FRCR: Physics Lectures Diagnostic Radiology Lecture 2 The X-ray tube, the physics of X-ray...
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Transcript of FRCR: Physics Lectures Diagnostic Radiology Lecture 2 The X-ray tube, the physics of X-ray...
FRCR: Physics Lectures
Diagnostic Radiology
Lecture 2 The X-ray tube, the physics of X-ray
production and ‘exposure factors’
Dr Tim Wood
Clinical Scientist
Overview
• The X-ray tube
• Controlling the X-ray spectrum – Exposure factors– Filtration
• X-ray beam uniformity– The anode-heel effect
From last time…
X-ray Properties• Electromagnetic photons of radiation• Emitted with various energies & wavelengths
not detectable to the human senses• Travel radially from their source (in straight
lines) at the speed of light• Can travel in a vacuum• Display differential attenuation by matter• The shorter the wavelength, the higher the
energy and hence, more penetrating• Can cause ionisation in matter• Produce a ‘latent’ image on film/detector
Planar or three-dimensional?
• Planar imaging is the most common technique used in diagnostic radiology– General radiography e.g. PA chest– Mammography screening– Intra-oral dental radiography– Fluoroscopy (but some modern ones can do 3D)
• The anatomy that is in the path of the beam is all projected onto a single image plane– Tissues will overlap and may not be clearly visible –
contrast is generally poorer than in 3D imaging techniques
X-ray interactions with matter
• Contrast is generated by differential attenuation of the primary X-ray beam
• Attenuation is the result of both absorption and scatter interactions
• Scatter occurs in all directions, so conveys no information about where it originated – can degrade image quality, if it reaches film/detector
• Scatter increases with beam energy, and area irradiated
Interaction Processes
• Elastic scattering
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect
Photoelectric Effect
Compton Effect
The Mass Attenuation Interaction Coefficient
The Mass Attenuation Interaction Coefficient
Maximising Radiographic Contrast
• More Photoelectric absorption means higher patient dose
• Scatter rejection techniques attenuate the primary beam, so a higher patient dose is required for acceptable image receptor dose
• NEED TO BALANCE IMAGE QUALITY WITH PATIENT DOSE!!!
• Hence, the principle of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable)– Use the highest energy beam that gives acceptable
contrast, consistent with the clinical requirements
The X-ray tube
X-ray tube design - basic principles
• Electrons generated by thermionic emission from a heated filament (cathode)
• Accelerating voltage (kVp) displaces space charge towards a metal target (anode)
• X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons are suddenly stopped by impact on the metal target
• The kinetic energy is converted into X-rays (~1%) and heat (~99%)
Filament(heats up on prep.)
Target
kV
+-
Electron production in the X-ray tubeApplied voltage chosen to give correct velocity to the electrons
mA
Bremsstrahlung
Characteristic X-rays
The X-ray spectrum
• Combination of these yields characteristic spectrum.
0.00E+00
5.00E+04
1.00E+05
1.50E+05
2.00E+05
2.50E+05
3.00E+05
3.50E+05
4.00E+05
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Energy (keV)
Inte
nsi
ty
60 kVp80 kVp120 kVp
The X-ray spectrum
• The peak of the continuous spectrum is typically one third to one half of the maximum kV
• The average (or effective) energy is between 50% and 60% of the maximum– e.g. a 90 kVp beam can be thought of as effectively
emitting 45 keV X-rays (NOT 90 keV)
• Area of the spectrum = total output of tube– As kVp increases, width and height of spectrum
increases– For 60-120 kVp, intensity is approximately
proportional to kVp2 x mA
Controlling the X-ray spectrum -Exposure factors
• Increasing kVp shifts the spectrum up and to the right– Both maximum and effective energy increases, along
with the total number of photons
• Increasing mAs (the tube current multiplied by the exposure time) does not affect the shape of the spectrum, but increases the output of the tube proportionately
Quality & Intensity
Definitions:• Quality = the energy carried by the X-ray
photons (a description of the penetrating power)
• Intensity = the quantity of x-ray photons in the beam
• An x-ray beam may vary in both its intensity and quality
Back to tube design…
X-ray tube design
• Heat generation is a significant problem for X-ray tubes, and is generally the limiting factor upon their use
• Hence, it is necessary to:– Ensure efficient cooling mechanisms – take the heat
away so it doesn’t build up with multiple exposures– Have mechanisms to prevent over-heating – should it
get too hot, have mechanisms in place to stop further exposures
– Minimise heat generation on a single point of the anode (stop it melting!)
X-ray tube cooling• Generally, the tungsten target is mounted on a
copper block/rotor (either directly or indirectly) that extends out of the evacuated glass envelope
• Heat is transferred from the target to the surrounding coolant (most often oil, but very occasionally water) via conduction and/or radiation, which in turn gives up its heat to the atmosphere (possibly through a heat exchanger)
• Expansion bellows can detect when the coolant is getting too hot (or by other means) and prevent further exposures
• BUT, what about spreading the heat generating processes over a larger area?...
