you just hate soggy French Toast. Here's an easy recipe for delicious crisp FrenchToast!

Ingredients

1 egg 1 tablespoon of powdered sugar 1 tablespoon of vanilla extract 2 slices of bread Milk


29/183

Steps

1. Preheat the frying pan.2. Mix the egg and the vanilla extract and pour just enough milk in to cover the

egg.

3. Whisk the mixture.4. Place two slices bread in the frying pan until the slices are brown .5. dip the slices in the batter.6. Place the slices bread on the frying pan and allow the batter to dry on the

bread. Get every side to bake for about 2 or 3 minutes.7. Remove the slices if you think that they are brown enough.8. Sprinkle some powdered sugar on the slices.9. Enjoy!

Things you'll need

Frying pan Spatula Whisk Bowl Spoon

Tips

For a delicious treat you can add Maple syrup. Cut the bread slices for the baking time, this is also great finger food for kids.


30/183

How to Make French Toast

French Toast may not really be french, but it sure is tasty! Here's your guide on how tomake quick french toast if you haven't made it before.

Ingredients

(Per Batch)

One egg One cup milk Bread (Whole Wheat actually tastes just about the same as white, and it's a lot

better for you- also, whole wheat doesn't rip as much so you're left with more"complete" toast.)(Homemade bread is also tasty as long as it's sliced thinlyenough!)

Pam or other non-stick spray (But try not to use if you're using a non-stick pan--ifyou're not sure, use a little butter instead.)

Steps

1. Non-stick up your pan or griddle and put it on medium heat.2. Get your mixture ready--mix the egg and cup of milk in a medium sized

bowl, so the bowl is deep enough not to spill.3. Get out your bread- one slice at a time, dip it into the mixture and let it

dribble a bit, then *carefully* lay it on the pan or griddle.4. Making sure there's enough room to flip the slices, nearly fill the pan or

griddle with the wet bread.

5. Using a flipper with a long enough handle, flip over the toast when you thinkit's as done is as tasty.

6. As soon as the other side is done, put on individual plates or serving plates,whichever your style, and serve!

7. Add syrup, butter, strawberries, any condiment that you like.8. You may want to make some eggs to go with the French toast.


31/183

Tips

Some people like french toast mostly brown and pretty stiff, others like it moremushy and bread-colored. Whichever you like is fine, but remember that eggs cancarry samonella, a food poisoning, and can pass it to you if you're not careful.Make sure to cook the food at least enough so that the eggs are cooked.

French toast cooks pretty quickly, so if you have to leave the stove for a minutefor any reason, turn the heat off and make sure there's no toast to burn or letsomeone keep an eye on it for you.

Warnings

Salmonella is a food poisoning that can be carried through undercooked eggs. Becareful to fully cook any eggs that will be eaten, and wash your hands thoroughlybefore and after cooking eggs, and before eating.

Be careful when working with stoves, burners, or open flames- make sure you'reeither allowed to cook alone, or that there's an adult with you.

Things You'l l Need

Frying pan or griddle (Pans keep the liquid from getting in around the edges ofthe griddle, and is easier to clean, but generally holds fewer pieces of bread.)

Spatula, or Tongs Stovetop, gas or electric is fine An adult to supervise if you're not allowed to cook alone (though you may still

want to ask so you won't get in trouble, especially if you're not home.)


32/183

Chapter- 3

How to Make Stuffed French Bread Pizza

You have a group of people to feed, and you aren't quite sure where to start...pizzaanyone??? Nah, too messy...well, how about a stuffed french bread 'pizza'?

Ingredients

1 loaf French Bread Meat (any mixture of whatever you like)(basically, about a pound of meat or so)

o Hamburger (cooked)o Sausage (cooked)o Pepperonio Canadian Bacon

Cheddar Cheese Soup Cream of Onion or Cream of Mushroom (personal preference) Onions - chopped


33/183


34/183

How to Make French Toast Waffles

Did you know you can use your waffle iron to make french toast? It will taste somethinglike a waffle and french toast fused together.

Makes 6 slices.

Ingredients

1 cup (235ml) of milk (any kind) 3 eggs 1 tsp vanilla 1/2 tsp cinnamon (optional)

a pinch of salt 6 slices of brioche (about 1/4" thick) or plain bread


35/183


36/183

Warnings

You can't use just any waffle iron for these. A Belgian waffle iron is likely to tearthe bread unless you are making a very, very thick slice of french toast.

Do not use Soy milk. Regular milk (whole, 2%, etc.) is often used in cooking as athickening agent. Soy milk lacks these qualities.

Remember to be careful when handling items that are cooking or which haverecently been cooked as they may be hot and burn you.


37/183

Chapter- 4

How to Make French Onion Chip Dip

Whether you like ketchup, dill pickle, all dressed, or regular, we all like chips. If youwant to make your own chip dip rather then buy expensive dips from the store, try this.

Steps

1. Prepare your dip. In a medium mixing bowl, combine one 8oz (500ml) containerof sour cream with one package of Lipton dry onion soup mix. Mix well to ensure


38/183

that all the dry ingredients blend in with the sour cream. Add 8oz (500ml) ofcream cheese. You may want to warm the cream cheese first to make it easier tostir.

