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Transcript of Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators 2013: Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
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2013 Asian Developmen Bank
All rigs reserve. Publise in 2013.
Prine in e Pilippines.
ISBN 978-92-9254-242-9 (Prin), 978-92-9254-243-6 (PDF)
Publicaion Sock No. RPT135929-2
Caaloging-In-Publicaion Daa
Asian Developmen Bank.
Key inicaors for Asia an e Pacific 2013: Framework of inclusive grow inicaors, special supplemen.Manaluyong Ciy, Pilippines: Asian Developmen Bank, 2013.
1. Inclusive grow. 2. Inicaors. I. Asian Developmen Bank.
Te views expresse in is publicaion o no necessarily reflec e views an policies of e
Asian Developmen Bank (ADB) or is Boar of Governors or e governmens ey represen.
ADB oes no guaranee e accuracy of e aa inclue in is publicaion an acceps no responsibiliy for any
consequence of eir use.
By making any esignaion of or reference o a paricular erriory or geograpic area, or by using e erm
counry in is ocumen, ADB oes no inen o make any jugmens as o e legal or oer saus of any
erriory or area.
ADB encourages prining or copying informaion exclusively for personal an noncommercial use wi proper
acknowlegmen of ADB. Users are resrice from reselling, reisribuing, or creaing erivaive works for
commercial purposes wiou e express, wrien consen of ADB.
Asian Developmen Bank
6 ADB Avenue, Manaluyong Ciy
1550 Mero Manila, Pilippines
Tel +63 2 632 4444
Fax +63 2 636 2444
www.ab.org
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Foreword
dW
o lea global grow espie a slowown in evelope economies since 2008. Ye, evience on growing
grow a prioriy for eveloping Asia.
Te Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators 2013 (FIGI 2013) is e 3r
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Contents
Forewor .................................................................................................................................................................. iii
Guie For Users.......................................................................................................................................................viii
....................................................................................................................................ix
Higligs of e Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors ....................................................................................xi
SPCIAL SUPPLMNT
Framework of Inclusive Growt Inicators
Part I. A Progress Assessment of te 1990s an 2000s in eveloping Asia ........................................................... 1
1. / ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Te Meoology ................................................................................................................................................. 5
3. W^/ ......................................................................................... 64. W/ ............................................................................................................. 17
5. W///
A Summary ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
6. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
W//d ................................................................... 25
Poverty an Inequality........................................................................................................................................... 27
Income Povery .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Nonincome Povery ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Policy Pillar One: Growt an xpansion of conomic Opportunity .................................................................... 32
' ................................................................................................................... 32
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vi Contents
Table 2.2 Nonincome Povery an Inequaliy .................................................................................................... 52
d ' ................................................................................................... 58
d WWW>z ............... 27
& Z/^>
>z .................................................................................................................. 28
& EZhWZ>z ................................................................ 28
Figure 2.4 Average Years of Toal Scooling, You, Male an Female, 2010................................................... 30Figure 2.5 Prevalence of Unerweig Cilren uner Five Years of Age, Toal, Lowes an Higes
t>z .................................................................................................... 31
& h&Z>>t
Laes Year ....................................................................................................................................... 31
& 'Z'WWWW ............................................... 32
& 'ZW/WWW>W ............. 33
& E&t
Laes Year ....................................................................................................................................... 33
& tEz ..................................34
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Contents
& EW^W>z ............................ 35
Figure 2.12 Deposiors i Commercial Banks (per 1,000 Auls), 2004 an 2011 or Neares Years .............36
& ^>Ez ..........................................................37
& WEW>z ........................................... 38
& ddWdW/z
>t>tZ>z ........ 39&
^Wh^&Ez
2010 or Laes Year .......................................................................................................................... 40
& WWdZh .............................. 41
& WWh/^&dhZ ...........42
& 'WW^d>z .......................................... 43
& W^tEWEz ...........44
& >>
t>tZ>z ........................................ 45
& ^^W'
1995 an 2011 or Neares Years ..................................................................................................... 47
& '^^tWd' Ez ............................................................................... 47
& ....................................................................................................... 49
& ' ..................................................................................................... 49
& ............................................................................................................ 49
.................................................................................................................................................... 81
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iii
Guide for Users
Key Symbols
aa no available
0 or 0.0 magniue is less an alf of uni employe
n.a. no applicable
Measurement Units
t
ata Sources
d///
/
&
^dZ
In par I, summary ables on improvemen inexes of e 45 economies of eveloping Asia uring e 1990s an
&/'/ / //
Te 48 economies in e ables are broaly groupe ino 45 eveloping members an 3 evelope members
Ed
d
//
d
inercangeably wi economy, is no inene o make any jugmen as o e legal or oer saus of any erriory
or area.
//
d
//d
referre o as e earlies year (usually a year beween 1990 an 2000) an laes year (usually any year closes o
^
earlies year an e laes year. Tis is because e years for wic aa are available vary wiely across counries.
Te acual years wic e aa relae o are inicae in e ables a are use as sources for e cars.
/ W /W/ d /
&/'/d
tt'/
d
W/d/
values of CPI no comparable wi earlier years. Te counry scores in CPI 2012 range from 100 (very clean) o 0 (igly
corrup), an canno be compare o ose from 2011 or previous years, wic range from 10 (very clean) o 0 (igly
corrup).
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB Asian Developmen Bank
AFG Afganisan
ARM Armenia
AUS Ausralia
BAN Banglaes
BHU Buan
BRU Brunei Darussalam
CAM Camboia
/
CPA counry performance assessmen
DHS Demograpic an Heal Survey
DTP3 iperia, eanus oxoi, an perussis
FIGI Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaor
FIJ FijiFSM Feerae Saes of Micronesia
'W
' '
' '
HKG Hong Kong, Cina
/d
/ /
/ /
/> />
/& /&
IND Inia
/E /
/dh /dh
JPN Japan
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x
PAL Palau
PHI Pilippines
PNG Papua New Guinea
PPP purcasing power pariy
WZ WZ
RMI Republic of Marsall IslansSAM Samoa
SIN Singapore
^>
^> ^/
^W ^W
SRI Sri Lanka
TAJ Tajikisan
TAP Taipei,Cina
THA Tailan
TIM Timor-Lese
TKM TurkmenisandE d
dh d
h/^ hE^/^
hE hE
hEW hEW
hE^ hE
hE/& hE&
hE^ hE^
h h
E
/ E
GI orlwie Governance Inicaors
t t
tWW tWW
thW thW
hh^
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Highlights of the Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators
Te Asia an Pacific region as experience e fases grow in e worl in recen ecaes, an as coninue o
lea global grow espie slowown or recession in evelope economies since 2008. Ye evience abou growing
ispariies in income an nonincome oucomes an access o opporuniy as cause concern, making inclusive
grow a prioriy for eveloping Asia.
Te publicaion Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators (FIGI), launce in 2011, presene a framework
of 35 inicaors were povery an inequaliy oucomes of inclusive grow are measure by ree income- an
ree nonincome-relae inicaors for assessing progress on income as well as nonincome povery. Te povery
an inequaliy oucomes are o be acieve roug ree policy pillars a promoe: (i) susaine ig grow
an creaion of proucive jobs an economic opporuniy, (ii) social inclusion o ensure equal access o economic
opporuniy by increasing uman capabiliies, an (iii) social safey nes o proec e cronically poor an o miigae
e risks an vulnerabiliies of people. Te progress on ese pillars is measure by a se of 26 quaniaive inicaors.
Policies for inclusive grow are suppore by goo governance an insiuions, wic in urn are measure by
anoer se of ree inicaors.
Te 2 ecaes1990s an 2000salso saw big callenges for e Asian region. In e early 1990s, economic
grow ecline in mos economies in Cenral an es Asia; an in e laer par of e 1990s, financial crisis i
/
financial crisis since 2008 aversely affece many exporing economies in Asia. Te series of callenging crises as
well as inernal facors an policies ave impace e social an economic progress in economies of eveloping Asia
over e 2 ecaes.
FIGI 2013 as wo pars. Par I aemps o race ow economies of eveloping Asia ave progresse in eac
of e 2 ecaes of e 1990s an 2000s in 20 selece inicaors of FIGI base on improvemen inexes for eac
ecae, an o see if e improvemens in e 2000s accelerae over e improvemens in e 1990s. Par II conains
upae saisical ables an sor commenaries for rens in 35 FIGI inicaors for e regional economies in Asia.
Part I. A Progress Assessment of te
1990s an 2000s in eveloping Asia
Te main objecive of Par I is o assess e
improvemens in e performance of eveloping Asia
on 20 selece inicaors of FIGI in e 1990s an 2000s
an o see if e improvemens in e 2000s accelerae
over ose in e 1990s. Tis is parially inspire by e
Millennium Developmen Goals (MDG), were mos
counries agree o improve eir social an economicconiions significanly by 2015. However, e FIGI is no
an assessmen of e MDGs.
