FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU.pdf

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Production and Utilization Technology

for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu)in Indonesia

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

IN COOPERATION WITHINTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION

IT OT

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU:

WHEN THE

W I L D C A NNO LONGERP R O V I D E

by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman


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Production and Utilization Technology

for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu)in Indonesia

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

IN COOPERATION WITHINTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION

IT OT

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU:

WHEN THE

W I L D C A NNO LONGERP R O V I D E

by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman


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Authors : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, andMaman Turjaman

Institution’s full name, address : R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation; Jalan Gunung

Batu No. 5 Bogor, Indonesia; e-mail : [email protected]

The place and date the reportwas issued

: Bogor, July 1, 2011.

Disclaimer : Copyright @ 2011

This Proceeding is a part of Program ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) :Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development ofGaharu (Gaharu) in Indonesia

Published by : Indonesia’s Work Programme for 2011 ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I)R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and RehabilitationJalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor, IndonesiaPhone :62-251-8633234Fax :62-251-8638111

E-mail : [email protected]

ISBN : 978-979-3145-88-4

Cover by : Bintoro

Project number : PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

Host Government : Indonesia

Name of the Executing Agency

: Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA)

Project Coordinator Dr. Ir. Maman Turjaman, DEA

Starting date of the project : May 1, 2008

Duration of the project : 36 months

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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PREFACE

The importance of gaharu (eaglewood or aloewood or jingkoh or oudh) for many

users has long been recognized. Gaharu is also considered the world’s most valuableincence with even higher price for high quality gaharu. Due to its multiuses, demand forgaharu products continues to increase significantly and may cause rapid depletion ofgaharu trees in the wilds. Natural habitat of gaharu suffers from uncontrolled exploitation,and as the consequences, some important gaharu-producing trees under a seriousdegradation. People who live surrounding the forests are the ones who are affecteddirectly from the rapid depletion of gaharu because their livelihood depends on the forest.

On the other hand, forests are now receiving more and more attention frominternational society because profound appreciation on the function of forest hasincreased over the years. Forests are no longer seen as a place for timber production

only, but also for many non-timber forest products. More importantly, forest is seen alot as as environmental service provider nowadays. Indonesia is the world’s third largestarea of tropical forest, being endowed with nearly 90 million hectares under forest cover.With today’s international focus on climate change, the forests have become the assetsthat contribute significantly to the country’s income.

It is thus timely to promote sustainable production of gaharu as an importantstrategy for conserving natural gaharu tree species, thus the forest habitats, andconcurrently fulfilling the demand for gaharu products from cultivation. This projectof ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I): “ Production and Utilization Technology for SustainableDevelopment of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia” is targeting to achieve the goals.Technology for accelerating gaharu production is intensively studied and several gaharu

cultivation plots have been established in several locations in Indonesia. It is our aimto alleviate poverty of particularly forest community by providing simple technology forgaharu production as source of income and to stimulate cultivation of gaharu plants astheir valuable backbone commodity.

The objective of this book is to give thorough information concerned with gaharu,and summarize the findings of the state-of-the-art research on gaharu. A key messageof this book is to stimulate an understanding that the future of gaharu relies solelyon sustainable production of gaharu and habitat conservation, and that technologyintervention plays a major role in the process.

Adi SusmiantoHead, R & D Centre for Forest

Conservation and Rehabilitation

FORDA, the Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia


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LIST OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ........................................................................................iii

LIST OF CONTENTS ........................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLE ..............................................................................vii

LIST OF FIGURE ............................................................................. ix

1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................1

2. KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU .........................3

3. SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT .........................................15

3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissue culture ....................................15

3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promoted plant growth ........................ 16

3.3 Pest and Disease ........................................................................................... 16

3.4 Soil characteristics ......................................................................................... 19

4. GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY .................................23

4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools .......................................... 23

4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection ................................................ 234.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum............................. 24

5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU .....................................31

6. GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING .......................................397. CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF

GAHARU ...................................................................................49

8. EXIT STRATEGY .......................................................................

518.1 The Role of Institution ..................................................................................... 51

8.2 Master Plans ................................................................................................... 53

9. CONCLUDING REMARKS .........................................................57REFERENCES ...............................................................................59

ANNEX ..........................................................................................63


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LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria and Gyrinops and distribution .................................................................................................3

Table 2. Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia ..........16

Table 3. Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sitesin Java Island, Indonesia .................................................................................20

Table 4. Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sitesin Java Island, Indonesia .................................................................................20

Table 5. Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on their morphologicalcharacteristics and experiments related with the fungal inoculation .............24

Table 6. Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drillingand Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia ................26

Table 7. Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungicollected from 17 provinces in Indonesia .......................................................29

Table 8. Phenol compounds present in the induced gaharu products ........................34

Table 9. Classification of gaharu quality in Samarinda (East Kalimantan) ....................41

Table 10. Criteria and classification of gaharu quality ....................................................42

Table 11. Selling price of gaharu in markets of Samarinda, in East Kalimantan ............42

Table 12. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian NationalStandard (SNI) .................................................................................................43

Table 13. Development of quota and realization related to the eagle woodexport from Indonesia .....................................................................................45

Table 14. Several institutions/ stakeholder who will carry out the exit strategyfollowing the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I) project ............................................52

Table 15. Exit strategy based on activities of gaharu development at

the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I) ........................................................................52


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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1. Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinops versteegii . ......5

Figure 2. Gaharu trees. ................................................................................................... 6

Figure 3. Flowering phenology of Aquilaria spp. in natural forest, plantation andBotanical Garden (a) A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in West Kalimantan;(b) A. microcarpa in East Kalimantan; (c) A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa,and A. beccariana in Botanical Garden; (d) A. crassna, A. malaccensisand A. microcarpa in plantation, Bogor; (e) A. filarial in plantation, Bogor;(f) A. hirta in plantation, Bogor (Source: Suhartono and Newton, 2001). ........7

Figure 4. (1): Aquilaria malaccensis La,. 1. twig, 2 flower, 3. longitudinal section of

flower, 4. fruit, 5. longitudinal section of fruit. (Source: Plant Resources ofSouth East Asia 19) and (2): Gyrinops ladermannii. a- branchlet habit;b- flower bud (left), opened flower (right); c- seed dorsal view (left), ventralview (right); d- dehisced fruit emerging from lateral slit of floral tube withone seed hanging out on funicle; Herbarium specimen Zich 315, CANB Accession Number 531408. Botanical illustration : Sharyn Wragg. (Zichand Compton 2001 in Dunn et al., 2003). ......................................................12

Figure 5. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCOsystem; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for promotinggrowth; (4): Gaharu plantation. ......................................................................18

Figure 6. Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides;(2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4):Hearth-rot fungi. ............................................................................................19

Figure 7. An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharu formation.(1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with 25 cm space inbetween holes; (2-3): one ml of liquid inoculum is injected with a syringe;(4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency of induction is observed bypeeling a tree bark to observe the disease symptom (Source: http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpg. .......................................27

Figure 8. Technology of fungal induction to stimulate gaharu production.

(1): Bamboo stagger for climbing tree for inoculation; (2): Drilling the treeand making holes for inoculation; (3): Fusarium sp., gaharu-inducingfungi grown on agar plate; (4): Wood coloration on stem tissue, anindication of resin production. .......................................................................28

Figure 9. Harvesting procedure of gaharu product from deliberate tree injectionwith fungal inoculant. (1): Initial symptom of gaharu formation on stem; (2): Felling of tree; (3-7): Cutting away tissue to obtain the resinous parts;(8): Residue of trees that is used for distillation of oil. ...................................29


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Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an unkown2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone. Compound (1):2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone; (2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, (2): C

19H

18O

5, (3): C1H14O4, (4): 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4-

hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxyl derivative of 2-(2-pheny-lethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7): C18H16O4 (Source: Konishiet al ., 2002). ...................................................................................................32

Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu ........33

Figure 12. (4) Figure 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from natural processand artificial induction. (1): Natural gaharu of West Kalimantan origin; (2):Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from West Kalimantan; (3):Natural gaharu of Gorontalo origin; (4): Gaharu from deliberate inoculationwith isolate from Gorontalo (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data). ......36

Figure 13. Structures of compound from gaharu oil .......................................................37Figure 14. Major constituent genkwanin 5-O- b-primeveroside compound that

caused mild laxative effect in mice (Source: Hara et al ., 2008). ....................38

Figure 15. Gaharu products. ..........................................................................................46

Figure 16. Other gaharu products ..................................................................................47

Figure 17. Gaharu classes of quality: (a) Tanggung; (b) Kacangan ; (c) Teri and(d) Kemedangan. ..........................................................................................47

Figure 18. Several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export. .................48

Figure 19. Flow-scheme regarding the exit strategy of gaharu development thatwill be conducted by the Research Team of FORDA. ...................................54


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1INTRODUCTION

Gaharu (agarwood, eaglewood, aloeswood, jinkoh, or oudh) has long been appreciatedfor its multipurpose uses, range from incense for religious and traditional ceremonies,perfume, medicine and ornamental functions in many countries. The occurrence of this-so-called the wood of the gods has been strongly surrounded by myths and history.Gaharu use is mentioned in the Old Testament as ‘aloe’ or ‘ahaloth’ in Psalm 45:8. Gaharuis the only tree in the Eastern myth that has been descended to Man from Eden garden(Duke, 2008). In Egypt and Japan, gaharu was used to embalm dead bodies. In Indiaand Cambodia, it is used for traditional and religious ceremony.