2. Allow the dip to sit. Place the combined dip into the fridge for at least four hours.3. Present your chip dip. Place your chip dip in a serving dish and garnish with

chives or green onions.

Tips

The dip can be stored in the fridge for the length of the expiration date on the sourcream.

Use more or less sour cream to make the flavor milder or bolder, respectively. For low fat chip dip, use low fat or non fat sour cream and cream cheese. Plain

yogurt can work just as well.

Things You'l l Need 8 oz (500 ml) of Sour Cream. 8 oz (500 ml) of Cream Cheese. 1 package Lipton Onion soup mix


39/183

How to Make PB&J Stuffed French Toast

Want to make french toast with peanut butter and jelly? Here's how.

Ingredients

Two eggs A dash of cinnamon A dash of vanilla extract Bread (fresh bread is not recommended) Peanut butter Jelly Butter or oil Honey, syrup, or other condiment (optional)

Steps1. Take two eggs and beat them with a fork. While you are beating them, put in

the cinnamon and vanilla.2. When you are done make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.3. Put the sandwich in the egg mixture on both sides to soak up the mixture.4. Put it on a hot frying pan with butter and flip after a few minutes; when it's

golden brown it's time to flip.


40/183


41/183

Chapter- 5

How to Make a Vegetarian Cassoulet

This is a cassoulet dish, wider at the top to give a better crust.

To classical French cooks, a cassoulet without meat isn't a cassoulet. It tastes greathowever so should a vegetarian name be made its fine to use that to keep the peace.

Here's what to do for a delicious "lazy cook" cold weather dish to serve 4 or 5 as a sidedish.


42/183

Ingredients

2 cups dried cannelini or navy beans (soaked overnight), or 2 x 400g cans of thesame, drained & rinsed.

2 small brown onions or 1 large one, peeled and chopped. 2 or 3 cloves of garlic or 1/2t dried garlic, soaked in water for at least 15 minutes

before use. 400g can of chopped tomatoes 1 carrot, chopped 1 stick of celery, chopped Fresh herbs to taste: thyme, rosemary, parsley. 100g (give or take a little) of fresh breadcrumbs. Olive oil or butter 1 L stock (vegetarian grade bacon or chicken flavours are preferred, or just

vegetable.) Optional extra vegetables: zucchini/courgette, red sweet potato/kumara Optional extra flavours: 1 x chopped red chilli and/or black pitted olives (to taste). Both optional extras make good compatible flavours, but aren't classical cassoulet

ingredients.

Steps1. Heat oven to 140C.2. Heat olive oil or butter in a large frying pan (about 1T worth). Fry onions,

garlic, carrot, celery (extra vegetables can also be added at this stage).3. Add beans, tomatoes, stock and chopped herbs (except parsley) and stir well.

Taste for seasoning, it will get a little saltier as the stock evaporates, but you arelooking for the strength of garlic and herbs.


43/183

4. Place into a large casserole dish and top with the breadcrumbs and sprinklewith about 1T melted butter or oil.

5. Bake for an hour up to 1.5 hrs. Traditionally, the crust is broken up occasionallythrough the baking time so its not stirred in but agitated gently with a fork andbaked again to become a thicker and more golden crust. The crust can be the best

part.6. When the beans are tender and the stock is mostly all absorbed, sprinklewith the chopped parsley. It does add to the flavour as well as looking nice.

7. Serve and enjoy, ensuring everyone gets a bit of the crust top.

Tips

TVP sausages should be fine to have with this, but not tested. Garlic bread is excellent with this. Herb & garlic would be the central flavours. Its good and lazy because after cooking the vegetables and mixing it together,

baking is all thats left with nothing else other than a tidy up. Its good as a meal inone, or with something else.

Covering cassoulet with foil will protect it from burning or drying out, but youwon't develop that crust. If it goes dry, add a little stock, or turn down oven

temperature.


44/183


45/183


46/183

30ml Red wine vinegar 40ml Water

Duck Foie Gras

4 x 40g Duck Foie Gras slices

Estimated Plain flour for dusting 1 pinch Cracked black peppercorns 1 pinch Sea salt

Foie Gras Crme Brulee

100g Duck Foie Gras 1 Egg 1 Egg yolk 250g Cream

1 dash Brandy 1 pinch Salt & Pepper

Garnish

10ml Apple Balsamic Vinegar (Reduced) 1 Green Apple (cut into small wedges)

Steps

Prepare the Vanil la and Kumquat Compote:

1. First, pour honey into a pot.2. Split the vanilla bean and scrape the vanilla seeds into the honey.3. Caramelize until dark brown.4. Add sliced kumquats, red wine vinegar and water.5. Cook for 3-5 minutes.6. Afterwards, set aside to cool until ready to use.