The rotating anode
• Heat can be spread over a large area by rotating the anode during exposure
• Tungsten annulus set in a Molybdenum disk attached to a copper rotor
• The assembly is rotated via an induction motor• Full rotation ~20 ms• Takes about 1 s to get up to speed
– The prep phase (push the exposure switch down to the first stop until you can hear it whirring) before pushing down all the way to expose
X-ray tube design – The rotating anode
Geometric unsharpness and the focal spot
• Spatial resolution is dependent upon (more on this next time…):– Geometrical unsharpness– Motion unsharpness– Absorption unsharpness
• Geometric unsharpness is related to the fact that we cannot (and in fact do not want to) produce an ideal point source of X-rays– The focal spot of the X-ray tube has a finite size that
results in blurring across the edge of structures– Can be reduced by using a smaller focal spot,
decreasing the object-film distance (OFD) or using a longer focus-to-film distance (FFD)
Geometric unsharpness –The ideal point source
Object
Film/detector
Ideal point source of X-rays
FFD
OFD
Geometric unsharpness –A ‘real’ focal spot
Object
Film/detector
Focal spot of finite size, f
FFD
OFD
Penumbra
Geometric unsharpness and the focal spot
• So, to minimise geometric unsharpness, the smallest focal spot should be used…
• BUT, this would be at the expense of excess heating and reduced tube life
• The solution is to use an angled target as the source of X-rays– Angle allows broad beam of electrons to give a
smaller apparent focal spot– Have multiple filaments for focal spot size selection –
large focal spot for general use (tube lasts longer), and small focal spot where better resolution is required
X-ray tube design – dual focus
The focal spot
Actual focal spot size
The focal spot• Apparent focal spot size will vary across the film
– Elongated on cathode side, contracted on anode side
• Target angles vary between 7 and 20°– Steeper angles allow greater tube loading– BUT, the useful X-ray field is smaller due to the anode-
heel effect (more on this later)– Hence, steep target angles suitable for applications with
limited fields of view e.g. mammography, cardiology
• Typical focal spot sizes are– 0.15-0.3 mm for mammography– 0.6-1.2 mm for general radiography– 0.6 mm for fluoroscopy– 0.6-1.0 mm for CT
Heat rating
• kV, mA and exposure time should be such that the temperature of the anode does not exceed its safe limit– The control system is designed to prevent exposures
that exceed the tube rating
• Require much higher tube ratings for CT and interventional fluoroscopy units
Shielding
• X-rays are emitted from the target in all directions, not just towards the patient
• Hence, Lead shielding is used in the tube housing to absorb X-rays not required for imaging of the patient
• Legal requirements on how much ‘leakage’ radiation is emitted from the tube during operation– Medical Physics testing checks this during the Critical
Examination of new installations
The diagnostic X-ray tube
The diagnostic X-ray tube
• Tube Current (mA)/Exposure Factor (mAs)– Double the mA/mAs, double the intensity– Beam quality not affected
• Tube Voltage (kVp)– Intensity α kVp2
– Penetrating power increases with kVp– Higher kVp reduces skin dose
• Filtration (mm Al)• Focus-to-skin distance
Factors Affecting Patient Dose
Patient dose reduction – Filtration and beam hardening
• ‘Soft x-rays’ contribute to patient dose without contributing to image production
• Placing Al filters in the beam will increase beam quality – this is known as ‘Beam Hardening’– Alternative materials may be used for filtration in
specialised applications e.g. mammography (Mo, Rh, Ag) and fluoroscopy (Cu)
• Lowest energy photons are most readily absorbed as photoelectric absorption dominates (proportional to the E3)• As the beam passes the Al, the proportion of low
energy photons is reduced, and the average photon energy increases
Filtration
Filtration
0 20 40 60 80 100
keV
Ou
tpu
t
0.5 mm Al
2.5 mm Al
7.5 mm Al
Patient dose reduction – Filtration and beam hardening
• Hence, Patient dose is reduced with little affect on the radiation reaching the detector
• However;• Radiographic contrast is reduced due to the higher
mean energy of the beam• Greater exposure factors required to yield satisfactory
dose at film/detector (have to drive the tube harder, and hence tube life may be reduced)
• The X-ray beam is also filtered by the target that they are produced in, the coolant oil and the window of the housing• ‘Inherent filtration’ equivalent to about 1 mm Al
Focus-to-skin Distance:The Inverse Square Law
• For a point source, and in the absence of attenuation, intensity decreases as the inverse of the square of the distance
• This is a statement of the conservation of energy
21
22
2
1
r
r
D
D
The inverse square law
• Patient dose can be significantly reduced by increasing the distance to the X-ray tube– FSD < 45 cm should not be
used (<60 cm for chests – 180 cm used in practice)
X-ray beam uniformity
• The X-ray tube emits X-rays in all directions
• A collimator system is used to adjust the beam to the required size– Two pairs of parallel blades
of high attenuation material that can be adjusted to define the required rectangular field size (has a light beam system for visualisation)
The anode heel effect
• Ideally, the X-ray beam defined by the jaws would be uniform across the whole image
• However, this is not the case due to the anode heel effect, which results from the combination of the angled anode and the depth at which X-rays are generated– The steeper the target angle, the worse the effect– Filtration differences at the edge of the field, the
inverse square law and apparent focal spot size also influence beam uniformity, but to a lesser extent
The anode heel effect
The anode heel effect• The electrons penetrate a few micrometres
below the surface of the anode before generating X-rays
• Hence, the X-rays that are generated in the target may be attenuated on their way out
• X-rays travelling towards the anode edge of the field (A) will have to pass through more of the target before exiting the tube– Hence, attenuation will be greater on this edge, and
beam intensity will be lower than on the Cathode side of the field (B)
– Roughening of the anode surface as the tube ages make this effect worse
The anode heel effect
• Generally not noticeable on most films– This effect is corrected for in digital imaging through
‘flat-fielding’ the detector• The anode heel effect is actively exploited in
some modalities e.g. mammography (more on this later)
• Can be minimised by using greater focus-to-film distances, smaller fields and shallower target angles