The resin compound of gaharu is highly commercial. Resin impregnated in theheartwood a number of gaharu-producing species is due to fungal infection. Two mostlyknown genera are Aquilaria and Gyrinops that are native to Southeast Asia with Indonesia,Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Papua New Guinea being the mainproducing countries, and Singapore being the central trade country (Persoon, 2007).

Natural forests have been the main resource for gaharu collection for many years.However, gaharu hunters usually cut down the whole trees to find the resin and thispractice has diminished gaharu population in the wilds and consequently has led gaharu-producing tree species under a threat of extinction. Major harvesting of gaharu wasrecorded between the 1980s and early 1990s in East Kalimantan caused by high demand

for gaharu and was due to diminishing supply from countries like Vietnam and Cambodia(Barden et al.,2001 in Gunn et al ., 2003). This excessive hunting activity has causedsignificant reduction of wild gaharu stocks within a short period of time. Similar activityalso occurred in Papua after gaharu hunters landed in 1996 that has led to an ending ofgaharu harvesting from its natural habitat (Persoon, 2007). 1998 was the first officiallyrecorded year for gaharu discovery and harvesting in Yapsiei, May River and Amavillages in West Sepik, Papua New Guinea (Gunn et al ., 2003). Harvesting of gaharu inthese countries involve professional and traditional collectors. Professional collectorssponsored by Chinese and bogus trades were sometimes dropped by helicopters tohunt for gaharu (World Wide Fund for Nature, 1999).

In November 1994, Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. was initially listed in CITES (the

Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), Appendix II to prevent this species from extinction. However, continual excessive gaharuexploitations have then put two genera Aquilaria and Gyrinops in CITES, Appendix II,only ten years later. CoP13 Prop.49 (TRAFFIC, 2004) listed 24 species of the genus Aquilaria and seven species of the genus of Gyrinops. CITES regulates the permittedquota for gaharu export in order to sustain gaharu existence, and yet, Indonesia, inparticular, has not been able to meet the quota because it has become more difficult tocollect gaharu from its natural habitat because they are dissapearing.

Due to a significant increase in gaharu demand and high prices of gaharu, effortshave taken places to implement technology for stimulating gaharu production artificially,

for a much faster process. Traditional wisdom combined with scientific knowledge have


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been implemented with numerous approaches to find the most efficient gaharu inductiontechnology that will be able to fulfill the demand and at the same time conserve theremnants in the wilds.

This book provides a general overview of gaharu with specific reference to Indonesiaas one of the most important country for gaharu production. Because the future of gaharuis dependent upon conservation and sustainable production management strategies,emphasis is given to research and development of induction technology for sustainableproduction of gaharu which is the main target of ITTO PD 425/06 REV.1 (I): Production andUtilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia.


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2KNOWING SPECIES

THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

Aquilaria and Gyrinops are the two most important gaharu-producing genera, withinthe family of Thymelaeaceae (Order: Myrtales and Class: Magnoliopsida). There areslight differences in reports on the number of species within each genus. TRAFFIC-CITES-CoP13 Prop.49 (2004) recorded 24 species belong to the genus Aquilaria and 7species belong to the genus of Gyrinops (Table 1). On the other hand Ding Hou (1960 in Gunn et al., 2004), reported there are 12 species belonging to the genus Aquilariaand 8 species belonging to the genus Gyrinops.

These trees naturally occur in at least 12 countries: Bangladesh, Butan, Cambodia,Indonesia, Lao PRD, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Papua NewGuinea (Barden et al . in Gunn et al., 2004).

Compton (2002) reported three gaharu-producing species originated from PapuaIsland. Two species, A. filaria and Gyrinops versteegii are found in Papua (formerly IrianJaya) and the only species, G. ledermannii is from Papua New Guinea (PNG, TRAFFICPC12 Doc.8.3, 2002). This PNG gaharu species was firstly found and harvested inapproximately 1998 for its resinous wood in the Yapsiei, May River, and Ama Villagesin West Sepik (Gunn et al., 2004). The first reported taxonomic work determined thespecies as Gyrinops ledermannii . Later report by Gunn et al . (2004) however suggested

five of the eight species Gyrinops, have been found in New Guinea island: G. ledermannii,G. caudate, G. podocarpus, G. salicifolia and G. verstegii. Except G. walla found in SriLangka, the other seven are distributed east of the Wallace Line which is a transitionalbiogeographical zone that marks Asia zone to the west and Australian zone to the east.

Table 1. Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria andGyrinops and distribution

No. Scientific Name Synonims Common Names Distribution Area Ecosystem

1 Aquilaria beccariana van

Tiegh.

Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne) Ridley

var. parviflora Airy Shaw; Aquilariagrandifolia Domke; Gyrinopsis

grandifolia Quis.

Gaharu; garu tanduk

(Kalimantan); mengkarasputih (Sumatra); Gaharu,

gumbil, njabak (Malaysia)

Extend from

peninsular Malaysiato Sumatra Common

in Borneo

Found Primary forest

from the low land upto 825 m, rarely in

swampy forest

2 Aquilaria hirta Ridl. Aquilaria moszkowskii Gilg. Chamdan, audate, ,kayu

chamdan, sahare (Madura)

Malay Peninsula

(Trengganu, Pahang,

Johore), Singapore,

East Sumatra

(Senamaninik), Riau,

Lingga islands.

Grow on hill slopes,

from the lowland up

to 300 m

3 Aquilaria microcarpa

Baill.

Aquilariella microcara van Tiegh;

Aquilariella borneensis van Tiegh;

Aquilariella borneensis Boerl

Tengkaras (Madura);

hepang (Bangka); engkaras

(Dayak); karas or sigi-sigi

(Bugis); kumbil, garu,

tulang (Madura)

Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra (Sijunjung,

Palembang and

Lampung), Belitung,

Bangka and

throughout Borneo.

Grows on lowland

forest up to 200 m.


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4 Aquilaria cumingiana

(Decne) Ridl.

Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne;

Decaisnella cumingiana O.K .;

Gyrinopsis cumingiana var.

Pubescens Elm.; Gyrinopsisdecemcostata Hall.f.; Gyrinopsis

pubifolia Quis.

Alahan, magaan, palisan

(Tagalog); bago (Mbo),

binukat (Ak. Bis.); butlo

(Neg.); dalakit (S.L.Bis.);magwalen (Sub.);

pamaluian (Bag.); giba kalo

(Halmahera)

South Borneo

(Sampit region),

Philippines

(common), andMoluccas (Morotai

and Halmahera)

in primary forest at

low and medium

altitudes.

5 Aquilaria audate (Oken)

Merr.

Aquilaria filaria (Oken) Merr.,

Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr.,

Cortex filarius Rumph., Pittosporum

ferrugineum var. filarium DC.,

Pittosporum filarium Oken,

Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg, Gyrinopsis

bracyantha Merr.. Gyrinopsis

acuminate Merr. A. _audate_e Quis.J.

Agé (Sorong), bòkuin

(Morotai), lason (Ceram),

kasjik (Tehid), malowassi

(Uliansers)

Philippines,

Mollucas, West New

Guinea

in lowland forest, up

to 130 m.

6 Aquilaria brachyantha

(Merr.) Hall.f.

Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr. - Luzon: Cagayan

Province

in primary forest at

low and medium

altitudes.7 Aquilaria urdanetensis

(Elmer) Hall

Gyrinopsis urdanetensis Elmer Mangod, makolan (Mbo) Mindanao: Mt.

Ur　daneta

in the mossy forest

on exposed ridges,

about 1700 m.

8 Aquilaria citrinaecarpa

(Elmer) Hall.f

Gyrinopsis citrinaecarpa Elmer Agododan (Mbo) Mindanao on moist compact

soil of forested

ridges, about 1300

m.

9 Aquilaria apiculata Elmer - - Mindanao: Bukidnon

province

in dry and mossy

forest at 1100-1800

m.

10 Aquilaria parvifolia (Quis.)

Ding Hou

- - Luzon on forested slopes at

1000 m.

11 Aquilaria rostrata Ridl. - - Malay Peninsula(Pahang, Gunung

Tahan).

12 Aquilaria crassna Pierre

ex Lecomte

- - Cochinchina and

Cambodia

13 Aquilaria banaense

Phamhoang Ho

- - Viet Nam

14 Aquilaria khasiana H. Hall. - - India (Khasia).

15 Aquilaria subintegra Ding

Hou

- - Thailand

16 Aquilaria grandiflora Bth. - - China.

17 Aquilaria secundana D.C. - - Moluccas

18 Aquilaria moszkowskiiGilg

- - Sumatra

19 Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg - - New Guinea

20 Aqularia bailonii Pierre ex

Lecomte

- - Cambodia

21 Aquilaria sinensis Merr. - - China.

22 Aquilaria apiculata Merr. - - Philippines

(Mindanao)

23 Aquilaria acuminate

(Merr.) Quis.