Prepare the Foie Gras crme Brulee:

1. Blend all of the ingredients except the brandy in a blender until smooth.2. Add in Brandy. Season to taste. Pass through a fine sieve.3. Pour into shot glasses, filling up to the brim of the glass .4. Line a gastronome pan with a cloth then place the shot glasses on the cloth.5. Fill the pan with hot water until the water reaches marking of the shot

glasses.6. Cover tightly with tin foil.7. Place pan in an oven at 100C for 1 hour.8. Once cooked, remove from the pan and allow to cool.


47/183

9. Sprinkle sugar on top of the crme Brulee and use a hand torch to caramelizethe sugar.

Prepare the Duck Foie Gras:

1. Dust the foie gras lightly with the flour.2. Sautee on both sides until brown while keeping it soft in the middle .3. Finally, arrange foie gras on plates and serve.

Tips

Presentation:

Serve the Brulee with 2 wedges of apple on the top and a few drops of applebalsamic.

Place the seared foie gras to one side of the Brulee and serve with the vanilla andkumquat compote.

Warnings

Be very careful when using the hand torch as you might get yourself burnt. When caramelizing the sugar, carefully make sure that it does not get over burnt

as this will ruin the taste. Gastronome pan will be extremely hot, so be caution while handling and

removing it.

Things You'l l Need

Chopping Board Knife Jug Scraper Hand Torch Blender Pot Bowl Whisk Sieve Shot Glasses Plates Gastronome Pan Tin Foil


48/183

Chapter- 6

Foie Gras

Foie gras with mustard seeds and green onions in duck jus


49/183

An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a terrine)

Pt de foie gras, canned

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,933 kJ (462 kcal)

Carbohydrates 4.67 g

Dietary fiber 0.0 g

Fat 43.84 g

Protein 11.40 g

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.088 mg (7%)Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.299 mg (20%)

Niacin (Vit. B3) 2.51 mg (17%)

Sodium 697 mg (30%)

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Foie grasis a food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been speciallyfattened. This fattening is typically achieved through gavage (force-feeding) corn,according to French law, though outside of France it is occasionally produced using

natural feeding. Pt de foie gras was formerly known as "Strasbourg pie" in English dueto that city being a major producer of this food product.

Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine. Its flavor is describedas rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of a regular duck or goose liver. Foie gras is soldwhole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pt (the lowest quality), and may also beserved as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that"Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."


50/183

Another European cuisine employs fattened goose liver almost to the extent as in France;in Hungary, libamj(lit. 'goose liver') is produced, as in France, both at the small farmand larger commercial levels, and is consumed both plain and in cooking by all levels ofsociety. As with French foie gras, tinned libamj is exported and can be purchased aroundEurope and North America.

The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, when the ancient Egyptians begankeeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding. Today,France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced andconsumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and thePeople's Republic of China.

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial due to the force feeding procedureused. A number of countries and other jurisdictions have laws against force feeding or thesale of foie gras.

History

A bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese

Ancient times

As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattenedthrough forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought thefattened livers of migratory birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolisof Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, an important royal official, there is a bas reliefscene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their

throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moisteningthe feed before giving it to the geese.

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean. The earliestreference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote ofgeese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese.When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he was greeted with fattenedgeese and calves, the riches of Egyptian farmers.


51/183

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food,which the Romans named iecur ficatum; iecurmeans liver andficatumderives fromficus, meaning fig in Latin. The emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during thefour years of his chaotic reign. Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credits his contemporary,Roman gastronome Marcus Gavius Apicius, with feeding dried figs to geese in order to

enlarge their livers:"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method ofincreasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in crammingthem with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixedwith honey, and immediately killed."

Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book VIII. Chapter 77

Hence, the term iecur ficatum, fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's livermay derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of Roman luxury cuisine is of Greek

inspiration. Ficatumwas closely associated with animal liver and it became the root wordfor "liver" in each of these languages:foiein French, hgadoin Spanish,fgadoinPortuguese,fegatoin Italian andficatin Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymologyhas been explained in different manners.

Postclassical Europe

After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from Europeancuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest ofEurope rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animalswere mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews,

who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation ofJudea or earlier from Egyptians. The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as theymigrated farther north and west to Europe.

The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, and butter, too, wasproscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairyproducts. Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean, and sesame oil in Babylonia,but neither cooking medium was easily available in Western and Central Europe, sopoultry fat (known in Yiddish as schmaltz), which could be abundantly produced byoverfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead. The delicate taste of the goose's liverwas soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews

raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eatingforcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. The chasam sofer, Rabbi MosesSofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged.This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste forgoose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, isthat even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before beingconsidered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as"(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie


52/183

gras while preserving its delicate taste is an arduous endeavour few engage in seriously.Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras.

Bartolomeo Scappi

Gentile gastronomes began appreciating fattened goose liver, which they could buy in thelocal Jewish ghetto of their cities. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, chef de cuisine to PopePius V, published his cookbook Opera, wherein he describes that "the liver of [a]domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and threepounds." In 1581, Marx Rumpolt of Mainz, chef to several German nobles, published the

massive cookbookEin NeuKochbuch, describing that the Jews of Bohemia producedlivers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for itincluding one for goose

liver mousse. Jnos Keszei, chef to the court of Michael Apafi, the prince ofTransylvania, included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbookA New Book AboutCooking, instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it andprepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by

Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of

it."