Metoology an ata
Improvemen inexes using e Kakwani (1993)
2 ecaes using 20 selece inicaors of FIGI for
economies of eveloping Asia wi sufficien aa
poins. Te meoology allows e variables o be
convere ino uni-free inexes. Tis meoology
also ajuss for effors neee o furer improve
e performance of an inicaor as e inicaor
approaces is iges possible level. A posiive
improvemen inex enoes a real posiive
improvemen in e inicaor wile a negaive inex
enoes eerioraion in e inicaor.
d
secon as close as possible o 2000, an a ir as
improvemen inexes for 2 ecaes for eac
inicaor.
An acceleraion in e improvemen inex is
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xii ighlights of the Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators
e improvemen inex in e 2000s from e
1990s. A eceleraion is a ecline in e value of
d
progress is consiere mainaine if e value of
e improvemen inex of e 2000s is wiin +-
W
for most inicators in most economies of
eveloping Asia
Progress acieve in e 2 ecaes iffers among
economies an regions. No counry performe
well in all inicaors in bo ecaes, bu clearly,
economies ave acieve improvemens in a far
greaer number of inicaors an eerioraions in
bo ecaes.
Tiry economies a more number of inicaors
wi posiive improvemen inexes in e 2000s
an in e 1990swi anoer 5 economies
aving e same number of inicaors wi
posiive improvemen inexes as in e 1990s.
Major improvemens in e 2000s over e 1990s
(more an one-four aiional inicaors aving
posiive improvemen inexes) were acieve
'
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ighlights of the Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators
fall in per capia consumpion of elecriciy, mos
bounce back in e 2000s, wi iger per capia
income grow. You employmen-o-populaion
raios sow consisen eclines in bo ecaes,
wi even faser eclines in e 2000s in some cases.
Among e inicaors of policy pillar 2 (social
inclusion for equal access), significan gains ave
been mae in e 2 ecaes in improving scool
life expecancy (excep in Cenral an es Asian
economies uring e 1990s, wic winesse a fall
in scool life expecancy) wi many acceleraions
in e 2000s. Mos economies also successfully
in 22 economies in e 2000s.
Gener pariy in primary eucaion as improvesignificanly in e 2 ecaes, bu gener pariy in
labor force paricipaion as sown eerioraion
in many economies paricularly in e 2000s. Tis
inclue e wo mos populous economies of
e PRC an Inia. Tis reaens o isor e
composiion of e labor force an inclusiveness
employmen.
Progress as been noewory in improving access
o clean rinking waer sources, incluing in e
rural areas in almos all economies in bo e
1990s an e 2000s. Similar rens of posiive
improvemen inexes are seen for access o safe
saniaion bu a a muc slower pace an for
rinking waer. Tree-fours of e counries ave
accelerae improvemens in e 2000s in proviing
access o an improve rinking waer source an o
an improve saniaion faciliy.
Te inicaor on pillar 3 (social safey nes) suggess
some improvemens in social securiy expeniures
on eal by governmens.
Lasly, negaive improvemen inexes for inicaors
of voice an accounabiliy anor governmen
effeciveness in many economies of eveloping Asia
in e 2 ecaes poin o e nee for improve
governance an more accounable insiuions.
Tis mig be one of e mos persisen callenges
owar more inclusive grow in e region.
Conclusions
Some key conclusions observe from e improvemen
inexes in e 2 ecaes are e following:
consumpion, an scool life expecancy appear
o move ogeer; an improvemens in eal
(as inicae by consisen reucions in e cil
moraliy raes), an improvemens in infrasrucure
of saniaion an rinking waer appear o ave
aken place irrespecive of e pace of economic
grow. Tis was evien mosly in e Cenral an
es Asian economies wen ese counries face
recession in e 1990s an en recovere in e
2000s.
Counries a ave successfully reuce povery
bu ave winesse increasing income inequaliy
will nee policies especially esigne o expan
job opporuniies an access o social services an
infrasrucure for regions an populaions a are
lef bein o promoe inclusive grow.
Furer, for an economic grow a provies
equal opporuniies o all, innovaive policies
an approaces will be neee. For example,
cellular pones ave immense benefis for low-
income groups an remoely-locae populaions.
Tus programs a can empower e poor an
pones, for example, soul be promoe.
omen an you consiue a large sare of
proucive uman resources. Falling you
employmen-o-populaion raio an a ecline
policy aenion an require innovaive inclusive
of women an you, susain economic grow, anreuce income inequaliy.
To implemen inclusive policies successfully an
o acieve eir inene objecives, governmen
effeciveness an insiuions will ave o be
srengene in mos of Asia.
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iv ighlights of the Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators
Finally, significan effors are neee o give ig
prioriy o improve availabiliy of imely aa on
various inicaors by imporan isaggregaions o
monior progress on inclusive grow.
W// d
conomies in eveloping Asia
Par II provies a glimpse of general rens in FIGI
inicaors wi a focus on e ispariies on accoun of
isaggregae saisics are available. I supplemens
e analysis in Par I, wic is mainly focuse on
improvemens in counry-level inicaors. Higligs
following e FIGI srucure are given below.
Poverty an Inequality Outcomes
W WWW
inernaional povery line ecline in almos all
economies of eveloping Asia, bringing own e
proporion of poor below e povery line from
sare of income or consumpion of e iges
quinile o lowes quinile worsene in 16 of e 33
economies for wic aa are available beween e
earlies an laes years in e las 2 ecaes. Tese
inclue four of e five mos populous economies
oal populaion.
In e PRC, Inia, an Inonesiawere aa on
PPP) povery are availablewie ruralurban
income gaps are evien. Laes rural povery raes
respecively, wile corresponing urban povery
respecively.
Faser progress as been noe for e average years
of oal scooling for young females compare o
young males in eveloping Asia beween 1990 an
2010reucing e aggregae gap o only 0.3 years
in 2010.
h
resience is a reason for unequal oucomes in
>
sugges a in 19 of 29 economies in eveloping
Asia, a cil in e poores quinile is a leas wice
as likely o be unerweig as a cil in e ricesquinile.
Similar ispariies are observe in uner-five
moraliy raes. In eig economies, cances of
uner-five eas for cilren in e poores
ouseols were a leas ree imes as ig as
ose from e rices ouseols.
Policy Pillar One: Growt an xpansion of
conomic Opportunity
'W WWW
d
impac of e economic slowown in e evelope
economies in recen years.
Large work force in economies of eveloping Asia
is employe as own-accoun an conribuing
family workers (or vulnerable employmen). Tere
as been a slow ecline in e sare of vulnerable
workers vis--vis wage an salarie workers.
However, women coninue o be more likely o be
in vulnerable jobs an men.
Houseol income or consumpion surveys
conuce mosly beween 1998 an 2012 also
sow a in 12 ou of 20 economies, average
annual per capia income or consumpion (in 2005
WWW
in e lowes quinile an among ouseols in
e iges quinile. Daa from similar surveys for
earlier years in e 1990s for 20 economies sowa in only six of em as e per capia income
or consumpion grown a a faser rae for lowes-
quinile ouseols.
ile elecriciy consumpion per capia a
more an riple from 1990 o aroun 2010, wie
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ighlights of the Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators
ispariies exis across economies, as e elecriciy
consumpion per capia is as low as 64 kilowa-our
(k) in Afganisan bu as ig as 10,356 k in
Taipei,Cina. Cellular pone subscripions increase
o nearly 82 per 100 people in eveloping Asia, bu
were below 20 per 100 people in Kiribai, Myanmar,an e Marsall Islans.
Policy Pillar Two: Social Inclusion to nsure
qual Access to conomic Opportunity
Goo performance is noe for scool life
expecancy, an gener ispariies also narrowe
from 1.1 years in 1999 o 0.3 years in 2011. Te
pupileacer raio improve o 25 in 2011 from
a raio of 28 in 1990, oug in some economies
like Afganisan an Camboia, e raio worsene(increase in absolue value) ue o more suens
pace.
dW
slowly from
/
were a leas 1.3 imes e rural coverage raes
/
e Lao PDR (1.4), e Marsall Islans (3.2), an
Pakisan (1.3). Cilren in e rices quinile
PDR (2.0), Afganisan (1.9), e Marsall Islans
(1.9), an Inonesia (1.8)were more an 1.5
e poores quinile.
wiou access o elecriciy are in eveloping
Asia. ie ruralurban ispariies also exis. Te
raios of urban-o-rural access were 1.5 or more in
9 counries wi raios as ig as 3.1 (Myanmar), 4.1(Timor-Lese), an 5.7 (Camboia). Soli fuels are
e ominan source of cooking fuel in rural areas in
poorer economies an ou of e nearly 1.97 billion
populaion in eveloping Asia wo epen on soli
fuels for cooking, 1.79 billion are in rural areas.
progress in proviing eir populaions wi access
o safe rinking waer for bo urban an rural
areas, us briging e ruralurban gap. However,
eveloping Asia sill use unimprove saniaion
&
rural populaion a access o improve saniaion
2011, an ou of 1.67 billion people wiou access
o improve saniaion in eveloping Asia, nearly
1.24 billion live in rural areas.