- - Philippines (?).

24 Aquilaria yunnanensis

S.C. Huang

- - China


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25 Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg)

Domke

Gyrinops wala (non Gaertn.) Koord.;

Branchythalamus versteegii Gilg;

Aquilaria versteegii Hall.

Ketemun (Lombok); ruhu

wama (Sumba); seke

(Flores)

Lesser Sunda

Islands (Lombok,

Sumbawa, Flores,

Sumba); NorthCelebes (Minahasa)

and West New

Guinea. This

species closely

related to Gyrinops

podocarpus which

also found in West

New Guinea.

This species

scattered from the

lowland up to 900 m.

26 Gyrinops moluccana

(Miq.) Baill

Lachnolepis moluccana Miq.;

Aquilaria moluccana Hall.f.

Buru and Halmahera in rain-forest

27 Gyrinops decipiens Ding

Hou

- - Central Celebes

(Wavatoli, Palarahi),

in rainforest, 100 m.

28 Gyrinops ledermanii

Domke

- - New Guinea (Sepik

R., Mt. Pfingst)

at slope in dense

virgin forest, footof the mountain, at

0-200 m.

29 Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl. - - Western New

Guinea (Utakwa,

Nabire)

in fringing rain-

forest, 300 m

30 Gyrinops _audate (Gilg)

Domke

Brachythalamus versteegii Gilg;

Aquilaria versteegii Hall.f.

Niwawur New Guinea (Sidai,

Mt. Arfak)

at primary forest

5-20 m

31 Gyrinops podocarpus

(Gilg.) Domke

Brachythalamus podocarpus Gilg;

Aquilaria podicarpus Hall.f.; Gyrinops

ladermanii (non Donke) Merr & Perry

Kokkoree (Asmat) West New Guinea

(Ramoi, Sorong,

Monep, Idenburg)

in primary forest,

from lowland up to

750m.

(Source: TRAFFIC-CoP13 Prop.49, 2004)

Figure 1. Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinopsversteegii .


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Figure 2. Gaharu trees.

Gaharu-producing species is characterized by small flower similar to that of jasmineand the fruit is bitter (Figure 1). The fruit does not fall when it is ripe, but it tossed theseeds to the surrounding ground (Prosea, 1999). Gaharu tree was firstly introduced by Arabic in Aceh, Sumatra. From here, the tree spread to the southern part of Sumatra,Kalimantan and Papua. In 1991, gaharu tree was found in Kayan Mentarang NationalPark, East Kalimantan.

Gaharu is commonly found in primary and secondary forest at 850m above sealevel (asl) with 1,500 – 6,500 mm/year with 14-28ºC (Prosea, 1999). Gunn et al. (2004)reported the range of gaharu occurrence is about latitude 27°N to 10°N30’S and longitude75°E to 149°E.

The most important genus, Aquilaria is typical of understorey species (Figure 2). Aquilaria malaccensis, A. beccariana, A. crasna, A. filarial, A. hirta, A. microcarpa areof six Aquilaria species native to Indonesia (Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton,2001). These six species are primarily found in lowland and upland Sumatra, Kalimantan,Maluku and Papua (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

Generally, flowers grew on terminal branches among the foliage, but a few flowers of A. crassna occur along the trunk (cauliflory) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Flowers are50 to 10 mm long. Suhartono and Newton (2001) who observed reproductive ecologyof Aquilaria spp. in 1997-1998 reported that flowering and fruiting of Aquilaria spp. werearound June-July in West Kalimantan, September-October in East Kalimantan, Septemberand December in Bogor Botanical Garden, and April to December in plantation area

about 2 km north of Bogor (Figure 3) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Generally, the onset


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of flowering to produce seed takes about three months in plantation area (Suhartonoand Newton, 2001). Further Suhartono and Newton (2001) noted that smaller trees of A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa produced more seeds than larger and older ones.Seeds of Aquilaria had no dormancy (recalcitrant) and will germinate soon after seed

maturation.

Figure 3. Flowering phenology of Aquilaria spp. in natural forest, plantationand Botanical Garden (a) A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in WestKalimantan; (b) A. microcarpa in East Kalimantan; (c) A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, and A. beccariana in Botanical Garden; (d) A. crassna, A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in plantation, Bogor; (e) A. filarial inplantation, Bogor; (f) A. hirta in plantation, Bogor (Source: Suhartonoand Newton, 2001).

Upon ripening, fruits of Aquilaria spp. split loculicidally in half from the apex, and theseeds are hanging on thin threads for about one hour before the threads break and theseeds are scattered (CIFOR, 1996 and Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

Below is specific description of species belonging to mostly the genera Aquilariaand Gyrinops as well as other less important gaharu-producing species.

1. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam

Aquilaria malaccensis is one of the most important gaharu-producing tree. Flowersare green to dirty yellow. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occurs between

September and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north ofBogor occurs April to December (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In natural forest,seed production of A. malaccensis > 40 cm dbh (diameter breast height) declines,while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-30 cm dbh showed to produce more seedsthan those of comparable size grown in natural forest. It was estimated that thisspecies of 20-60 cm dbh produced less seeds than A. microcarpa, between 3,900and 13,270 seeds/tree. Seeds start to germinate 15 day after sowing (Suhartono

and Newton, 2001).


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a. Distribution and Habitat

Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in India, Burma, Malaysia, Phillipines andIndonesia. In Indonesia, it is found mainly in Sumatra (Sibolangit, Bangka, Jambi,Riau and South Sumatra), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Papua.

Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in primary and secondary forests, mainlyin lowland and on hillsides at altitude of 200-750m asl. It grows well in sandysoils and areas having Koeppen climate type A-B with temperatures of 14-32ºCand annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 mm.

b. Botanical description

Aquilaria malaccensis reaches up to 20 – 40 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. Youngbark is light brown with fine hairs, older bark is smooth and whitish in color.Without resin, wood is white, light and soft, however resinous wood is hard, darkand heavy. Leaves are characterized by alternate, elliptic or lanceolate, 3-3.5

cm wide and 6-8 cm long with 12-16 pairs of veins. Inflorescens a terminal oraxillary umber. Flowers hermaphroditic, up to 5 mm long, fragrant and yellowishgreen or white (Figure 4).

Fruit is green in color, egg-shaped capsule, leathery exocarp with fine hairs, 4 cm longand 2.5 cm wide. There are two seeds per fruit. Seed is blackish brown incolor, ovoid,and densely covered with red-brown hair. There are approximately 1,500 seeds perkg. At the age of 5-6 years, the tree starts flowering and fruiting, and medium sizetree is reported to produce about 1.5 kg of seed during good seed years. Seasonsfor flowering and fruiting are dry season. In Sumatra, flowering and fruiting seasonis twice a year. The seasons are July-August and March-April for flowering whichhave mature fruits in November-December and July-August, respectively. Mature

fruits have blackish brown colour and they should be collected directly from the tree(Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

2. Aquilaria crassna

This species is the most widely known gaharu species from Indochina (Adelina, 2004).The Vietnamese government has enlisted A. crassna as endangered (Burfield, 2003).

Aquilaria crassna is found widely in Thailand (Nobuchi and Siripatanadilok, 1991).Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs April to December(Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after sowingand this species had the highest germination success (92%) compared with the

other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

3. Aquilaria microcarpa

Flowers are white to yellow in color. Season in Botanical Garden occurs betweenSeptember and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north ofBogor occurs April to December. In natural forest, seed production > 50 cm dbhdeclines, while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-


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4. Aquilaria beccariana

Flowers are green to yellowish in color. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occursbetween September and December. In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after

(Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

5. Aquilaria filaria

Flowers are white to yellowish green in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2km north of Bogor occurs all year around. In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 daysafter sowing and this species had the lowest germination rate (53%) compared withthe other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

6. Aquilaria hirta

Flowers are white in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor

occurs during rainy season in January. Seeds start to germinate 9 day after sowing(Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

7. Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) Domke

a. Distribution and Habitat

Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) is found in eastern part of Indonesia: Sumbawa, calledSeke, in East Alor, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, and Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada,2007).

In Sumbawa, G. versteegii grows on the hillside (400-800m above sea level)ranging from Tartar village (Doro Tambiung Mountain) in West Sumbawa to Lambu

village (Doro Saboke Mountain) in East Sumbawa. These plants grow in secondaryand primary forests with high humidity, with Ficus sp., Eugenia spp., Garcinia sp.,Calophyllum spp., Maranthes corymbosa Bl., Sterculia foetida L., Schleicheraoleosa (Lour.) Oken., etc. (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).