53/183

Main producers

Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it isproduced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the UnitedStates, and China.

Country Production (tons, 2005) % of total

France 18,450 78.5%

Hungary 1,920 8.2%

Bulgaria 1,500 6.4%

United States 340 (2003) 1.4%

Canada 200 (2005) 0.9%

China 150 0.6%

Others 940 4.0%

Total 23,500 100%

France is the leading producer and consumer of duck and goose foie gras. In 2005, thecountry produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated totalproduction of 23,500 tonnes) of which 96% was duck liver and the rest goose liver. TotalFrench consumption of foie gras was 19,000 tonnes in 2005. Approximately 30,000people are members of the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in thePrigord (Dordogne), the Midi-Pyrnes rgions in the southwest, and Alsace. TheEuropean Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farmingmethods (label rouge) in southwestern France with a geographical indication ofprovenance.

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (libamj) producer and the largestexporter (1,920 tonnes in 2005). France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras;mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent onthe foie gras industry. French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so itmay be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.

Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras in 2005; Canada also has a thriving foie grasindustry. The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become asizeable producer.


54/183

Forms of foie gras

Moulard duck foie gras with pickled pear

In France, foie gras exists in different, legally-defined presentations, from the expensiveto the cheap:

foie gras entier(whole foie gras), made of one or two whole liver lobes; eithercooked (cuit), semi-cooked (mi-cuit), or fresh (frais);

foie gras, made of pieces of livers reassembled together; bloc de foie gras, a fully-cooked, molded block composed of 98% or more foie

gras; if termed avec morceaux("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foiegras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there existpt de foie gras; mousse de foie gras(both must contain 50% ormore foie gras);parfait de foie gras(must contain 75% or more foie gras); and otherpreparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans forlong-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outsidethe Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozenwhole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Quebec, the United States,Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizable market for the product. In US, raw foiegras is classified as Grade A, B or C, with Grade A typically being the highest in fat. It is


55/183

especially suited for low-temperature preparations, because the veins are relatively fewerand the resulting terrine will fit the aesthetic requirement of lacking obvious includedblood. Grade B is accepted for high-temperature preparation, because the higherproportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers aregenerally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where the high

proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.

Production methods

The physiological basis of foie gras production is migratory birds' capacity for weightgain, particularly in the liver, in preparation for migration. Toulouse geese and Mulardducks are the most commonly used breeds for foie gras. Mulards are a cross breedbetween a male Muscovy Duck and a female Pekin duck, and are considered to be about35% of all ducks consumed in the US. Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they wouldvoluntarily eat domestically. The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate

ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the butteryconsistency sought by the gastronome.

Physiology and preparation

Geese and ducks are omnivorous, and, like many birds, have expansive throats allowingthem to store large amounts of food, either whole or pre-digested, in the crop, an enlargedportion of the esophagus, while awaiting digestion in the stomach, similar to pythonfeeding. In the wild this dilation allows them to swallow large foodstuffs, such as a wholefish, for a later, long digestion. Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein andanother 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to

eat 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. Awild duck may double its weight in the autumn, storing fat throughout much of its bodyand especially on the liver, in preparation for winter migration. Force feeding produces aliver that is six to ten times its ordinary size. Storage of fat in the liver produces steatosisof the liver cells.

The geese or ducks used in foie gras production are usually kept in a building on strawfor the first four weeks, then kept outside for some weeks, feeding on grasses. This phaseof the preparation is designed to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of theesophagus. The birds are then brought inside for gradually longer periods whileintroduced to a high starch diet. The next feeding phase, which the French call gavageor

finition d'engraissement, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion ofcontrolled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese.During this phase ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to 4 timesdaily. In order to facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typicallyhoused in individual cages or small group pens during this phase.


56/183


57/183

Al ternat ive production

Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this isreferred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does notconform to the French legal definition, and there is debate about the quality of the liver

produced. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the wintermigration, when livers are naturally fattened. This has only recently been producedcommercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.

While force feeding is required to meet the French legal definition of "foie gras",producers outside of France do not always force feed birds in order to produce fattenedlivers that they consider to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed adlibitum. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to ethicalconcerns in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fattygoose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras.

The terms ethical foie gras or humane foie gras is also used for gavage-based foie grasproduction that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses ratherthan steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humanetreatment, as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have notproduced satisfactory results.

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a ventromedianhypothalamic (VMH) lesion will not tend to feel satiated after eating, and will thereforeeat more than an unaffected animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible toincrease the animal's food consumption, when permitted to eat ad libitum, by a factor ofmore than two.


58/183

Preparations

Foie gras with onions and figs

Generally, French preparations of foie gras are over low heat, as fat melts faster from the

traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of theworld. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras,have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool orcold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured overthe foie gras and left to cool; it also is eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with somechefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in exotic dishes such as foie gras sushi rolls,in various forms of pasta or alongside steak tartare or atop a steak as a garnish.