Developing Asia a mae goo progress in
narrowing e gener gap in all levels of eucaion.
However, gener pariy in labor force paricipaionpersiss in mos economies an as worsene
over ime. Also, women coninue o be grossly
unerrepresene in poliics, paricularly in e
seas occupie by women.
Policy Pillar Tree: Social Safety Nets
Social proecion an labor raings in 2012 range
from very srong performance of 5.0 in Armenia
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PART I
A Progress Assessment of the 1990s and2000s in Developing Asia
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1. Introduction
Te Asia an Pacific region as experience e fases
grow in e worl in recen ecaes, espie e
However, is grow as been uneven across e region.
Many Asia an Pacific economies are experiencing
rising ispariies in income an nonincome oucomes,
an bo policy makers an evelopmen parners
are concerne abou susaine an inclusive grow
(uang an Ali 2010; ADB 2012a, ADB 2011b, ADB
2012c).
Inclusive grow, efine as economic grow
wi equaliy of opporuniy, is one of e ree
sraegic objecives of e Asian Developmen Bank(ADB) as explaine in is Sraegy 2020 (ADB 2008). Te
firs wo eiions of e Framework of Inclusive Growth
Indicators 2011 an 2012 (FIGI 2011 an FIGI 2012)
special supplemens o e Key Indicators (KI) for Asia
and the Pacific 2011 an 2012
a eaile srucure of inicaors of inclusive grow
(Table 1.1).
Te FIGI consiss of 35 inicaors. Te oucomes
of inclusive grow are measure by inicaors of
income an nonincome povery. Tese oucomes are
acieve roug ree policy pillars of (i) susaine
economic grow an evelopmen of proucive
jobs an economic opporuniies, (ii) social inclusion
o ensure equal access o economic opporuniy by
expaning uman capaciies, an (iii) social safey nes
o proec e cronically poor an o aress e risks
pillars is escribe by a se of quaniaive inicaors,
all of wic soul be suppore by goo governance
an insiuions, again measure by a se of inicaors.
FIGI 2012 sowe significan correlaions beween e
oucome inicaors an many inicaors of e policypillars.
Beginning 1990 unil 2010, e Asia an
Pacific region successfully acieve e Millennium
Developmen Goal (MDG) of reucing exreme povery
[PPP] erms) by alf, 5 years aea of e arge year
2015. Te average per capia income (consan 2005
WWW
an 2010. However, e 2 ecaes1990s an 2000salso saw big callenges for e region. In e early
1990s, economic grow ecline in mos counries
in Cenral an es Asia afer e collapse of e
former Sovie Union. In e laer par of e same
significan financial crisis a i grow in a number
of counries. In e 2000s, wo global recessionse
o-com recession in e early 2000s an a more severe
financial crisis owar e laer par of e ecae
aversely affece many exporing economies in Asia.
Nevereless, in aggregae, e economies of evelopingAsia recovere well from e crises of e 1990s an
ave performe beer an oer regions in e recen
perio of volailiy in e global economy.
Te series of crises as well as inernal facors an
policies ave impace social an economic progress
in e 2 ecaes in economies of eveloping Asia. FIGI
2013, a special supplemen o KI 2013, aemps o race
ow economies of eveloping Asia ave progresse in
eac of e 2 ecaes of 1990s an 2000s using selece
inicaors of FIGI. Tis is also parly inspire by e MDG
iniiaive a began in e early 2000swi counries
globally aoping e MDGs an arges o improve
eir social an economic coniions significanly by
2015. However, e FIGI is no an assessmen of e
performance of e counries owar eir MDG goals.
Tis caper is ivie ino six secions, incluing
e inroucory firs secion. Te secon secion
explains e meoology, aa use, an limiaions of
^
e comparaive analysis of e improvemens acieve
by economies of eveloping Asia in e ecaes of1990s an 2000s base on e improvemen inexes
calculae for selece inicaors across pillars of FIGI.
Secion 6 presens conclusions.
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4 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
Table 1.1 Framework of Inclusive Growth Indicators*
Poverty and Inequality
Good Governance and Institutions
Income
1 roportion of population living below the national poverty line
2 roportion of population living below $2 a day at 2005 $
atio of income or consumption of the highest quintile to lowest quintile
Nonincome
4 Average years of total schooling (youth and adults)
5 revalence of underweight children under five years of age
nder-five mortality rate per 1,000 live births
Pillar OneGrowth and Expansion of Economic
Opportunity
Economic Growth and Employment
7 rowth rate of per capita at
(constant 2005 $)
8 rowth rate of average per capita
income or consumption 2005 $
(lowest quintile, highest quintile, andtotal)
9 mployment-to-population ratio
10 per person engaged at constant
1990 $
11 Number of own-account and
contributing family workers per 100
wage and salaried workers
Key Infrastructure Endowments
12 er capita consumption of electricity
1 ercentage of paved roads
14 Number of cellular phone subscriptions
per 100 people
15 epositors with commercial banks per1,000 adults
Pillar TwoSocial Inclusion to Ensure Equal
Access to Economic Opportunity
Access and Inputs to Education and
Health
1 chool life expectancy (primary to
tertiary)
17 upilteacher ratio (primary)
18 iphtheria, tetanus toxoid, andpertussis (T) immunization
coverage among 1-year-olds
19 hysicians, nurses, and midwives per
10,000 population
20 overnment expenditure on education
as a percentage of total government
expenditure
21 overnment expenditure on health
as a percentage of total government
expenditure
Access to Basic Infrastructure Utilities
and Services
22 ercentage of population with accessto electricity
2 hare of population using solid fuels
for cooking
24 roportion of population using an
improved drinking water source
25 roportion of population using an
improved sanitation facility
Gender Equality and Opportunity
2 ender parity in primary, secondary,
and tertiary education
27 Antenatal care coverage (at least one
visit and at least four visits)
28 ender parity in labor force
participation
29 ercentage of seats held by women in
national parliament
Pillar ThreeSocial Safety Nets
0 ocial protection and labor rating
1 ocial security expenditure on health
as a percentage of government
expenditure on health
2 overnment expenditure on social
security and welfare as a percentageof total government expenditure
oice and accountability 4 overnment effectiveness 5 Control of corruption
= gross domestic product, kh = kilowatt-hours, = purchasing power parity.
* ndicators will be disaggregated by sex, ruralurban residence, and wealth quintiles where applicable and when data are available.ource: eveloped from the policy pillars of inclusive growth as adapted from huang and Ali (2010). Asian evelopment Bank.
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2. The Methodology
Tis caper assesses e progress of 45 economies
of eveloping Asia uring e 1990s an 2000s using
20 inicaors1 of FIGI. Te aim is o assess progress
in selece inicaors in eac of e 2 ecaes ancompare progress in economies of eveloping Asia.
>h> >h>h>
For e secon ype of inicaors, were a lower
value inicaes iger acievemen (e.g., uner-five
moraliy rae), e formula for acievemen inex is:
f(x, U, L) = ((Ln (U-L)- Ln (x-L))Ln (U-L)
were U is iges possible value an L is e lowes
possible value of inicaor, x is e value of e inicaor,
an Ln is e naural logarim.
1 Only 20 indicators among the 35 indicators of FIGI were used dueto incomplete data and disparities among the countries in termsof availability of data.
Ten e improvemen inex (or progress)
beween wo perios 1 an 2 is given by:
F(x1, x2, U, L) = (f(x2 h > 1, U, L))(2-1)
were x2 is e value of e inicaor in e en perio
2 an x1 is e value in e beginning perio 1.
A posiive improvemen inex for bo kins of
inicaors as calculae above enoes a real posiive
improvemen in e acievemen of e inicaor
beween wo poins in ime, an a negaive value
enoes a eerioraion. For eac inicaor, a iger
posiive number enoes a beer performance wile a
more negaive number means worse performance.
Daa for e FIGI inicaors are rawn from
sanar aabases of UN agencies, oer inernaional &
an inicaor, aa for ree yearsan earlies year
closes o 1990, a mile year closes o 2000, an a
ir year closes o 2010were use. Tus for eac
selece inicaor, only e counries wi ree vali
aa poins were inclue in e analysis. Tese ree
aa poins allowe e calculaion of e improvemen
inexes for eac selece inicaor for e 2 ecaes.
Limitations. Incomplee aa an ispariies
among e counries in erms of availabiliy of aa are
among e limiaions encounere in e suy. Tus,
only 20 inicaors among e 35 inicaors of FIGI were
inicaors selece across counries is also isparae.
Tus, some inicaors woul ave almos complee aa
for counries wile oers woul ave fewer counries
represene in e inicaors, wic may affec e
analysis an inerpreaion of resuls.