In Sumba, this plant grows on brown, thin humus soil found in primary forest inRiwuta and on the foot of Meja Mountain, West Sumba. In Alor, this plant wasplanted in field with Erytrina sp., and the soil around the seedlings was mulchedwith rice straw and sprinkled well with water.


In Sumbawa and Alor Island, this species grows as shrub, 1-4m height, 1-10 cmdiameter, while in Flores Island, it grows as trees.

In Sumbawa the description of the shrub was 1-4m height, 1-10 cm diameter,the plant still young, it was not in flowering yet. Young branchlets pubescent,bark gryish. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nervesand veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath,shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate, 8.7-15 by 2.2-5.2cm; base cuneate, apex up to 0.5-1 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veinssimilar, numerous, slightly oblique and parallel, 24-46 pairs; petiole, short, 3-6mm, pubescent.


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In Flores the the tree is found to have 10-17½ m height, 25-30 cm diameter.Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous,pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull andlight green in beneath, shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, ovate-

oblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1½-5 cm; base cuneate, apex up to 2 cmnarrow- 366 acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous, slightly oblique andparallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent. Fruits yellow or orange, slightly obovoidor ellipsoid, 2-2¾ by 1-1½ cm, shortly acuminate to the apex, attenuate to thebase. Seed ovoid, Plano convex, 9 by 6 mm, with a caruncle-like appendage atthe base, ± 2 mm thick.

In West Sumba, shrub or tree of this species is found, 2 m up to 25 m height,diameter 3 cm up to 40 cm. Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaveschartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath,glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath, shinning and dark greenabove, elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1½-5 cm; base

cuneate, apex up to 2 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous,slightly oblique and parallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent.

8. Gyrinops decipiens Ding Hou

a. Distribution and habitat

This plant was found in primary forest with thin humus on the side and the topof the Ganda Dewatan mountain in Buttu Ada and Salusampe, Salubaka andTampakura villages, Mamuju, the Tapusaang mountain in Karama village, Mamasa,and the Kapusaan mountain and the Tunggumanu mountain in Karosa in WestCelebes. Gyrinops decipiens was also found in Kulawi, Tuwulu village, the Ulu

Karosa river, Tembok Jerman and Lengke mountains around the Towuti Lake inCentral Celebes; and in mountains in North Luwu in South Celebes (Mulyaningsihand Yamada, 2007).


Shrub to tree, 2 m up to 17 m height, diameter 3 cm up to 30cm. Branchlet fissureshallow to deep, light to dark gray, glabrous to pubescent. Leaves chartaceous tosubcoriaceus, above glabrous, below pubescent scattered on the vena, shiningon both surfaces, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate 7.5-23.5x 2.6-6.8 cm; base acute-acuminate, base caudate (0.52.0 cm long). Vena parallel, 23-39 pairs, elevationvisible on below and obscure on above. Inflorescent axilar or terminal on the

short branchlet in the axilar, umbel, consisting of 1-6 flowers, pedicle 2-5 mm,pubescent, brachtea opposite on the base of pedicelus, a crescent , roundedand thick on the apex of pedicle; pedicelus 1-3 mm. Flower like club, calyx tubepubescent outside, 4-6x2 mm long, calyx lobe 1,5x1 m. Fruit ovoid-oblong,1-1.5x0.8-1.3 cm, color orange when fruit mature, two locus, 1-2 seeds eachfruit. Stipes 7 mm, emerges on the base to mid of calyx lobe. Seed planocovex,6x(5-7)mm, caruncle 5 mm. Flowering and Fruiting season on July-August.

Mulyaningsih and Yamada (2007) divided this plant into two varieties, i.e., gaharu beringin and gaharu cabut . Gaharu beringin or Gyrinops decipiens var. microphyllaMulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: tree, fissured bark deep. Leavessubcoriaceous relative small, lanceolate, 7.5-17.5x2.6-4.5 cm, vena 23-30 pairs,

petiole 3-5 mm, pubescent. Gaharu beringin is produced during the decay process


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in specific wood. Since 2003, in some villages such as Dara, Maepi and Lere, NorthLuwu (South Celebes) and Tampalopo and Tampakura villages, Mamasa (WestCelebes) cultivated this species. Gaharu cabut or Gyrinops decipiens var. macrophyllaMulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: Shrub, fissured bark shallow. Leaves

chartaceous, more weigh, elliptic-oblong, 14.5-23.5x6.0-6.8 cm, vena 36-39 pairs, gaharu forming in whole wood tissue of plant.

9. Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl.

a. Habitat and distribution

Gyrinops salicifolia grew in Dosay village, Sentani, Papua. This plant wascultivated by a person as decoration plant, because of its good canopyand leaves. Gaharu from Sentani and Jayapura was taken from this hill(Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).


Slender shrub, up to 2 m. Branchlet light brown, pubescent. Leaves sparselypubescent on the midrib and sometimes on the nerves and veins beneath,lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 1½-10 by

1 /

5-1 cm; base cuneate apex acuminate

and pointed; nerves and veins similar and equally strong, slightly visible beneath,obscure above; petiole ⅓-½ mm.

10. Gyrinops ladermannii Domke


Gyrinops ladermannii resembles G. salicifolia, but it grows as shrub of small treeswith 7-10 m high and 13-15 cm in diameter. The leave is broader, the angle ofleave and ranchlet is larger (Figure 4). Branchlet has darker color, and the woodis harder. This plant grows in secondary forest with Callophylum sp. on lime soilwith thin humus. It was found on a hill in Maribau village, 50-200 m above sealevel, Sentani, Jayapura, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).


Leave subcoriaceous, obovate-oblong to lanceolate, 6½-12 kali (1½) 2½-5 cm;pubescent scattered on vein and midrib beneath and glabrous above. Baseacute-cuneate, apex acuminate to caudate, nerves spread, visible, dense, curve,ascending face to tip. Inflorescentia pseudo lateral or terminal, sessile, consistedof 2-3 flowers, pedicellus thin, 3-5 mm. Calyx tube cylinders, 13 mm long, diameter

1½ mm. Calyx lobe ovate, 1½-2 kali ½ mm, outside acute, pubescent, insideobtuse, tomentose. Petaloid square, 3 / 5

x ½ mm, obtuse, villous. Stamen sessile,

oblong, 1-1¼ x1 /

5mm. Fruit pyriform 1¾ x ⅓ cm (included stipe 3 mm and apex

up to 4 mm acuminate or caudate), pannose, irregular, wrinkled to transversal.Seed 2 or 1, one abortion, 9 mm long (included caruncle 3 mm), villous.


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Figure 4. (1): Aquilaria malaccensis La,. 1. twig, 2 flower, 3. longitudinal sectionof flower, 4. fruit, 5. longitudinal section of fruit. (Source: PlantResources of South East Asia 19) and (2): Gyrinops ladermannii.a- branchlet habit; b- flower bud (left), opened flower (right); c- seeddorsal view (left), ventral view (right); d- dehisced fruit emergingfrom lateral slit of floral tube with one seed hanging out on funicle;Herbarium specimen Zich 315, CANB Accession Number 531408.Botanical illustration : Sharyn Wragg. (Zich and Compton 2001 inDunn et al., 2003).

11. Gyrinops caudate (Gilg.) Domke


Gyrinops caudate was found in Agat, Mappi and Boven Digul and Merauke, WestPapua. It grows in primary forest in the swamp, 5-20 m above the sea, amongthe sago plant, the most common soil type is sandy clay over clay. Cultivationwas found in Aboge and Ecy village, District Assue, Mappi (Mulyaningsih andYamada, 2007).


Shrub or tree up to 17 m by 36 cm. Branchlets grayish, whitish pubescent and

glabrescent. Leaves chartaceous, glabrous, dull beneath and shining above,elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, rarely lanceolate, 6-13 by 1½-4 cm; base cuneate;apex up to 1½ cm, acuminate; nerves and veins scarcely distinguishable, numerous,parallel, visible beneath, obscure above; petiole ± 3 mm. Inflorescences axillaryor on the terminal of short branches, 12-18 flowers, peduncle 2-8 mm. Flowersc. 5 mm pedicelled 5-7 mm, floral tube copular, 3-4 mm long, calyx lobes oblong,1 mm long, petaloid appendages transverse oblong, c. ½ mm long; stamensubsessile, slightly longer than the appendages. Ovary ovoid, densely pillose; stylevery short; stigma capitate. Fruit protunding from the flower, rhombicus-oblong,contricted from the base to apex, pubescent, 2

1 /

5cm included 5 mm stipes,

apex acuminate, two locus with 2 seeds. Seeds ovoid, apex acuminate c. 5 mmincluded caruncle 1 mm. Flowering and fruiting season on August-September.