Cold preparations

Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in terrines,pts, parfaits, foams andmousses of foie gras, often flavored with truffle, mushrooms or brandy such as cognac orarmagnac. These slow-cooked forms offoie grasare cooled and served at or below roomtemperature.


59/183

In a very traditional form of terrine, au torchon("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie ismolded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a bain-marie. For added flavor (from theMaillard reaction), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of grape vine clippings(sarments) before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, inslices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("cru au sel"), served slightly chilled.

Hot preparations

Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, foie grasisincreasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France andelsewhere. Duck foie gras ("foie gras de canard") has slightly lower fat content and isgenerally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras("foie gras d'oie"), but chefs have been able to cook goosefoie grasemploying similartechniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (poll) or (with care and attention),grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and thereforeat high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requiresthe foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm, resulting in a rare, uncookedcenter. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve theintegrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear thefoie grason one sideonly, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of molecular gastronomy such asHeston Blumenthal of the Fat Duck restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in liquidnitrogen, with the searing process resulting in a piece at room temperature.

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) andsalt. It has become fashionable in 3-star restaurants to use artisanal coarse salt to providea visual and textural garnish.


60/183

Accompaniments

Sauternes is traditionally considered a classic match for foie gras in southwest France.

The right wine to accompany foie gras is the subject of debate and traditional matchesvary according to region. In southwest France, Sauternes or Juranon is traditionallychosen. However, in Bordeaux, Saint-milion is considered a better match, and inAngoulme, Pineau des Charentes is more commonly served with foie gras.

Foie gras may be flavored with truffles, prunes, or liquors such as Armagnac andCointreau among other things. Many presentations of foie gras match it to a sweet fruit,including quince, pears, apples, prunes, plums, cherries, raspberries, blackcurrants,huckleberries, figs or elderberries. These can be in the form of sauces, coulis, jam,stewed, caramelized or pureed.


61/183

Chefs have been experimenting with various other contrasting and strong, supportingsavory flavors, ranging from red beets to onion chutneys to sweet corn and peas tovarious mushrooms including morels or cepes to bittersweet chocolate mols. Saucesinclude onion or leek-based sauces, red wine or fortified red wine reductions, truffle andmushroom sauces or wasabi drizzles. It is commonly served accompanied with crusty or

toasted bread such as a brioche, or, more rustically, toasted baguette ends.Accompaniments may include caramelized onions, onion jam, cornichons and Sauternesjelly.

Foie gras is served with toasted bread and salad leaves, cranberry jelly or Orientalchutney, venison steaks, focaccia bread, parsnip chips and celeriac remoulade, maplesyrup, jellied beef, root vegetables, horseradish cream, and with Paupiette of Squab,morels and crawfish.

Foie gras is also served with filet mignon, grilled duck, apricots, mashed potatoes,shrimp, spinach salad, raisins, and poached apples.

Consumption

Foie grasis a luxury dish. In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such asChristmas or New Year's Eve rveillondinners, though the recent increased availabilityoffoie grashas made it a less exceptional dish. In some areas of France foie grasis eatenyear-round.

Duckfoie grasis the slightly cheaper and, since a change of production methods in the1950s, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie grasisoften referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goosefoie grasis noted for being less

gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.

Controversy

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial, due to the force feeding procedure,and the possible health consequences of an enlarged liver.

A number of countries and other jurisdictions have laws against force feeding or the saleof foie gras due to how it is traditionally produced. In modern gavage-based foie grasproduction, force feeding takes place 1218 days before slaughter. The duck or goose istypically fed a controlled amount of corn mash through a tube inserted in the animal's

cuticle-lined esophagus.

Foie gras production has been banned in nations such as some members of the EuropeanUnion, Turkey, and Israel because of the force-feeding process. Foie gras producersmaintain that force feeding ducks and geese is not uncomfortable for the animals nor is ithazardous to their health.

The city of Chicago banned the production and selling of foie gras from 2006 until 2008.


62/183

Animal rights and welfare groups such as PETA, Viva!, and the Humane Society of theUnited States contend that foie gras production methods, and force feeding in particular,constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals. Specific complaints include liversswollen to many times their normal size, impaired liver function, expansion of theabdomen making it difficult for birds to breathe, death if the force feeding is continued,

and scarring of the esophagus. PETA claims that the insertion and removal of the feedingtube scratch the throat and the esophagus, causing irritations and wounds and thusexposing the animal to risk of mortal infections.

Empirical research regarding the health and welfare of the bird during the production offoie gras is limited in quantity and quality.

A recent study demonstrated oral amyloid-A fibril transmissibility which raised foodsafety issues with consumption of foie gras over "concerns that products such as pt defoie gras may activate a reactive systemic amyloidosis in susceptible consumers". Foiegras as a amyloid-containing food product hastened the development of amyloidosis.

Amyloidosis may be transmissible, akin to the infectious nature of prion-related illnesses.However, a correlation between foie gras consumption and these diseases has not beenconfirmed.