Anoer imporan limiaion is a since e
number of inicaors is limie only o 20 inicaors,
e picure is no complee. Te inicaors selecefor e pillars, for example, lack some vial inicaors.
i ese limiaions in min, e performance of e
economies of eveloping Asia in e 1990s an 2000s is
epice using e aforemenione meoology.
&
performance in eac inicaor coul no be sown,
wic woul oerwise be elpful in giving insigs ino
e iverse performances of e counries. Resuls for
Part I
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6 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
improvemen inexes of e counries for eac inicaor,
an e performance of eac counry in e selece
in e following secions.
3. Performance of Economiesin the Selected Indicators
Te performance of economies on e selece
inicaors is observe base on e improvemen
inexes of e 2 ecaes. In is secion, some inicaors
are accompanie by graps a plo improvemen
inexes for e inicaor o epic counry performance.
d of economies of eveloping Asia base on e
improvemen inexes for e selece inicaors in e
1990s an 2000s. A posiive improvemen inex implies
progress in e performance of e inicaor beween
wo poins in ime, wile a negaive value implies a
eerioraion. To compare progress measure in erms
of improvemen inexes in e 2 ecaes, Table 1.2 also
or mainaine eir progress in e 2000s compare
wi progress uring e 1990s. An acceleraion in e
of improvemen inex in e 2000s from e 1990s. A
eceleraion is a ecline in e value of improvemen
W
if e value of improvemen inex of e 2000s is wiin
/
improvemen inex of e 1990s is negaive, a fall in is
acceleraion, an an increase in e negaive value (an
eceleraion.
Te nex subsecions iscuss e performance ofselece inicaors following e srucure of FIGI.
3.1 Poverty an Inequality
Proportion of Population Living below $2-a-Day
at 2005 PPP$
As sown by posiive improvemen inexes, e
a 2005 PPP inernaional povery line sows a mos
counries improve uring e 2 ecaes of 1990s an
2000s, excep for e Cenral Asian economies uring
e 1990s, wic suffere severe economic ecline
following e issoluion of e former Sovie Union,
for Malaysia a suffere from financial crisis, an forPacific economies of e Feerae Saes of Micronesia
an Papua New Guinea in e 2000s. Te Cenral Asian
economies recovere in e 2000s an so i Malaysia.
Tus, espie e financial crises, a majoriy of e
counries in e Asia an Pacific region were able o
reuce povery in e 2 ecaes an furer accelerae
inclue for is inicaor, 18 were able o reuce
counries accelerae eir raes of povery reucion in
e 2000s from e 1990s, wile 5 ecelerae.
Figure 1.1 plos e improvemen inexes for
of ouliers, e counries are clusere in e mile, bu
mos of e counries in e firs quaran accelerae
eir povery reucion in e 2000s.
= purchasing power parity.
Note: ata points used are all consumption-based except for the ederatedtates of Micronesia and Malaysia, which are income-based. ata forthe eoples epublic of China, ndia, and ndonesia combine the urbanand rural distributions, weighted by share of rural and urban population
to total population. ata for the ederated tates of Micronesia refer tourban population.
ources: Authors calculations based on data from ovcalNet atabase nline(orld Bank), accessed 1 May 201; orld evelopment ndicators
nline (orld Bank), accessed 19 April 201.
igure 1.1 Improvement Indexes for the Proportion ofPopulation Living below $2 a day at 2005 PPP$, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
BAN
B
CAM
C
N
N
A
MA
M
M
NA
N
TA
TA
TM
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.0
0.04
0.05
0.0
0.07
0.0
5
0.0
4
0.0
3
0.0
2
0.0
1
0.0
0
0.0
1
0.0
2
0.0
3
0.0
4
0.0
5
0.0
6
0.0
7
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8 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
Te economies wi e mos impressive
were Buan, e PRC, Fiji, Inonesia, Malaysia, e
d E
t W Z
(Lao PDR), Inonesia, an Papua New Guinea, a mus
evelop inclusive policies o ensure longer reenion of
pupils in scools an overcome inequaliy of access o
eucaion especially for e poor an e vulnerable
populaions.
ources: Authors calculations based on data from Barro and ee (201); HumanDevelopment Report 2013 (N 201).
igure 1. Improvement Indexes for
Average Years of Total Schooling for Adults, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
BAN
B
CAM
N N A
A
MA
M
MN
MA
N
A
A
N
C
N
TA
TA
TA
TN
0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.0
05
0.0
00
0.0
05
0.0
10
0.0
15
0.0
20
Note: ata points used are all consumption-based except for Taipei,China;which are income-based and defined as disposable household income.ata for the eople's epublic of China combine the urban and ruraldistributions, weighted by share of urban and rural population to totalpopulation.
ources: Authors calculations based on data from ovcalNet atabase nline(orld Bank), accessed 1 May 201; for Taipei,China: economy source.
igure 1.2 Improvement Indexes for the Ratio of Income orConsumption Share of Highest Quintile to Lowest Quintile,
1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
BAN
CN
A
MA
MN
A
TATA
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.0
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.0
4
0.0
2
0.0
0
0.0
2
0.0
4
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.1
0
0.1
2
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Coninue improvemens in access o scooling
is an imporan resul an boes well for proucive
uman capaciy an fuure grow of e region. Figure
1.3 presens improvemen inexes for e average years
for Armenia, Fiji, e Malives, an Tajikisan, all oerslie in e firs quaran sowing posiive inexes in bo
ecaes. Te performances of e Republic of Korea;
Malaysia; Palau; Singapore; Sri Lanka an Taipei,Cina
ave been paricularly impressive in bo ecaes.
Under Five Mortality Rate per 1,000 live births
Uner is inicaor, all economies wi sufficien aa
were able o reuce moraliy for ose uner five
sufficien aa, 42 improve in bo ecaes an onlyone counry, Nauru, a no improvemen (Figure 1.4).
Improvemen inexes for 16 counries accelerae in
e 2000s, 18 mainaine eir progress raes, an 9
ecelerae. Te economies wi eceleraion in e
2000s inclue ose wi alreay low cil moraliy
raes like e Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore,
an Tailan, bu also inclue ose wi ig raes
like Afganisan, e Marsall Islans, an PNG. Tis
inicaor is also a measure for e MDG arge of cuing
e uner-five moraliy raes by wo-irs from e
1990 levels an consisen progress in e las 2 ecaes
is no enoug for many counries o acieve is arge.
(ADB 2012b).
Figure 1.4 also sows e improvemen inexes
for is inicaor for e 2 ecaes, were counries
cluser aroun e 45-egree line in e firs quaran.
Many low-income economies like Banglaes, e Lao
PDR, e Malives, Mongolia, an Timor-Lese sow
ig reucions in cil moraliy raes.
Tese posiive avances augur well for aving
ealier cilren an a proucive labor force for
fuure benefis o iniviuals, sociey, an e economy.
Te four oucome inicaors of FIGI iscusse
above inicae goo progress in povery reucion
an in eal an eucaion oucomes in eveloping
Asia. However, income isribuion is a callenge for
many economies of eveloping Asiawic coul be
a resul of grow concenrae only in cerain regionsof a counry. Tis income inequaliy may wien regional
ispariies, ispariies beween an wiin urban an
rural areas, an among ifferen classes of sociey.
Acieving inclusive grow erefore requires greaer
aenion.
3.2 Pillar One: Growt an xpansion
of conomic Opportunity
3.2.1 conomic Growt an mployment
Gross Domestic Product per Capita at PPP (constant
2005 PPP$)
d
for annual exponenial grow raes of gross omesic
'WWWW2
of 36 economies, 24 economies exibie posiive
inexes in e 1990s, wile grow in 12 economies was
negaive. Te economies wi negaive grow were
from e Cenral an es Asia, Brunei Darussalam,
Mongolia, Palau, an Solomon Islans. In e 2000s,33 ou of 36 economies a posiive grow an
improvemen inexes, as 24 economies accelerae,
annual grow level, an 10 counries ecelerae.
2 Huge differences in the per capita incomes between the poorestand the richest countries yielded some unusual indexes using theKakwani method. Hence, the exponential growth formula was usedfor this indicator. The formula for the exponential annual growth rateis (Ln(x(T))-Ln(x(t)))/(T-t), where x is the GDP per capita in constant2005 PPP$, T is the end year, and t the starting year.
Part I
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicators
atabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.4 Improvement Indexes forUnder-Five Mortality Rate per 1,000 Live Births, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
A
BAN
B
B
CAM C
C
N
NA
A
MA
M
M
M
MN
MA
NA
N
AA
N
AM
N
TA
TA
TM
TNTM
TB
AN
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.00
0.0
00
0.0
05
0.0
10
0.0
15
0.0
20
0.0
25
0.0
30
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0 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
Figure 1.5 sows e scaer plo of improvemen
inexes of e exponenial annual grow rae of GDP
per capia for e 36 economies for e 1990s an 2000s.