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12. Less important gaharu species

a. Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae)

Exocoecaria agallocha is called gaharu buaya (crocodile gaharu) because its

gaharu production smells like fired wood and less fragrance. The smoke canirritate eyes (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). The price is usually low and theproduct is used for mixing material of joystick ( hio ) or incense. This plant can befound along beach and composes mangroves in Somau Island.

b. Wikstroemia androsaemifolia Decne

i. Distribution and habitat

This species is found in primary forest in Meja Mountain. Gaharu fromWikstroemia androsaemifolia, known as male gaharu or red gaharu is lesspreferable because of its spicy smell and the smoke irritates eyes (Mulyaningsihand Yamada, 2007).

ii. Botanical description

Shrub, young branchlets slightly flattened at the nodes, densely appressedpubescent, glabrescent. Branches terete, reddish brown, glabrous; axillarybuds densely covered with golden-coloured hairs. Leaves papery, glabrous,rarely sparsely hairy on the lower surface and especially on the nerves andveins of young leaves, in dry state light-greenish, light brown or greenish-brownto brownish and shining on the upper surface, pale greenish, light-yellowish-green or light-brown and dull on the under surface, elliptic or ovate-oblong,1¾-5½(8-) by ¾-2½(-4) cm; base acute, apex acute to narrow-acute, veryrarely obtuse; nerves 8-11 pairs, elevated below and slightly depressedabove, obliquely spreading towards the margin and the curved upward; veinsalmost as distinct as the nerves, loosely reticulate beneath, obscure above;petiole ± 2mm.

c. Phaleria capitata Jack

Phaleria capitata grows in Kapusaan Puncak and Tiga Puluh Puncak Mountains,Mamasa, West Celebes and in some villages around the Towuti Lake in CentralCelebes.

This species is also called gaharu buaya and less preferable because the fragranceis not good. The gaharu is used as a mixture in the making of joystick and forcraft (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).

d. Phaleria microcarpa

Phaleria microcarpa was found in Papua with local name ‘ gaharu puk-puk’. Itproduced smoky, bitter and unpleasant fragrant when burnt. It does not havecommercial value. The bark was used to create bilums (traditional wovencarrying bags) in the upper Sepik, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).

e. Phaleria nisdai Kanehira

i. Habitat and distribution

This plant distributes in Papua New Guinea and was cultivated in Yomdoryvillage Biak Papua.


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ii. Botanical description

Shrub c. 2 m, branchlets reddish-brown. Leaves lanceolate, ovate-oblong,8½-14 by 2½-4 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate and narrow c. 1½ cm,glabercent on the both surfaces, dull beneath, nerves 5-9 pairs, elevation,decendent, veins reticulate, beneath distinct, obscure above. Inflorescencesterminal and or at a long axils of branchlets, umbelliform, 10-12 flowers,one peduncle each nodes, peduncles 6-8 mm, small bracts at the base,involucral bracts 2, 2½ by ½ mm opposite, oblong, persistent or caudocouswhen anthesis. Floral tube c. 1½ cm, Floral tube gradually enlarged towardsthe top, glabrous outside. In side, calyx lobes oblong or ovale 4 by 2 mmglabercent on the both surfaces, papillate, appendages petaloid, stamens,styles exerted up to 6 mm, ovary. Fruit obovate slightly compressed andconstricted from the base to apex, usually 2 fruits opposite each peduncle,yellow when ripe, 3-4½ by 5-6½ cm, two locus usually with 2 seeds. Seedssubglobous c. 2 by 1½ cm slightly compressed.


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3SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT

Although gaharu has been known since ancient times, intensified research on abroader aspects of gaharu has just begun in the last ten years. One of these aspectsis silviculture of gaharu. Research conducted by R & D Centre for Forest Conservationand Rehabilitation, FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry found that propagation of gaharuplants is not difficult. Gaharu can be propagated from seeds and cuttings. However,cultivation of gaharu plantation in a large scale has a high risk of pest and disease attack.This chapter provides silvicultural practice for gaharu plant.

3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissueculture

Seeds of gaharu are collected while they are still hanging on their mother treesbecause gaharu fruits crack and throw their seeds before they fall to the ground.Seedlings, on the other hand can be collected from underneath their mother trees. Todate, propagation from seeds is still much cheaper than cuttings because seeds stocksare still abundant in the field and can be harvested every year from mother trees in thefield. Gaharu seeds, however, is recalcitrant and its germination is affected by storageperiods and conditions. A study by Subiakto et al. (2009) revealed that germinationpercentage of non-stored seeds (direct seeding) was 82% and down to 42% after beingstored for 8 weeks at room temperature. Germination was further declining to 24% if

the seeds were stored in refrigerator at 4°C for 8 weeks.

Study on vegetative propagation by using cuttings was done by adopting by KOFFCO(Komatsu-Forda Fog Cooling) System (Figure 5). Using this system, Subiakto et al. (2009)found that the best growth media and watering interval for gaharu shoots cuttings weremixtures of coconut dust and paddy husk of 1 : 1 ratio, and twice a week of watering,respectively. These treatments showed the highest rooting percentage, i.e. 69%.

Tissue culture of A. crassna and A. malaccensis was studied by Tientum in 1995.Shoots of A. crassna grown on Woody Plant Medium with and without auxin, producedroots. But addition of 0.5 mg/l IBA stimulated the highest rooting percentage. Theauthor found that survival rate of A. crassna plantlets was 90% after transplantation to

the field. In vitro propagation of Aquilaria agalocha by He et al. (2005) on MS mediumsupplemented with 1.3 micromol/L BA (6-benzylaminopurine) generated many shootbuds in the first 7 weeks, and 1.3 micromol/L BA+0.5 micromol/L NAA (naphthaleneaceticacid) elongated the buds in another 7 weeks, 2.3 shoots 2 cm in length per explantwere obtained within 14 weeks. Plantlets were rooted on 1/2 MS medium after beingimmersed in 5 micromol/L NAA for 48 h, 96.7% of the roots grew up two weeks later. All plantlets that survived acclimatization grew well in the pots.


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3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promotedplant growth

In 2002, Tamuli and Boruah observed the association of arbuscular mycrorrhizal

fungi (AMF) with gaharu tree in Jorhat district of the Brahmaputra Valley. They isolateddifferent AMF but found that Glomus is the dominant genus. Among the Glomus spp.,Glomus fasciculatum is the most dominant followed by Glomus aggregatum. Furtherstudies revealed that AMF and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) promotedearly growth of gaharu seedlings. Inoculation of AMF, Glomus clarum and Gigasporadecipiens, increased growth of 180 days old A. filaria, under greenhouse conditions(Figure 5). Growth acceleration was indicated by percentage of AM colonization upto 93%, plant growth (height, diameter and biomass dry weight), survival rate, andnitrogen (70-153%) and phosphorus (135-360%) concentrations (Turjaman et al., 2006).Two PGPR, Burkholderia sp. CK28 (IAA-producing bacteria), and Chromobacterium sp.CK8 (mycorrhization helper bacteria) accelerated height growth of Aquilaria sp. in in thenursery. Percentage of height increase over non-inoculated control seedlings rangesfrom 12.2 to 38.7%, five months after inoculation. Effect of inoculation was no longerobserved after seedlings were transplanted to the fields, probably due to interactionwith soil microflora (Sitepu et al., 2009).

3.3 Pest and Disease

Gaharu plants cultivated in a large scale is prone to pest and disease attack. Someimportant pests and diseases have been found attacking several locations of gaharuplantations in Indonesia with various level of attack (Table 2; Figure 6).

Table 2. Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia

No. Pests Host LocationDamage

intensity

Pest

1. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis, A. crassna, Gyrinops sp.

Bogor, West Java +

2. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis Sukabumi, West Java +

3. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa Carita, Banten + + +

4. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa, Central Bangka + +

5. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis, Bodok, West Kalimantan + +

6. Heortia vitessoides A. beccariana West Kalimantan + +7. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa Kandangan and Barabai,

South Kalimantan+

8. Stem borer Gyrinops sp. North Sulawesi +

9. Heortia vitessoides Gyrinops sp. Bali +

10. Heortia vitessoides Gyrinops sp. Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara +

11. Stem borer Gyrinops sp. Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara +

Disease

12. Mildew A. microcarpa Carita, Banten +

13. Mildew A. microcarpa Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan +

14. Heart rot Gyrinops sp. West Nusa Tenggara +

Notes: Damage intensity: +: weak, ++: medium, +++: severe (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)


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SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT

Pest and Disease

17

The most important pest found to date is identified as Heortia vitessoides Moore(Odontiinae, Crambidae) (Irianto et al ., 2010). The pest (previously Tyspana vitessoides ) ,has caused severe damage to many gaharu plantations in Indonesia in the past threeyears, i.e. in Forest Area with Specific Purposes (Kawasan Hutan dengan Tujuan Khusus,

KHDTK) Carita, Banten Province; Bodok, Sanggau, West Kalimantan Province; Kandangan,Barabai, South Kalimantan Province; Malino, East Kalimantan Province; Bali Province;and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara Province; and South Sumatra (Erdy Santoso, Pers.Comm. ). In 2008, the percentage of pest attack in gaharu plantation in KHDTK, Carita,reached 100%, many of the trees defoliated, and about 20 trees died because of recurringattack on newly emerging leaves. This pest has also been reported to have distributedin Fiji, Hongkong, Thailand, and North Queensland (Austtralia) (Herbison-Evams andCrossley, WWW page).