63/183

Chapter- 7

Italian Cuisine

Italian cuisinehas developed through centuries of social and political changes, withroots as far back as the 4th century BC. Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences,including Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, Jewish and Arab cuisines.Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World with the introductionof items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine

but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century. Italian cuisine is noted for itsregional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the mostpopular in the world, with influences abroad.

Ingredients and dishes vary by region. Many dishes that were once regional, however,have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a majorpart of the cuisine, with many variations and Denominazione di origine controllata(DOC) (regulated appellation) laws. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become importantin Italian cuisine.

History

Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy didnot unite until the 19th century, the cuisine can claim traceable roots as far back as the4th century BCE. Through the centuries, neighboring regions, conquerors, high-profilechefs, political upheaval and the discovery of the New World have influenced one of thepremiere cuisines in the world.


64/183

Early modern era

Ingredients

The tomato, perhaps the most stereotypical ingredient found in Italian cuisine. Thiscultivar shown is of the San Marzano variety, a variety of plum tomatoes, said to be someof the best sauce tomatoes in the world.


65/183

Olive oil, an indispensable food ingredient in much of Italy


66/183

Pesto, a Ligurian sauce made out of basil, olive oil and nuts, and which is often eatenwith pasta or pizza.

Italian cuisine has a great variety of different ingredients which are commonly used,ranging from fruits, vegetables, sauces, meats etc. In the North of Italy, fish (such as cod,or baccala), potatoes, rice, maize, corn, sausages, pork and different types of cheeses arethe most common ingredients (tomato is virtually absent in most Northern Italiancuisines). Ligurian ingredients are quite different, and include several types of fish andseafood dishes, basil (found in pesto sauce), nuts and olive oil are very common. InEmilia-Romagna, common ingredients include ham (Parma ham), sausage (Zampone),different sorts of salami, truffles, grana, parmigiano reggiano, and tomatoes (Bolognesesauce or ragu). Traditional central Italy cuisine uses ingredients such as tomatoes, allkinds of meat (except for horse meat), fish, and pecorino cheese. Finally, in SouthernItaly, tomatoes, fresh or cooked into tomato sauce, peppers, olives and olive oil, garlic,artichokes, oranges, ricotta cheese, aubergines, courgettes, certain types of fish(anchovies, sardines and tuna), and capers are important components to the local cuisine.

Italian cuisine is also well known (and well regarded) for its use of a diverse variety ofpasta. Pasta include noodles in various lengths, widths and shapes, and varieties that arefilled with other ingredients like ravioli and tortellini. The word pasta is also used to referto dishes in which pasta products are a primary ingredient. It is usually served with sauce.There are hundreds of different shapes of pasta with at least locally recognizednames.Examples include spaghetti (thin rods), macaroni (tubes or cylinders), fusilli(swirls), and lasagne (sheets). Two other noodles, gnocchi and sptzle, are sometimesconsidered pasta. They are both traditional in parts of Italy.


67/183

Pasta is categorized in two basic styles: dried and fresh. Dried pasta made without eggscan be stored for up to two years under ideal conditions, while fresh pasta will keep for acouple of days in the refrigerator. Pasta is generally cooked by boiling. Under Italian law,dry pasta (pasta secca) can only be made from durum wheat flour or durum wheatsemolina, and is more commonly used in Southern Italy compared to their Northern

counterparts, who traditionally prefer the fresh egg variety. Durum flour and durumsemolina have a yellow tinge in color. Italian pasta is traditionally cooked al dente(Italian: "firm to the bite", meaning not too soft). Outside Italy, dry pasta is frequentlymade from other types of flour (such as wheat flour), but this yields a softer product thatcannot be cooked al dente. There are many types of wheat flour with varying gluten andprotein depending on variety of grain used.

Particular varieties of pasta may also use other grains and milling methods to make theflour, as specified by law. Some pasta varieties, such as pizzoccheri, are made frombuckwheat flour. Fresh pasta may include eggs (pasta all'uovo 'egg pasta'). Whole wheatpasta has become increasingly popular because of its health benefits over pasta made

from bleached flour.

Regional cuisines

Each area has its own specialties, primarily at regional level, but also at provincial level.The differences can come from a bordering country (such as France or Austria), whethera region is close to the sea or the mountains, and economics. Italian cuisine is alsoseasonal with priority placed on the use of fresh produce.


68/183

Original San Danieleham

Friuli -Venezia Giul ia

Friuli-Venezia Giulia conserved, in its cuisine, the historical links with Austria-Hungary.Carnia subregion, in the western part of Friuli, is known for its traditional San Danieledel Friuli ham, Montasio cheese, Frico cheese. Other typical dishes are pitina(meatballsmade of smoked meats), game, and various types of gnocchiandpolenta. The majority ofthe eastern regional dishes are heavily influenced by Austrian, Hungarian, Slovene andCroatian cuisines: typical dishes include Istrian Stew (soup of beans, sauerkraut, potatoes,bacon and spare ribs), Vienna sausages, goulash, evapii, apple strudel, gugelhupf.Pork can be spicy and is often prepared over an open hearth called a fogolar. CollioGoriziano, Friuli Isonzo, Colli Orientali del Friuli and Ramandolo are well-known DOCregional wines.