Te Cenral an es Asian economies of Armenia,
'
Number of Own-Account and Contributing Family
orkers Per 100 age and Salaried orkers
Tis inicaor sows e exen of low qualiy an
vulnerable jobs in an economy. Comparaive aa for e
ese, 7 economies in e 1990s an 8 in e 2000s a
posiive improvemen inexes implying movemen from
low-paying informal jobs o formal jobs, wic usually
enail more permanency an iger pay (ADB 2011a).
Hong Kong, Cina an Singapore bo sowe ecline
in e 1990s, wi Hong Kong, Cina furer eclining in
e 2000s. However, ese economies alreay ave very
low levels of vulnerable employmen. Improvemen
inexes for five economies (incluing Inia an Sri Lanka)
also accelerae in e 2000s wile for four (incluing
Pakisan an Tailan), ey ecelerae.
3.2.2. Key Infrastructure nowments
Per Capita Consumption of Electricity
Te improvemen inexes of mos counries sow
increase in per capia elecriciy consumpion, le by
e iger-income counries in bo e 1990s an e
2000s. For e lower-income counries, e increase inper capia elecriciy consumpion is muc lower an
a of e iger-income counries. Mos Cenral an
es Asian economies suffere eclines in elecriciy
consumpion in e 1990s ue o eir recession, an
in some, per capia consumpion furer ecline in
e 2000s, espie significan economic recovery. Tis
may be ue o e lack of mainenance of elecriciy
infrasrucure uring e ecae of ecline or ue o
significan improvemens in energy efficiency.
= gross domestic product, = purchasing power parity.
ource: Authors calculations based on data from orld evelopment ndicatorsnline (orld Bank), accessed 1 uly 201.
igure 1.5 Improvement Indexes for Growth Ratein GDP Per Capita at Constant 2005 PPP$, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
AM
A
BAN
B
B
CAM
C
N
N
A
A
MA
M
MN
NA
A
NAM
N
TA
TA
TN
TMB
AN
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.0
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.0
0
0.0
2
0.0
4
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.1
0
0.1
2
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consumpion in e 1990s wile 10 saw a ecline, wic
inclue 8 economies of e Cenral an es Asia.
In e 2000s, is became 31 improvemens, wi 5
winessing a ecline, 4 of wic were Cenral an es
accelerae eir per capia elecriciy usage, 1
mainaine i, an 9 ecelerae in e 2000s compare
wi e 1990s.
Te general increase in elecriciy usage is
common o growing economies, wic owever,
also enails environmenal repercussions as mos of
ese economies epen on elecriciy generae by
/
impore fuels.
Per Capita Cellular Phone Subscriptions
Cellular pone subscripions were almos non-exisen
uring e early 1990s, excep for a few ric economies.
During e 2000s, subscripions of cellular pones
grew exponenially. Tus, wile uring e 1990s only
e ricer economies increase ownersip of cellular
pones, mos economies increase cellular pone
subscripions significanly in e following ecae
incluing many of e lower-income counries. However,
many of e Pacific islan economies an Myanmar
increase eir cellular pone ownersip in e 2000s a
a muc slower pace an oer eveloping economies.
Improvemen inexes for 42 economies sow a
38 increase eir per capia cellular pone subscripion
in e 1990s. In e 2000s, all 42 economies increase
eir per capia subscripions an 41 economies
accelerae eir per capia subscripion raes. Te
only economy were e improvemen inex in e
2000s ecelerae in comparison wi e 1990s was
Taipei,Cina, wic alreay a a ig subscripion levelin e 2000s, an were subscripions mig be reacing
a sauraion poin.
Cellular pones ave become par of e lives of
people in all economies of eveloping Asia, incluing
e low-income economies. Tey ave ransforme e
ways in wic people communicae, access informaion
as well as financial an oer services, inerac wi
e governmen, increase economic opporuniies, an
expan eir business. Tey ave immense benefis for
low-income groups an remoely-locae populaions.
Tus, programs a can empower e poor an
soul be suppore.
In general e improvemen inexes for e
inicaors of pillar 1excep for e you employmen-o-populaion raioemonsrae posiive resuls
especially accelerae in e 2000s an consumpion
of elecriciy increase along wi increasing economic
grow. Limie aa sugges some eclining ren in
e proporion of informal an vulnerable jobs in poor
economies. A e same ime, significan avances
in e use of cellular pones are an inicaion of e
progress mae in e informaion an communicaion
ecnology (ICT) infrasrucure in e region.
3.3 Pillar Two: Social Inclusion to
nsure qual Access to conomic
Opportunity
3.3.1. Access an Inputs to ucation an Healt
School Life Expectancy
Scool life expecancy from primary o eriary
improve for mos counries in e 1990s an 2000s.
Improvemen inexes sow a ou of 20 economies,
12 improve in e 1990s wile 8 economies, wic
inclue 7 economies from e Cenral an es Asia
plus Mongolia, observe a ecline. In e 2000s, all
excep e Pilippines winesse an improvemen. In
e 2000s e improvemen inexes for 16 economies
accelerae, 1 mainaine is level, wile 3 ecelerae
compare wi inexes for e 1990s. Among e ree
were progress in e 2000s slowe was e Republic
of Korea, wic alreay as e iges scool life
expecancy in eveloping Asia.
Figure 1.6 isplays improvemen inexes for e
20 economies a ave sufficien aa for is inicaor.
Cenral an es Asian economies a eerioraions
in e 1990s ue o eir severe recession. Afganisan
an Mongolia also eeriorae. Among e bes
performers are Brunei Darussalam, e Republic of
Korea, an Tailan. Afganisan, Camboia, Inonesia,
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2 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
Tese resuls, especially for Cenral Asian
economies, inicae a scooling, like elecriciy
consumpion, also epen igly on economic grow.
en ere is a recession, cilren an e you
may rop ou of scool if ey ave o elp e family
financially.
PupilTeacher Ratio in Primary Schools
Te pupileacer raio is an imporan proxy inicaor
of eucaion qualiy. In e 1990s, e improvemen
inexes for a significan number of counries
eacer recruimen i no keep pace wi increase
improvemen in is inicaor in e 1990s an 11
experience ecline. In e 2000s, 24 counries improve
an, ese nine economies inclue Afganisan an
W
ave worsene over ime peraps ue o e increasing
ey inclue economies like Taipei,Cina a a
progresse a a fas rae in e 1990s an a alreay
reace a low raio.
Te sorage of eacers as a irec implicaion
on e qualiy of eucaion an ereby on reenion
eacer raios are also seen o ave large ropou raes
hE^ /
ese sorages are in remoe an rural areas, an
erefore as governmens make effors o acieve e
MDG of universal primary eucaion, along wi arges
o enrol all cilren, ey also nee o ave policies
in place o provie aequae number of qualifie anraine eacers.
Diphtheria, Tetanus Toxoid, and Pertussis (DTP3)
Immunization Coverage Among 1-Year-Olds
Performance in is inicaor sows a mixe picure.
Aloug e majoriy of economies exibie
improvemens in eir inexes in e 1990s an 2000s,
a number of em also exibie a ecline beween
e saring an en poins. Tose a eeriorae
inclue economies from all income levels.
bu 16 eeriorae. Tis worsene a bi in e 2000s
wi 23 sowing improvemens an e remaining 19
wi no improvemen or eerioraing coverage raes.
Improvemen inexes for 21 economies accelerae
in e 2000s, ecelerae for anoer 20, an was
mainaine in 1.
Figure 1.7 sows e improvemen inexes for is
inicaor. Te PRC an Inia are among e economies
a saw eclines in eir inexes in e 1990s, along
ource: Authors calculations based on data from nstitute for tatistics ataCentre (NC), accessed 0 May 201.
igure 1. Improvement Indexes forSchool Life Expectancy, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AB
CAM
C
NN
A
A
MN
MA
TA TA
B
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.0
10
0.0
05
0.0
00
0.0
05
0.0
10
0.0
15
0.0
20
ource: Authors calculations based on data from lobal ealth bservatoryata epository (), accessed 17 May 201.
igure 1.7 Improvement Indexes for Diphtheria,Tetanus Toxoid, and Pertussis (DTP3)
Immunization Coverage Among 1-Year-Olds, 1990s, 2000s
2
000s
1990s
A
AMA
BAN
B
B
CAM
C
C
N
N
A
A MA
M
M
MMN
MA
NA
N
A
A
N
AM
N
TATA
TN
TM
T
BAN
0.08
0.0
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.0
0.08
0.10
0.0
8
0.0
6
0.0
4
0.0
2
0.0
0
0.0
2
0.0
4
0.0
6
0.0
8
0.1
0
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wi Afganisan, Buan, Myanmar, e Pilippines,
an some Pacific economies. Te grap also sows a
many of ese counries improve eir performance in
e 2000s, noably e PRC, e Cook Islans, Fiji, e
Marsall Islans, Myanmar, an Nauru. Te eclines in
some economies may no be alarming. However, every
e lives of a large number of cilren a risk from ese
reucing cil moraliy.