The caterpillars of this species are pale green with a broad knobbly black linealong each side. Their head is brown. The caterpillars live in a group in a shelter madeby joining a number of leaves together with silk. The caterpillars drop on silk threads

if disturbed. When mature, the caterpillars descend and pupate in the soil. The adultshave a striking pattern on the forewings of black on pale yellow. The hindwings are whitewith a broad black margin. The moths have a yellow and black banded abdomen. Thewingspan is about 3 cms. The eggs are yellowish-green, and are flattened. They are laidin an overlapping cluster, like tiles on a roof (Herbison-Evams and Crossley, WWW page).

A study by Irianto et al. (2010) investigated pest management strategy to control thepopulation of H. vitessoides. This study found that application of a mixture of systemicand contact insecticides with addition of leaf fertilizer and plant sticker effectivelycontrolled high population of the pest. A biological control approach was also studiedby using ants, predator of the pest, that build a nest on gaharu trees and keep the plant

protected from the pest. This experiment is still underway but seems encouraging.Cultivators of gaharu plants need to be aware and familiarized themselves with pest

and disease of gaharu plants, and take appropriate control action to prevent from severeloss. Socialization of pest and disease management has been done by PD 425/06 REV.1(I) project in collaboration with R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation,FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry, to local forestry offices at the provincial level, gaharuplant growers and general stakeholders.


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Figure 5. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCOsystem; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes forpromoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation.


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Soil characteristics

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Figure 6. Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides;(2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4):Hearth-rot fungi.

3.4 Soil characteristics

Soil is important ecosystem element that influences the growth of gaharu plant. Soilis originated from the process of rock decay and the process is influenced by climate,topography, soil organisms, and time. The characteristic of soil is specific and has aneffect on vegetation composition above the soil. It is important to know the characteristicsof soil that is suitable for gaharu plant. A study by Paoli et al. (2001) found that gaharutree of Aquilaria malaccensis has a wide distribution suggesting it could be cultivatedon many soil types, especially upland marginal soil. Pratiwi et al. (2009) analyzedphysical and chemical characteristics of soil in three gaharu plantation sites. The studyindicated that gaharu grew quite favorably in flat to undulating landscape, low to hightemperature (20-32oC), and high rainfall (> 1500 mm/year), hard soil texture (clay), fastdrainage, pH of about 4.5-5.1, very low to high base saturation (1.2%-78.8%) and low

toxic element (Table 3 and 4).


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Table 3. Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in JavaIsland, Indonesia

Depth

(cm)

Physical

characteristics

Carita, Banten Dramaga, BogorKampung Tugu,

Sukabumi

Value Category Value Category Value Category

Texture ( %)

0-30 Sand 8.33 8.33 12.78

Silt 25.1 Clay 12.59 Clay 18.73 Clay

Clay 66.57 79.08 68.49

30-60 Sand 8.55 6.33 9.95

Silt 22.1 Clay 11.98 Clay 5.9 Clay

Clay 69.35 81.69 84.15

> 60 Sand 6.01 5.13 11.54

Silt 36.51 Clay 9.09 Clay 26.37 ClayClay 57.48 85.78 62.09

Bulk density

0 0.9 0.93 0.97

30 0.87 0.84 0.86

60 0.96 0.9 0.83

Porosity (%)

0 65.86 64.99 63.43

30 66.99 68.45 67.59

60 63.85 66.21 68.75

(Source: Pratiwi et al ., 2009)

Table 4. Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in JavaIsland, Indonesia

Chemical cha-

racteristics

Dramaga, Bogor Carita, Banten Kampung Tugu, Sukabumi

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

pH H2O 1:1 4.70 (L) 4.60 (L) 4.50 (L) 4.60 (L) 4.50 (L) 4.60 (L) 5.10 (L) 5.10 (L) 4.60 (L)

Corg

(%) 1.43 (L) 1.03 (L) 1.03 (L) 2.31 (Md.) 1.51 (L) 0.71 (VL) 1.60 (L) 2.07 (Md.) 1.01 (L)

Ntotal

(%) 0.15 (L) 0.12(L) 0.11 (L) 0.17 (L) 0.14 (L) 0.08 (VL) 0.15(L) 0.18 (L) 0.11(L)

PBray

(ppm) 1.70 (VL) 1.30 (VL) 1.7 (VL) 1.70 (VL) 1.20 (VL) 1.20 (VL) 3.90(VL) 3.70 (VL) 3.40(VL)

NH4OAc pH 7 (me/100 gr)

Ca 5.29 (Md.) 4.17 (L) 5.32 (Md.) 1.49 (VL) 1.01 (VL) 1.00 (VL) 16.98 (H) 16.99 (H) 14.64 (H)

Mg 1.19 (Md.) 1.09 (Md.) 1.70 (Md.) 0.75 (L) 0.53 (L) 0.52 (L) 10.52 (VH) 10.94 (VH) 10.05 (VH)

K 0.44 (Md.) 0.44 (Md.) 0.58 (H) 0.16 (L) 0.14 (L) 0.13 (L) 0.71 (H) 0.40 (Md.) 0.22 (L)

Na 0.30 (L) 0.26 (L) 0.26 (L) 0.20 (L) 0.22 (L) 0.21 (L) 0.36 (Md.) 0.43 (Md.) 0.22 (L)

KTK 17.75 (VL) 16.61 (Md.) 16.99 (Md.) 15.77(L) 13.11 (L) 13.03 (L) 41.07 (VH) 36.48 (H) 39.35 (H)

KB (%) 40.68 (Md.) 35.88 (Md.) 46.26 (Md.) 16.49 (VL) 14.49 (VL) 14.27 (VL) 69.56 (H) 78.84 (VH) 63.86 (H)


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Soil characteristics

21

Chemical cha-

racteristics

Dramaga, Bogor Carita, Banten Kampung Tugu, Sukabumi

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

Horizon 1

(0-30 cm)

Horizon 2

(30-60 cm)

Horizon 3

(> 60 cm)

KCl (me/100 gr)

Al 3.72 (VL) 4.16 (VL) 4.90 (VL) 5.84 (L) 7.36 (L) 6.40 (L) 2.76 (VL) 2.76 (VL) 6.40 (L)

H 0.33 0.36 0.41 0.49 0.53 0.45 0.3 0.3 0.42

0,05 N HCl (ppm)

Fe 2.04 1.8 1.48 1.72 1 1.04 0.52 0.36 0.32

Cu 3.44 2.64 2.4 1.64 1.68 1.52 1.2 1.12 1.44

Zn 5.24 4.88 5.28 3 2.6 2.8 1.4 1.56 1.56

Mn 85.6 88.01 79.2 28.48 17.08 16.4 17 22.12 26.36

Notes: VL: very low; H: high; L: low; VH: very high; Md: Medium (Source: Pratiwi et al., 2009)


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23

4GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY

There are many beliefs on how gaharu is formed and these views have stronglybeen wrapped in myth and history. Only in the last few decades that more scientificapproaches have been conducted. Scientists with assistance from the locals have triedto understand the mechanism involved in the formation of gaharu and conduct researchbased on their understanding. Experiments involve laboratory works and setting-updemonstration plots have been established in some countries, including China, Thailand,Indonesia, and Cambodia. Approach in these studies is generally done by woundingtrees deliberately with different treatments to induce gaharu formation.

Some extensive researches and their findings are detailed in this chapter.

4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools

Wounding gaharu tree using blade or hammering of nails into the trunks has beenused widely in the past, however gaharu yielded from this treatment is generally of inferiorquality and cannot meet the desired market demand (Persoon, 2007). It will take manyyears before high quality gaharu is formed. However, gaharu hunters in Papua NewGuinea, for example Imnai village people (Yapsiei) that deliberately wounded gaharu treesin an attempt to stimulate gaharu production reported that they were able to harvestgaharu of B and C grades, three years after this treatment (Gunn et al ., 2003). They

believe that following this wounding, muddy water enters the tree through the woundis responsible for gaharu production. Pojanagaroon and Kaewrak investigated variousmechanical methods in stimulating gaharu formation including making a holes withscrews, wounding using chisels, and bark removal with hatchets. The study found thatmethods of injury had influence in gaharu formation and was determined by seasonalchanges, rainy season accelerated gaharu formation faster than dry season. However,the gaharu produced by this method was reported to only yielded pale fragrant andsmall percentage of essential oil.