69/183


70/183

Venice and many surrounding parts of Veneto are known for risotto, a dish whoseingredients can highly vary upon different areas, as fish and seafood being added closerto the coast and pumpkin, asparagus, radicchio and frogs' legs appearing further awayfrom the Adriatic. Made from finely ground maize meal,polentais a traditional, ruralfood typical of Veneto and most of Northern Italy. It may find its way into stirred dishes

and baked dishes and can be served with various cheese, stockfish or meat dishes: someLombard polenta dishes includes buckwheat flour), gorgonzola, butter, porcinimushrooms, rapini, or other vegetables or meats, such as small song-birds in the case ofthe Venetian and Lombard dishpolenta e osei. In some areas of Piedmont it can be alsomade of potatoes instead of cornmeal (polenta bianca). Beans, Peas and other legumesare seen in these areas withpasta e fagioli(beans and pasta) and risi e bisi(rice andpeas). Veneto features heavy dishes using exotic spices and sauces. Ingredients such asstockfish or simple marinated anchovies are found here as well. Less fish and more meatis eaten away from the coast. Other typical products are sausages such as SoppressaVicentina, garlic salami and Asiago cheese. High quality vegetables are prized, such asred radicchio from Treviso and white asparagus from Bassano del Grappa. Perhaps the

most popular dish of Venice isfegato alla veneziana, thinly-sliced veal liver sauteed withonions.

Traditional Alto Adige/Sudtirol speck

Squid and cuttlefish are common ingredients, as is squid ink, called nero di seppia.Regional desserts include tiramisu(made of biscuits dipped in coffee, layered with a


71/183

whipped mixture of egg yolks and mascarpone, and flavored with liquor and cocoa),baicoli(biscuits made with butter and vanilla) and nougat.

The most celebrated Veneto wines include Bardolino, Prosecco, Soave and ValpolicellaDOC wines.

Trentino-Alto Adige/South Tyrol

Before the Council of Trent in the middle of the 16th century, the region was known forthe simplicity of its peasant cuisine. When the prelates of the Catholic Church establishedthere, they brought the art of fine cooking with them. Later, also influences from Veniceand the Austrian Habsburg Empire came in. Trentino subregion produces various types ofsausages,polenta, yogurt, cheese, potato cake, funnell cake and freshwater fish. In theAlto Adige/Sudtirol subregion, due to the German speaking majority population, strongAustrian and Slavic influences prevail. The most renowned local product is traditionalspeckjuniper-flavored ham which, as Speck Alto Adige PGI, is regulated by the

European Union under the protected geographical indication (PGI) status. Goulash,kndel, apple strudel, kaiserschmarrn, krapfen, rsti, sptzleand rye bread are regulardishes, along with potatoes, dumpling, homemade sauerkraut, and lard. The territory ofBolzano is also reputed for its Mller-Thurgau white wines.

Lombardy

Risotto alla milanesewith saffron


72/183

Traditional Cotoletta alla milanese

The regional cuisine of Lombardy is heavily based upon ingredients like maize, rice,

beef, pork, butter, and lard. Rice dishes are very popular in this region, often found insoups as well as risotto. The best known version is risotto alla milanese, flavoured withsaffron and typically served with many typical Milanese main courses, such as ossobucoalla milanese(cross-cut veal shanks braised with vegetables, white wine and brot) andcotoletta alla milanese(a fried cutlet similar to Wiener schnitzel, but cooked "bone-in").Other regional specialities include cassoeula(a typical winter dish prepared with cabbageand pork), Cremona's Mostarda (rich condiment made with candied fruit and a mustardflavoured syrup), Valtellina's Bresaola (air-dried salted beef) and Mantua's tortelli dizucca(ravioliwith pumpkin filling) accompanied by melted butter and followed byturkey stuffed with chicken or other stewed meats. Regional cheeses include Robiola,Crescenza, Taleggio, Gorgonzola and Grana Padano (the plains of central and southern

Lombardy allow intensive cattle-raising). Polentais generally common across the region.Regional desserts include the famouspanettoneChristmas cake (sweet bread withcandied orange, citron, and lemon zest, as well as raisins, which are added dry and notsoaked).


73/183

Valle d'Aosta

Bread thickened soups are customary as well as cheese fondue, chestnuts, potatoes, rice.Polentais a staple along with rye bread, smoked bacon and game from the mountains andforests. Butter and cream are important in stewed, roasted and braised dishes. Typical

regional products include Fontina cheese, Valle d'Aoste Lard d'Arnad and GnpiArtemisia-based liqueur.

Piedmont

Traditional Piedmontese agnolotti

Nestled between the Alps and the Po valley, with a large number of different ecosystems,is the most refined and varied cuisine of the Italian peninsula. Point of union oftraditional Italian and French cuisine, Piedmont is the Italian region with the largestnumber of cheeses Protected Geographical Status and wines Denominazione di originecontrollata. It is also the region where both Slow Food association and the mostprestigious school of Italian cooking, the University of Gastronomic Sciences, werefounded.