3.3.2 Access to Basic Infrastructure Utilities an
Services
Proportion of Population Using an Improved Drinking
ater Source
Te percenage of e populaion using an improve
rinking waer source is one of e MDG inicaors a
as seen remenous progress in mos economies in
bo ecaes, increasing access for millions of people.
rinking waer faciliies a e beginning of 1990 an
a also mainaine i roug e 2 ecaes were no
inclue so as no o bias e number of counries a
i no improve.
Improvemen inexes of 36 economies, sow a
31 improve in e 1990s an 32 improve in e 2000s.
Tiry accelerae e improvemen in e 2000s over
e 1990s, four ecelerae, an wo mainaine eir
saus.
Figure 1.8 sows e improvemen inexes for
well in bo ecaes inclue e PRC, Fiji, Inia, e
Z
Edd
ecline in bo ecaes. Marginal eclines in e
improvemen inexes for bo ecaes are seen in e&^ h
t
ese economies generally ave coverage of more
waer soul be reverse. Te 2 ecaes of effors o
an improve access o safe rinking waer as le o e
acievemen of e MDG arge of reucing by alf e
populaion wiou access in mos economies of e
region (ADB 2012b).
Proportion of Population Using an Improved Sanitation
Facility
Te proporion of populaion using an improve
saniaion faciliy is also an MDG inicaor. Similar o
access o rinking waer, mos economies improve
in e 1990s an 2000s an furer accelerae eir
improvemens in e 2000s, aloug compare o
improve rinking waer sources, e progress as no
e en were omie in e analysis.
30 improve in e 2000s. In e 2000s, 30 economies
accelerae eir improvemens, 6 ecelerae an 2
mainaine eir 1990s saus. Figure 1.9 sows a
Georgia an Tonga eeriorae in bo ecaes, wile
ig improvemen inexes were observe in Palau an
h
eveloping Asia as improve is recor on access o
improve saniaion faciliies since e 1990s, many
economies are far from acieving e MDG arge of
cuing by alf e proporion of populaion wiou
access (ADB 2012b).
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicators
atabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.8 Improvement Indexes for Proportion of PopulationUsing an Improved Drinking Water Source, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
ABAN
CAM
C
N
N
A
A
MA
M
M
M
MN
MAN
AA
N
AM
TA
TATM
TM
T
B
AN
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.00
0.0
10
0.0
05
0.0
00
0.0
05
0.0
10
0.0
15
0.0
20
0.0
25
0.0
30
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4 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
3.3.3 Gener quality an Opportunity
Gender Parity in Primary Education
Improvemen inexes for e 1990s an 2000s for
is inicaor sowe a a majoriy of counries a
improve gener pariy in primary eucaion in bo
ecaes, an many also accelerae eir improvemens
in e 2000s.
Again, exclue from e analysis are some
counries a a alreay acieve full gener
economies, 15 improve in e 1990s an 21 improve
in e 2000s. Tweny economies accelerae eir
improvemens in e 2000s an improvemen inexes
for 6 ecelerae, wic inclue Myanmar an Samoa
a ave alreay acieve gener pariy in primary
scooling in 2010.
Te ecline an eceleraion ere may no becriical since many counries ave acieve or are close
o gener pariy in primary eucaion. Tose a are
'
access o primary scooling in eveloping Asia vis-a-vis
boys as improve consierably in e las 2 ecaes.
Gender Parity in Labor Force Participation
More economies a improve gener pariy in labor
of 40 economies, 31 improve in e 1990s an 9 i
no. Tis worsene consierably in e 2000s were 23
counries improve an 17 i no. Nineeen counries
accelerae eir improvemens in e 2000s wile 21
ecelerae.
Te eerioraion of gener pariy in labor force
paricipaion espie improvemens in gener pariy in
eucaion reaens o isor e composiion of e
labor force an inclusiveness of grow by reucing
t
more an more women being eucae, i is a goo
opporuniy o aress ese inequaliies an inrouce
innovaive approaces owar employmen policies
e economy.
Percentage of Seats held by omen in National
Parliament
Tere are slig improvemens for a majoriy of counries
an slig eerioraion for a few in is inicaor in
1990s wile 15 i no. In e 2000s, is became beer
wi 18 improvemens. In e 2000s, 18 accelerae
eir improvemens wile 10 ecelerae.
Tere is muc room for improvemen in e
inclusion of women in e poliical process, wic coul
sociey an e economy.
Base on ese inicaors, eveloping Asia overall
is no performing oo well on gener pariy. Aloug
poliical process require more aenion.
3.4 Pillar Tree: Social Safety Nets
Social Security Expenditure on Health as a Percentage
of Government Expenditure on Health
Tere are some improvemens in a majoriy of e
few economies wi sufficien aa for bo ecaes.
an e 2000s. Furer, in e 2000s, nine economies
accelerae eir improvemens wile anoer nine
ecelerae.
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicators
atabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.9 Improvement Indexes for Proportion of PopulationUsing an Improved Sanitation Facility, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
A
BAN
CAM
C
C
NN
A
A
MA
M
M MMN
MANAN
A
A
N
AM
TA
TM
TN
TM
T
B
AN
0.04
0.0
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.020.0
0.04
0.05
0.0
0.0
1
0.0
0
0.0
1
0.0
2
0.0
3
0.0
4
0.0
5
0.0
6
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d
expeniures on social securiy scemes an oer
scemes of compulsory eal insurance especially
o cover e poor an vulnerable secions of e
populaions improves inclusiveness of grow. If e
18 economies are a represenaive group, i can be saia governmens in eveloping Asia are making some
progress in expaning social securiy in eal. Counries
nee o promoe pro-poor eal financing policies for
beer safey nes, especially for e poor.
3.5 Goo Governance an Institutions
Voice and Accountability
accounabiliy in e 1990s wile 32 i no. In e 2000s,
20 improve an 24 accelerae eir improvemens in
e 2000s wile 19 ecelerae.
Ta many counries (almos alf in e 2000s)
i no improve in is inicaor sows a poliical
inclusion is no keeping pace wi economic an social
evelopmen.
Government Effectiveness
A significan number of counries ave negaive or
of 40 economies, 19 improve in e 1990s wile
21 i no. In e 2000s, 23 improve wile 17 i
no. Tweny-one accelerae in e improvemens in
e 2000s, 1 mainaine is 1990s posiion, wile 18
ecelerae. Governmen effeciveness seems o be
anoer weakness owar acieving goo governance
in eveloping Asia.
Figure 1.10 sows e improvemen inexes
of governmen effeciveness. Mos counries arein e secon, ir, or four quaran, inicaing
eerioraion uring e 1990s or e 2000s or bo.
effeciveness in bo ecaes, wic inclue 4
t
3 in Soueas Asia.
Tus, economies of eveloping Asia nee
improve governance an ransparen an accounable
insiuions o provie a sronger suppor for e pillars
of inclusive grow. Tis mig be one of e mos
persisen callenges owar more inclusive grow in
e region.
d/Z
Growt Process
Te improvemen inexes of e inicaors for access
o improve rinking waer sources an improve
saniaion faciliies isaggregae by rural an
urban areas for wic sufficien aa are available
for eveloping Asia ave also been compare. For
improve rinking waer sources, ou of 36 economies,
23 a larger improvemen inexes for rural areas an
for urban areas in e 1990s. Tis furer increase o
25 in e 2000s, sowing larger effors o brige e
&
an 1.11.2 sow e improvemen inexes for access
o improve rinking waer sources for rural an urban
areas. Access in rural areas o improve rinking waersources accelerae in 32 economies in e 2000s
compare wi e 1990s, an in 21 economies in urban
areas.
For e saniaion inicaor, ou of 37 economies,
15 a larger improvemen inexes for rural areas an
for urban areas in e 1990s. Tis increase o 21 in
urban gap in saniaion in e 2000s. Figures 1.11.3 an
ource: Authors calculations based on data from orldwide overnancendicators (orld Bank) available at http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.asp, accessed 18 April 201.
igure 1.10 Improvement Indexes forGovernment Effectiveness, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
AAM
ABAN
B
B CAMC
NN
A
A
MA
MMM
MNMA
N AN
AM
N
TA
TA
TA
TN
TM
BAN
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.0
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Part I
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6 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
1.11.4 presen e improvemen inexes for access o
improve saniaion faciliies in e 1990s an 2000s for
rural an urban, respecively. Similar o rinking waer,
many economies exibi acceleraions in bo rural an
urban areas in e 2000s, oug improvemen inexes
are muc lower an e inexes for rinking waer.
Tus, wile muc more nees o be one o brige
services, i oes inicae improvemens in e rural
areas vis--vis e urban areas in e las 2 ecaes.