4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection

This effort involves drilling of trees and keeping the wound open by placing a small

piece of plastic pipe in those holes followed by a chemical injection to stimulate treedefense mechanism that produces resin. The first project of this effort was initiated in Vietnam under a supervision from Prof. Robert Blanchette, a wood pathologist from theUniversity of Minnesota who together with local farmers and Buddhist monks. Theydeveloped experimental plots to stimulate the production of gaharu and after years oftrials, this treatment yielded gaharu. Dr. Blanchette stated that this artificial induction couldyield gaharu ten times faster than natural formation (WWW page: http://forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu ). This finding has gained appreciation and has been considered as oneof the most successful finding (Persoon, 2007). This treatment causes tree to respondin two defense mechanisms, physical and chemical. The first is phloem cells form callusand the second, should callus formation is prevented, the tree produces resin.

http://forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu/http://forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu/http://forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu/http://forestpathology.coafes.umn.edu/


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Another country, Thailand being a large producers and consumers of gaharutraditionally, conducted similar experiment and establish gaharu plantation. Thedevelopment of gaharu in this country has been intensive because of the rapid decreasein gaharu supply from the nature. Krissana Panasin company in Chantaburi, Southeast

Thailand has established gaharu plantation of several hundred hectares. Similar projecthas been established in Merauke, Papua, Indonesia by a Catholic Church and in PapuaNew Guinea, which involves trials of numerous methods to treat the trees.

4.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungalinoculum

The formation of gaharu is a result of plant defense mechanism towards fungalattacks by producing resinous compounds as secondary metabolite. In their naturalhabitat, the process of resin accumulation as the result of tree-pathogen battle maytake many years and the longer the process takes place the more expensive and highlyvaluable the resin is. Many scientists have been passionately trying to understand the

cascade process of this tree-fungi interaction in producing gaharu. Isolation of variousfungi from infected trees have been widely reported (Table 5).

The finding of novel technology to accelerate gaharu formation based on thismechanism continues to sprout and research has become more intensive. In thissection, some experiments conducted in Indonesia for gaharu induction are presented. An emphasis is given for induction technology developed by Forestry Research andDevelopment Agency and a thorough information is presented at the later part of thissection.

Table 5. Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on theirmorphological characteristics and experiments related with the fungalinoculation

No. Fungi Host isolated Activity Author

1. Torula sp. A. agallocha Formation of gaharu Bose (1934 in Burfield, 2005a)

Stopped in 1931 due to inoculum contamination Sagopal (1959 in Burfield, 2005a)

2. Cladosporium sp. Obtained result but, trees were destroyed. Burfield (2005a).

Work stopped and no later work yielded positive results

3. Epicoccum

granulatum

Further investigation of gaharu formation by fungus Battcaharrya (1952 in Burfield,

2005a)

Prospecting the deliberate tree infection by fungus Sadopal (1960 in Burfield, 2005a)

Showed conflicting results Varma (1977 in Burfield, 2005a)

4. Pencillium citrinum A. agallocha Ascribed spiral cavitation of the tracheid walls of the

wood of A. agallocha to P. parasi tica

Hawksworth et al . (1976 in

Burfield, 2005a)

Aspergillus tamari Phialophora parasitica was frequently associated with

better quality portions of gaharu

Gibson (1977 in Burfield, 2005a)

Aspergillus spp. Gaharu formation rarely occurred in trees under 25

years old, and formation followed injury to the tree, for

example following wind or storm damage

Rahman (1980 in Burfield, 2005a)

Fusarium solani

Botryodiplodia

Theobromae

Philophora parasitica

5. Cytosphaera

mangiferae Died.

The causative infective agent for standing trees Jaluddin (1977 in Burfield,

2005a)


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GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

25

No. Fungi Host isolated Activity Author

6. Aspergillus sp. A. agallocha seeds Tamuli et al . (1999 in Burfield,

2005a)

Fusarium sp. A. agallocha

rhizosphere

Tamuli et al . (2000a in Burfield,

2005a)Penicillium sp.

Epicoccum sp.

7. Fusarium oxysporum

Schlect.

A. agallocha Succeeded in inoculating healthy wooden blocks so

that colony growth occurred

Tamuli et al . (2000 in Burfield,

2005a)

Chaetum globosum

Kunze

Colonies were deposited in cul tures with the MTCC,

Institute of Microbial Technology (CSIR), Chandigarh

8. Fusarium xylaroides Aquilaria spp. from

Java, Kalimantan,

Mollucas, Sumatra

Fusarium spp. Have successfully infected gaharu-

producing trees in the field and yielded gaharu

products

Agustini et al. (2006)

Fusarium tricinctum Colonies were deposited in cultures with the FORDA

CC, Laboratory of Forest and Nature Conservation R&D

Center, Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia

Fusarium solani

Cylindrocarpon

9. Botryodiplodia

theobromae

Aquilaria spp. in

Thailand

Isolation of fungi from tropical rain forest in Rayong,

Chanthaburi, Trad, Nakhon Ratchasima, Krabi , Trang

and Pattarung, Thailand.

Subansenee et al. (1985)

Curvularia lunata Four species: B. theobromae , C. lunata , F. oxysporum ,

and Pestalotia sp. were parasitic and others were

saprophytic.

Fusarium oxysporum

Pestalotia sp.

Cercosporella sp.

Chaetomium spirale

Cladosporium sp.

Phialogeniculata sp.

Pithomyces sp.

Rhizopus sp.

Spiculostibella sp.

Trichoderma sp.

A study by a group of researcher in Laboratory of Biotechnology, Agriculture Faculty,Mataram University, Indonesia conducted inoculation of fungi for stimulation of gaharuproduction. The group found that F. lateritum could be isolated and cultured in potatodextrose agar (PDA) media and that the fungi could form gaharu after 2-month injectionto 4-year-old trees. Biology Tropical (BIOTROP) reported the use of stressing agent on

a tree prior to fungal injection accelerated the formation of gaharu.

Artificial induction of five-seven year old Gyrinops versteegii trees in Mataram onLombok Island and twelve Aquilaria spp. in Pekanbaru, Sumatra by drilling eight 10 cmdeep by 1cm wide holes and inoculating with five Fusarium spp. including Fusariumtrifosfrium has been described by Tabata et al. (2003). The results showed that gaharuwas observed around the drilled sites but uninoculated trees also formed gaharu. Acombination of 2% sugar solution, Acremonium sp. and methyl jasmonate was reportedto produce gaharu of kemedangan quality class IV and that wood discoloration, fragrancelevel, and terpenoids contents were independent criteria in determining gaharu quality(Yunita, 2009).


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26

Research and development of artificial induction technology of gaharu in ForestryResearch and Development Agency, Ministry of Forestry has started since 1984, but onlyin the last ten years that the activities have become more intensive (Table 6). The firsttrial for artificial induction was located in Sebadu Village, West Kalimantan, Indonesia

by injecting five fungal-producing gaharu: Botryodiplodia sp., Fusarium oxysporum,F. bulbigenium, F. laseritium, and Phytium sp. on a total of 300 trees of 8-year-old A. microcarpa. Before injection, palm sugar and lubricant were added and mixed with thefungi. This preliminary study showed that the formation of gaharu was improved by theaddition of palm sugar and lubricant. The three Fusarium species formed larger area ofgaharu on the infected trees (Santoso, pers. comm. ). The institution also collaboratedwith Provincial Forestry Institute in Kalimantan by injecting Fusarium sp. into 9-year-old A. malaccensis grown in Sempaja arboretum. After three months, gaharu formation wasindicated by stem cracking and the skin was easily torn. The infected part of stem isfragrant when it was burnt confirming that gaharu was formed.

Table 6. Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drillingand Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia

No. Location Gaharu tree species

Number

of trees

induced

1. Bangka A. microcarpa 160

2. Bahorok, North Sumatra A. malaccensis 50

3. West Sumatra A. malaccensis 200

4. Carita, Banten A. microcarpa 300

5. Bodok, West Kalimantan A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis, A. beccariana

200

6. Kandangan and Barabai, South Kalimantan A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa 800

7. Muaro, Jambi A. microcarpa 50

8. Bali Gyrinops versteegii 50

9. West Nusa Tenggara Gyrinops versteegii 200

10. Flores, East Nusa Tenggara Gyrinops versteegii 100

11. Seram, Molluca Aquilaria cummingiana 150

(Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)

Novel findings by Santoso et al. have revealed important aspects that determine thesuccessful of gaharu formation by artificial induction, i.e. methods of injection, fungalstrain type, and growing media for delivering the fungi. Intensive studies for severalyears have confirmed efficient gaharu inducing methods (Figure 6, 7, and 8), as follows:

1. Injection hole is of small size of about 3 mm in diameter. The holes will be closednaturally by the plant, not long after inoculants injection. This closing process of theinjection hole is important in stimulating the formation of gaharu

2. Inoculant is delivered in the form of liquid by injection with a syringe of about 1 mlper hole


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27

3. Type of fungal strain determines the gaharu formed, so screening of efficient strainusing few samples in several locations to confirm its efficiency is essential prior toestablishing large demonstration plots

4. Spaces in between holes should be wide enough (about 25 cm apart) to prevent

from overlapping of vertical disease development from each other’s hole5. The quality of gaharu formed becomes higher with longer incubation time. the Gaharu

product harvested after three years of induction using this method was classifiedas tanggung a grade higher than kemedangan, while gaharu harvested from shorterincubation period was considered as kemedangan grade A-B.