74/183

Gianduiottochocolate, with its distinctive shape, is a speciality of Turin

Piedmont is a region where gathering nuts, fungi, cardoons and hunting and fishing takesplace. Truffles, garlic, seasonal vegetables, cheese and rice are all used. Wines from theNebbiolo grape such as Barolo and Barbaresco are produced as well as wines from theBarbera grape, fine sparkling wines, and the sweet, lightly sparkling, Moscato d'Asti. Theregion is also famous for its Vermouth and Ratafia production. Castelmagno is a prizedcheese of the region. Piedmont is also famous for the quality of its Carr beef, hence thetradition of eating raw meat seasoned with garlic oil, lemon and salt, the famous Brasatoal vino, wine stew made from marinated beefl, and boiled beef served with varioussauces. The most typical of the Piedmont tradition are its traditional agnolotti(pastafolded over with a roast beef meat and vegetable stuffing), taglierini(thinner version oftagliatelle), bagna cauda(soup of garlic, anchovies, olive oil and butter) and bicerin(hotdrink made of coffee, chocolate and whole milk). Finally Piedmont is one of the Italiancapital of pastry and chocolate in particular, with products like Nutella, gianduiottoandmarron glacthat are famous worldwide.


75/183

Liguria

Pasta withpestosauce

Herbs and vegetables (as well as seafood) find their way into the cuisine. Savory pies arepopular, mixing greens and artichokes along with cheeses, milk curds and eggs. Onions

and olive oil are used. Because of a lack of land suitable for wheat, the Ligurians usechick-peas infarinataand polenta-likepanissa. The former is served plain or topped withonions, artichokes, sausage, cheese or young anchovies. Hilly districts use chestnuts as asource of carbohydrates. Ligurian pastas include corzettifrom the Polcevera valley,pansoti, a triangular shaped ravioli filled with vegetables,piccagge, pasta ribbons madewith a small amount of egg and served with artichoke sauce orpestosauce, trenette,made from whole wheat flour cut into long strips and served with pesto, boiled beans andpotatoes, and trofie, a Ligurian gnocchimade from whole grain flour and boiled potatoes,made into a spiral shape and often tossed inpesto. Many Ligurians emigrated toArgentina in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influencing the cuisine of this country(which otherwise dominated by meat and dairy produces which the narrow ligurian

hinterland would have not allowed).


76/183


77/183

Tagliatellewith bolognese sauce

Emilia-Romagna is known for its egg and filled pasta made with soft wheat flour.Bologna is notable for pasta dishes like tortellini, lasagne, gramignaand tagliatellewhich are found also in many other parts of the region in different declinations. Romagnasubregion is known as well for pasta dishes like cappelletti, garganelli, strozzapreti,spoglia lordaand tortelli alla lastra. In Emilia subregion, except Piacenza which isheavily influenced by the cuisines of Lombardy, rice is eaten to a lesser extent. Polenta, amaize-based dish, is common both in Emilia and Romagna. The celebrated balsamicvinegar is made only in the Emilian cities of Modena and Reggio Emilia, followinglegally binding traditional procedures. Parmigiano Reggiano cheese is produced inReggio Emilia, Parma, Modena and Bologna and is much used in cooking, whilst GranaPadano variety is produced in Piacenza. Although the Adriatic coast is a major fishing

area (well-known for its eels and clams), the region is more famous for its meat products,especially pork-based, that include: Parma's culatelloand Felino salami, Piacenza'spancetta, coppaand salami, Bologna's mortadellaand salame rosa, Modena'szampone,cotechinoand capello di preteand Ferrara's salama da sugo. Piacenza and Ferrara arealso known for some dishes prepared with horse and donkey meat. Regional dessertsincludezuppa inglese(custard-based dessert made with sponge cake and Alchermesliqueur) andpampepato(Christmas cake made with pepper, chocolate, spices, and


78/183

almonds). An exhaustive list of the most important regional wines should includeSangiovese, Lambrusco, Cagnina di Romagna, Colli Piacentini, Trebbiano.

Tuscany

Ribollita, a classic Tuscan peasant dish

Simplicity is central to the Tuscan cuisine. Legumes, bread, cheese, vegetables,mushrooms and fresh fruit are used. A good example would be ribollita, a notable Tuscansoup whose name literally means "reboiled". Like most Tuscan cuisine, the soup haspeasant origins. It was originally made by reheating (i.e. reboiling) the leftoverminestroneor vegetable soup from the previous day. There are many variations but themain ingredients always include leftover bread, cannellini beans and inexpensivevegetables such as carrot, cabbage, beans, silverbeet, cavolo nero(Tuscan kale), onionand olive oil. White truffles from San Miniato appear in October and November. High-

quality beef, used for the traditional Florentine steak, come from the Chianina cattlebreed of the Chiana Valley and the Maremmana from Maremma. Pork is also produced.The region is well-known also for its rich game, especially wi

French Coking

Documents

Transcript of French Coking