Te inclusion of rural areas in evelopmen is
criical for inclusive grow. Rural areas usually are
more remoe an ofen lack basic infrasrucure, anwere lower prouciviy (an erefore lower wage)
employmen ens o be concenrae. Improving
infrasrucure in e rural areas will promoe grow
wi inclusion in eveloping Asia.
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicatorsatabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.11.1 Improvement Indexes for Proportion of Rural PopulationUsing an Improved Drinking Water Source, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
ABAN
CAM
C
N
N
A
A
MA
M
M
M
MN
MAN
AA
N
AM
TA
TA
TM
TM
T
B
AN
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.00
0.05
0.0
15
0.0
10
0.0
05
0.0
00
0.0
05
0.0
10
0.0
15
0.0
20
0.0
25
0.0
30
0.0
35
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicatorsatabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.11.2 Improvement Indexes for Proportion of Urban PopulationUsing an Improved Drinking Water Source, 1990s, 2000s
2
000s
1990s
A
AM
A
BAN
B
CAM
C
N
N
A
AMA
M
M
M
MN
MA
NA
A
N
AM
TA TA
TM
TM
T
B
AN
0.00
0.020
0.010
0.000
0.010
0.020
0.00
0.040
0.050
0.0
30
0.0
20
0.0
10
0.0
00
0.0
10
0.0
20
0.0
30
0.0
40
0.0
50
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicators
atabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.11. Improvement Indexes for Proportion of Rural PopulationUsing an Improved Sanitation Facility, 1990s, 2000s
2000s
1990s
A
AM
A
BANCAMC
C
N
N
A
AMA
M
M
M
MN
MA
N
A
A
N
AM
TA
TATM
TN
TMT
B
AN
0.00
0.020
0.010
0.000
0.010
0.020
0.00
0.040
0.050
0.00
0.070
0.0
30
0.0
20
0.0
10
0.0
00
0.0
10
0.0
20
0.0
30
0.0
40
0.0
50
0.0
60
0.0
70
ource: Authors calculations based on data from Millennium ndicatorsatabase nline (N), accessed uly 201.
igure 1.11.4 Improvement Indexes for Proportion of Urban PopulationUsing an Improved Sanitation Facility, 1990s, 2000s
2
000s
1990s
A
AM
A
BAN
CAM
C
C
NN
A
A
MA
M
M
M
MN
MA
NA
N
A
A
N
AM
TATA TM
TN
TM
T
B
AN
0.00
0.015
0.000
0.015
0.00
0.045
0.0
30
0.0
15
0.0
00
0.0
15
0.0
30
0.0
45
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3.7 Summary
In summary, analysis of a number of FIGI inicaors
sow a economies of eveloping Asia ave mae
improvemens in e las 2 ecaes, wi more counries
improving in larger number of inicaors in e 2000s.Many economies also sow acceleraions in a number
of inicaors in e 2000s inicaing increasing pace of
improvemen in e policy pillars of inclusive grow
an is oucomes. Tus, oucome inicaors of povery
rae, uner-five moraliy rae, an average years of
scooling ave seen goo progress. However, limie
aa on raio of income or consumpion sare of iges
quinile o e lowes quinile sugges worsening of
e gap beween e ric an e poor in many of e
economies.
Among e inicaors of pillar one (grow an
expansion of economic opporuniy), per capia GDP
grow rae, elecriciy consumpion, an cellular
pone subscripions sow muc success. Available aa
on vulnerable employmen sow some canges wi a
slow rise in e sare of wage an salary employmen,
bu you employmen-o-populaion raios ave been
eclining in mos economies.
Among e inicaors of pillar wo (social inclusion
o ensure equal access o economic opporuniy),
eveloping Asia as mae gains in enroling cilren in
scools as epice by improving scool life expecancy.
d
economies excep in some were increase scool
enrollmens may ave oupace eacer recruimens.
DTP3 coverage sows eerioraion in many counries.
Gener pariy as been a remarkable success in primary
eucaion, bu e progress is no encouraging in labor
poliical process. For basic faciliies suc as improve
rinking waer sources, remarkable progress as been
mae bo in e rural an urban areas. Use of improvesaniaion faciliies as also consisenly improve in
rural an urban areas, oug a a muc slower pace
an rinking waer. Te improvemen in e rural
areas for rinking waer sources an saniaion faciliies
augurs well for e inclusion of rural areas in grow.
Te lone inicaor on social safey nes suggess some
increases in social securiy expeniures on eal by
governmens. Finally, goo governance appears weak in
many economies of eveloping Asia.
4. Performance on Indicatorsby Economy
Table 1.3 presens an aggregae picure of eperformance of 45 economies base on e improvemen
inexes for e 1990s an 2000s on e selece
inicaors for wic sufficien aa are available. Te
able sows a ere is ispariy in availabiliy of aa
across counries. ile Tailan as e larges number
of inicaors (19) wi sufficien aa, Timor-Lese as
e lowes (5). Te performance of counries uring e
2 ecaes is generally posiive.
More improvemens an eerioraions in
inicaors occurre in bo e 1990s an 2000s. Duringe 1990s, five economies a more inicaors sowing
'
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8 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
Table 1. Improvement Indexes, 1990s and 2000s, by Economy: A Summarya
Economies by regions indeveloping Asia
No. ofindicators
included per
economy
1990s 2000s No. of indicators with progress in the 2000s
No. ofindicators with
positive index
No. ofindicators with
negative or
zero index
No. ofindicators with
positive index
No. ofindicators with
negative or
zero index Accelerated Maintained Decelerated
Central and West Asia
Afghanistan 12 7 5 11 1 8 4Armeniab 1 9 4 10 8 5
Azerbaijan 15 9 12 1 2
eorgia 15 9 14 1 14 1
azakhstanb 1 8 5 10 8 5
yrgyz epublic 1 10 10 9 2 5
akistan 18 1 2 15 12 1 5
Tajikistan 15 8 7 10 5 11 4
Turkmenistan 11 4 7 5 1 4
zbekistan 1 7 7 8 1 4
East Asia
China, eoples ep. ofb 17 12 5 1 4 1 4
ong ong, China 10 7 9 1 8 2
orea, ep. ofb, c 15 14 1 14 1 7 2
Mongolia 17 9 8 11 10 7
Taipei,Chinab 9 8 1 7 2 5 4
South AsiaBangladesh 14 10 4 1 1 1 1
Bhutan 11 5 9 2 10 1
ndia 17 14 1 1 14
Maldivesb 12 8 4 10 2 11 1
Nepal 14 11 1 1 9 2
ri anka 18 1 2 1 5 10 1 7
Southeast Asia
Brunei arussalam 12 9 10 2 1 5
Cambodia 15 14 1 1 2 11 4
ndonesia 18 14 4 1 2 12 2 4
ao 17 1 4 15 2 12 1 4
Malaysia 17 14 15 2 9 8
Myanmar 14 11 11 9 1 4
hilippines 18 14 4 14 4 9
ingaporec, d 12 8 4 10 2
Thailand 19 14 5 1 12 7
iet Nam 1 15 1 1 9 2 5
The Pacific
Cook slandsd 7 5 2 1 4
iji 1 10 9 4 7
iribati 1 8 5 9 4 5 1 7
Marshall slands 7 4 4 4
Micronesia, ed. tates ofe 11 5 5 5 2 4
Nauru 1 5 4 2
alau 7 4 5 2 4 2 1
apua New uinea 14 9 5 8 7 7
amoa 14 11 7 7 8
olomon slands 12 8 4 7 1 4
Timor-este 5 2 5 4 1
Tongad 1 8 5 11 2 7 1 5
Tuvalu 7 4 5 2 1anuatu 1 8 5 9 4 7 1 5
a mployment-to-population ratio aged 1524 years is not included in this table.b ender parity in primary education was not included since these economies had achieved gender parity early on. Thus, the improvement index would be zero
and bias the economys performance negatively.
c roportion of population with an improved sanitation facility was not included since the economy had achieved 100% access to sanitation facility early on,and zero improvement index may bias the economys performance negatively.
d roportion of population with an improved drinking water source was not included since the economy had achieved at least 99% accessto improved drinking sources early on, and 0% improvement may bias the economys performance negatively.
e ata used for proportion of population living below $2-a-day poverty at 2005 $ refers to urban population only.Note: Accelerated, maintained, and decelerated refer to progress of economies in terms of improvement indexes in the 2000s compared to the 1990s as
explained in section .ource: Authors calculations based on available data.
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low-income counries of 1990 (wi a leas ree-
fours of inicaors acceleraing in e 2000s) were
Banglaes, Buan, e PRC, Inia, Inonesia, e Lao
PDR, e Malives, Nepal, an Timor-Lese. Among
'
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2 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
consumpion sare of iges quinile o lowes quinile
sugges a worsening of e gap beween e ric an
e poor in many economies.