Figure 7. An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharuformation. (1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with25 cm space in between holes; (2-3): one ml of liquid inoculum isinjected with a syringe; (4): one month after inoculation, the efficiencyof induction is observed by peeling a tree bark to observe the diseasesymptom (Source: http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/ media/465.jpg.

http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpghttp://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpghttp://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpghttp://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpg


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28

Figure 8. Technology of fungal induction to stimulate gaharu production. (1):Bamboo stagger for climbing tree for inoculation; (2): Drilling the treeand making holes for inoculation; (3): Fusarium sp., gaharu-inducingfungi grown on agar plate; (4): Wood coloration on stem tissue, anindication of resin production.


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Figure 9. Harvesting procedure of gaharu product from deliberate tree injection

with fungal inoculant. (1): Initial symptom of gaharu formation onstem; (2): Felling of tree; (3-7): Cutting away tissue to obtain theresinous parts; (8): Residue of trees that is used for distillation of oil.

In search for gaharu-inducing fungi, thirty six fungi from infected gaharu trees from17 provinces in Indonesia have been isolated and subsequently identified by meansof 28S rRNA partial gene sequencing

(Sitepu et al., in preparation for publication).Identification was conducted in the Laboratory of Forest Microbiology, FORDA usingFUS1 and FUS2 primers that enabled amplification of up to 460-bp fragment. Mostisolates identified were members of Fusarium solani species complex, only one isolate,FORDACC-02375, originated from East Kalimantan showed high similarity to Fusariumoxysporum (Table 5). This study highlighted a rapid molecular identification protocol

for gaharu-inducing fungi over the conventional measure.

Table 7. Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungicollected from 17 provinces in Indonesia

No. Isolate Number Origin (Province) Molecular identification

1 FORDACC506 North Sumatra Fusarium solani

2 FORDACC509 Gorontalo Fusarium solani

3 FORDACC503 West Sumatra Fusarium solani

4 FORDACC512 Papua Fusarium solani


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30

No. Isolate Number Origin (Province) Molecular identification

5 FORDACC500 Jambi Fusarium solani

6 FORDACC501 West Sumatra Fusarium solani

7 FORDACC510 Molucca Fusarium solani

8 FORDACC497 Central Kalimantan Fusarium solani

9 FORDACC499 West Kalimantan Fusarium solani

10 FORDACC2372 East Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani

11 FORDACC504 Riau Fusarium solani


13 FORDACC502 West Sumatra Fusarium ambrosium

14 FORDACC515 East Nusa Tenggara Fusarium sp.

15 FORDACC2379 Molucca Fusarium solani

16 FORDACC511 West Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani

17 FORDACC2370 Bangka Belitung Fusarium solani

18 FORDACC517 Bangka Belitung Fusarium solani


20 FORDACC519 West Java Fusarium falciforme

21 FORDACC2375 East Kalimantan Fusarium oxysporum

22 FORDACC520 West Java Fusarium solani f. batatas

23 FORDACC518 Babel Fusarium solani f. batatas

24 FORDACC2371 Babel Fusarium solani

25 FORDACC2377 West Java Fusarium solani

26 FORDACC507 Lampung Fusarium solani f. batatas

27 FORDACC498 Central Kalimantan Fusarium solani

28 FORDACC2369 West Sumatra Fusarium ambrosium

29 FORDACC495 South Kalimantan Fusarium solani

30 FORDACC2373 West Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani f. batatas

31 FORDACC2374 East Kalimantan Fusarium solani

32 FORDACC508 Bengkulu Fusarium sp.

33 FORDACC505 North Sumatra Fusarium solani

34 FORDACC496 South Kalimantan Fusarium solani f. batatas

35 FORDACC516 Babel Fusarium solani

36 FORDACC2378 West Java Fusarium solani

Note: FORDA CC: Forestry Research and Development Agency Culture Collection (Source: Sitepu et al., in preparation

for publication).


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5CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU

Gaharu is a resinous wood and it is the resin that determines the quality of gaharu.Many studies have revealed two major constituents of gaharu, i.e. sesquiterpenes andchromones, as the main source of the fragrant.

About 50 years ago, the chemical content of fragrant gaharu was isolated by Indianchemists from Aquilaria agallocha ROXB and they characterized several sesquiterpenes(Konishi et al ., 2002). Twenty years later, Japanese scientists isolated and characterizedmany sesquiterpenes from two gaharu types, the first, presumably originated from A. malaccensis and the second, “kanankoh” (in Japanese) (Konishi et al ., 2002). Another

constituent of gaharu was also revealed, i.e. an oxygenated chromone derivative, followedby isolations of two new chromone derivatives in 1989 and 1990 by Chinese scientists.

Sapwood gaharu exemplifies as merely unexuded resin, but rather it is depositedin the wood tissues of trees. This resin deposit renders the wood with loose fibers andwhite color becoming solidly compact, white in color, and fragrant in smell. This resinbelongs to sesquiterpene group, which is easily volatile (Ishihara et al ., 1991). Most ofthe compounds in gaharu are identified as sesquiterpenoid group. One of the fragrant-smelling compounds in gaharu was first identified by Bhattacharyya dan Jain as agarol,categorized as mono-hydroxy compunds (Prema and Bhattacharyya, 1962).

Research conducted by Nakanishi succeeded in characterizing jinkohol (2β- hydroxy -(+)- prezizane ) in gaharu originated from Indonesia, through benzene extraction. Thisteam also found two new sesquiterpene compounds in Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.from Indonesia, comprising jincoheremol dan jincohol II, called as type B to differentiateit from the type A of A. agallocha Roxb., and isolated alpha-agarofuran and (-)-10-epi- gamma-eudesmol , oxo-agarospirol as the main constituent at gaharu type B (Burfield2005b). In Burfield (2005b), it was stated that Yoneda managed to identify the mainsesquiterpene that existed in gaharu type A (in A. agallocha ) and type B (in A. malaccensi s).Gaharu type A contained β-agarofuran 0,6%, nor-ketoagarofuran 0,6%, agarospirol 4,7%, jinkoh-eremol 4,0%, kusunol 2,9%, dihydrokaranone 2,4%, and oxo-agarospirol 5,8%.Meanwhile, in gaharu type B were identified compounds comprising α-agarofuran(-)-10-epi-γ-eudesmol 6,2%, agarospirol 7,2%, jinkohol 5,2%, jinko-eremol 3,7%, kusunol

3,4%, jinkohol II 5,6% dan oxo-agarospirol 3,1%.

Elucidation of structures of many kinds of 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromone and theirderivative compounds have been thoroughly investigated by Japanese scientist andhis group (Figure 9.) (Konishi et al., 2002).


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Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and anunkown 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone.Compound (1): 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone;(2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, (2): C

19H

18O

5, (3): C1H14O4, (4):

6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxylderivative of 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7):C18H16O4 (Source: Konishi et al ., 2002).

Yagura et al. (2005) isolated novel chromone derivatives from gaharu , producedby intentionally wounding A. crassna and A. sinensis . The three compounds werecharacterized as diepoxy tetrahydrochromones have not been reported from naturalgaharu product, i.e. Oxidoagarochromone with molecular formula of A (1) (C

17H

14O

4 );

B(2): (C18

H16

O5 ); C(3): C

18H

16O

6 .

Results regarding the analysis of GCMS (gas chromatography – mass spectrometry)on 6-month old induced-gaharu brought out 9 chemical constituents, of which only 4constituents were identifiable that comprised 4-hydroxy-4-3thyl-2-pentanone (5.3%),Oxirane, 2,3-epoxy butane (0.6%), 2-butoxy ethanol (70.5%) dan 1,2 benzene dicarboxylix

acid (9%) (Figure 10) (Wiyono, 2008).


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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU


33

2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.50.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

(x100,000)TIC

Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu

Further, results of GCMS analysis on the induced gaharu products originated fromDramaga and Carita each comprising 2 sample trees revealed that there were 16 phenolcompounds that belong to high group, and 8 phenols as low group (Table 6). Scrutinizingthat Table 6, it seems that there has occurred a sequence (series) of secondary metaboliteprocess, such as the evolving/release of iseugenol and veratrol compounds that functionas perfumes and medicine, whereby those two compounds are not encountered in regularwood. The veratrol itself is evolved from phenol compounds that undergo hydrolysis intocatechol, which further through a sequence of complex mechanisms, i.e. Kreb cycle, istransformed to veratrol. Likewise, eugenol compounds are evolved from guaiacol (mainconstituent of lignin) through ferulic acid intermediate (Waluyo et al ., 2011).

Results of identification on gaharu resin indicated the presence of caryophenecompounds that typify the main constituents for eugenol which usually exists in cloveleaves. In gaharu resin were also identified cembren compounds (diterpenoid) thatcomprised a feromon compound effective for termites, a palustrol compound as antitusive,and copaene compounds that can function as essential oil and are rather toxic to betaken orally if the LD is 5000 mg/kg

Recent study revealed distinct chemical compositions and its relative concentrationof four gaharu woods from A. microcarpa that was artificially induced by four Fusarium spp. from four different localities in Indonesia (Novriyanti et

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