Among e inicaors of policy pillar one,
improvemens in per capia GDP grow rae, elecriciyconsumpion, an cellular pone subscripions
ave been remarkable. Tere ave been slow bu
posiive canges in e reucions in own accoun
an conribuing family workers wi an increasing
sare of salary an wage workers, bu eclining you
employmen-o-populaion raios can be cause of
concern in some economies.
Among e inicaors of policy pillar wo,
significan gains ave been mae over e 2 ecaes in
improving scool life expecancy an mos economies
raios. Gener pariy in primary eucaion as improve
significanly in e 2 ecaes, bu gener pariy in labor
force paricipaion as eeriorae in many economies.
dW
sows eclines in many counries. Progress as been
noewory in improving access o clean rinking
waer sources, incluing in rural areas, an in access o
improve saniaion faciliies oug a a muc slower
pace an rinking waer. Te lone inicaor on social
safey nes suggess some improvemens in social
securiy expeniures on eal by governmens. Goo
governance an soun insiuions come ou o be
weak in many economies as inicae by eclines in e
inicaors of voice an accounabiliy an governmen
effeciveness.
consumpion, an scool life expecancy appear o move
ogeer; an improvemens in eal (as inicae by
consisen reucions in e cil moraliy raes) an
infrasrucure of saniaion an rinking waer appear
o ave aken place irrespecive of pace of economicgrow. Tis was evien mosly in many Cenral an
es Asian economies wen ese counries face
recession in e 1990s an recovere in e 2000s.
Counries a ave successfully reuce povery
bu ave winesse increasing income inequaliy will
nee o esign policies o expan job opporuniies an
access o social services an infrasrucure in regions
an populaions a are lef bein for em o acieve
inclusive grow. Furer, for an economic grow
a provies equaliy of opporuniy o all, innovaivepolicies an approaces will be neee. For example,
cellular pones ave immense benefis for low-income
d
populaions roug use of mobile pone ecnology
can be aope. omen an you consiue a large
sare of proucive uman resources. Falling you
labor force paricipaion are areas of concerns an
require
e proucive poenial of women an you o susain
economic grow an reuce income inequaliy. To
implemen inclusive policies successfully an acieve
eir inene objecives, governmen effeciveness
an insiuions will ave o be srengene in mos
economies of eveloping Asia. Finally, significan effors
are neee o give ig prioriy o improving availabiliy
of imely aa on various inicaors by imporan
isaggregaions o monior progress on inclusive grow.
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Part I
Z
Asian Developmen Bank (ADB). 2008. Strategy 2020:
The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian
Development Bank 20082020. Manila.
______. 2012a. Asian Development Outlook 2012:Confronting Rising Inequality in Asia. Manila.
______. 2012b. Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
2012. Manila.
______. 2012c. Framework of Inclusive Growth
Indicators: Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
2012 Special Supplement. Manila.
______. 2011a. Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
2011. Manila
______. 2011b. Framework of Inclusive Growth
Indicators: Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
2011 Special Supplement. Manila.Fukua-Parr, Sakiko an Josua Greensein. 2010. How
Soul MDG Implemenaion Be Measure:
Faser Progress or Meeing Targes? International
Policy Centre for Inclusive Growthorking Paper
E
hEW
Hailu, Degol an Raquel Tsukua. 2011. Acieving e
Millennium Developmen Goals: A Measure of
Progress. International Policy Centre for Inclusive
Growth, orking PaperE
hEW
/ > />
International Labour Conference, 101st Session,2012, Report V, The youth employment crisis:
Time for action:Fifth item on the agenda. Geneva.
p : w w w . i l o . o r g w c m s p 5 g r o u p s
public@e_norm@relconfocumens
meeingocumenwcms_175421.pf
Kakwani, N. 1993. Performance in Living Sanars:
An Inernaional Comparison. Journal of
Development Economics
^ '
How Asia Has Fare?Journal of Reviews on Global
Economics (forcoming).hE^ Education for All Monitoring Report
2005: The Quality ImperativehE^W
uang, J. an I. Ali. 2010. Povery, Inequaliy, an
Inclusive Grow in Asia in J. uang, e. Poverty,
Inequality, and Inclusive Growth: Measurement,
Policy Issues, and Country Studies. Lonon:
Anem Press an Manila: ADB.
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PART II
Trends and Disparities Within Economiesin Developing Asia
Statistical Tables
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Poverty and Inequality: Income Poverty
Te Inicators
Tree inicaors are inclue uner income povery
an inequaliy:
W
W
WWW
2005 prices, an
Z
Trens in conomies
E
an evaluae programs an policies aime a reucing
d
PPP) povery line provies a comparable measure
'W
eveloping Asia in e las 2 ecaes ave conribue
d
poor eclining from 2.20 billion in 1990 o 1.63 billion
t
PovCalNe povery aabase. ile e number of poor
WZWZ
961 million in 1990 o 359 million in 2010, e number
of poor in Inia increase from 722 million o 842 million
uring e same perio.
Base on e earlies an laes availableouseol survey aa beween 1990 an 2012, e
eveloping Asia excep for Georgia, were i increase
&
Z
(37.0), e PRC (57.4), Inonesia (38.5), Nepal (31.7),
dd
E
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rural areas are more likely o be poor, wi 24 ou of
26 economies aving muc iger rural povery raes
&
d
Tuvalu were rural povery raes were sligly lower
an urban povery raes. In all counries for wic aa
povery raes ecline, excep for Fiji, Georgia, an
Tuvalu were oug urban povery raes a ecline
rural povery raes a gone up. In Afganisan an
Timor-Lese, bo rural an urban povery worsene
beween earlies an laes years.
Z
are only available for e PRC, Inia, an Inonesia.
>
^
urban povery in e mos populous counries of Asia
unerline e nee for policies a will improve
may no be sricly comparable because of canges
igure 2. National Rural and Urban Poverty Rates, Latest Year (%)
ao = ao eople's emocratic epublic, C = eople's epublic of China.
ource: Table 2.1.
0
10
20
0
40
50
0
Timor-Leste
Tajikistan
Fiji
KyrgyzRepublic
Afghanistan
Mongolia
Bangladesh
Armenia
Cambodia
India
LaoPDR
Myanmar
Palau
Nepal
Pakistan
VietNam
Georgia
Uzbekistan
Tuvalu
Azerbaijan
Bhutan
Thailand
Indonesia
PRC
SriLanka
Kazakhstan
Malaysia
Percen
t
ural rban
C = eople's epublic of China.ource: Table 2.1.
igure 2.2 Ratio of Income or Consumption Share of the Highest to Lowest Quintiles, Earliest and Latest Years
Ratio
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
5
40
45
50
Singapo
re
Malaysia
PR
C
Georg
ia
Philippines
Fiji
Samoa
Thailand
Bhutan
Maldives
Mongo
lia
Taipei,China
Tuva
lu
Uzbekistan
Japan
LaoPD
R
VietNa
m
SriLanka
Indonesia
Cambod
ia
Korea,
Rep.
of
Austra
lia
KyrgyzRepub
lic
NewZealand
Azerbaijan
Nep
al
Ind
ia
Tajikistan
Bangladesh
Timor-Les
te
Armen
ia
Kazakhstan
Pakistan
arliest ear atest ear
8 Framework of Inclusive Grow Inicaors
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Poverty and Inequality: NonincomePoverty
Te Inicators
Te ree inicaors in is group are:
Average years of oal scooling (you an
aul),
W
years of age, an
h
Trens in conomies
Te average number of years of scooling from primary
inicaor for bo you an auls sow improvemens
in all e economies of eveloping Asia, excep for e
Cenral an es Asian economies of Armenia, e
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/EW
Te average years of oal scooling for young an aul
males an females increase beween 1990 an 2010
for eveloping Asia an e gap in e average number
of years of scooling beween young males an femalesbecame smaller, from 0.6 year in 1990 o 0.3 year in
2010. In 20 ou of 29 economies, young females enjoye
more years of scooling an males (Figure 2.4). In
^E
yous now enjoy an average of 1.7 an 1.5 more years in
Afganisan a e larges gap of 3.6 years in 2010
wic was an increase from 3.3 years in 1990. Inia an
Pakisan, wic a a gap of 2.0 or more years, reuce
i from 2.0 o 1.1 years an from 2.4 years o 1.0 year,
daul males an females remaine a 1.5 years beween
economies ave females wi a iger average number
of years in scool. Tis implies a in e las 2 ecaes,
economies in eveloping Asia ave pai consierable
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ao = ao eople's emocratic epublic.ource: Table 2.2.
igure 2.5 Prevalence of Underweight Children under Five Years of Age, Total, Lowest and Highest Wealth Quintiles, Latest Year (%)
0
10
20
0
40
50
0
Timor-Leste
India
Bangladesh
LaoPDR
Afghanistan
Nepal
Cambodia
Myanmar
SriLanka
Indonesia
Mald