Fr ahuatl t “Victorious” UNIVERSID Vwriting is developed not only to evaluate students’...

From the Nahuatl thatmeans “Victorious” UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE DE PUEBLA

REVISTA DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS

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DIRECTORIO

Editoras ResponsablesMtra. Irma Higinia Illescas LozanoDra. María Hortensia Irma Lozano e Islas

RectoraDra. María Hortensia Irma Lozano e Islas

Presidente de la Junta de GobiernoMtro. Jaime Illescas López

Coordinadora Editorial y de PublicacionesMtra. Laura Serrano Zenteno

Cuidado de la Edición en InglésMtra. Guiedana López Romero

Diseño EditorialMtra. Gabriela Arias Limón

From the Nahuatl that means“Victorious”

Titlane, año 2, No. 5, Noviembre del 2018, es una publicación cuatrimestral editada por la Universidad del Valle de Puebla S.C., calle 3 sur # 5759, Col. El Cerrito. CP. 72440, Puebla, Puebla, Tel. (222) 2669488, www.uvp.mx; Editoras Responsables: Dra. María Hortensia Irma Lozano e Islas y Mtra. Irma Higinia Illescas Lozano. Reserva de Derechos al Uso Exclusivo No. 04-2018-012513060700-203, ISSN: En trámite, ambos otorgados por el Instituto Nacional de Derechos de Autor. Responsable de la última actualización de este Número, Mtra. Laura Serrano Zenteno, Coordinadora Editorial y de Publicaciones de la Universidad del Valle de Puebla S.C., calle 3 sur # 5759, Col. El Cerrito. CP. 72440, Puebla, Puebla. Fecha de la última modificación, 01 de Noviembre de 2018. Las opiniones expresadas por los autores no necesariamente reflejan las posturas de la Universidad del Valle de Puebla, de la Editora Responsable o de la coordinadora de la publicación.

Director de la División de Artes y HumanidadesMtro. Emmanuel Flores Flores



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Development of written expression in narrative texts based on Preliminary

English TestHugo Riveros Mejorada

Reinforcing the speaking skill through the development of the socioemotional abilities from Construye-T program un High School Students based on the

sociolinguistic competenceNayeli Castillo Sánchez

Development of communicative environments within an efl class through

applied linguistics fieldsYanahui Méndez Sánchez

Discourse analysis on written production

Yara Elideth Aguilar Sierra

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ÍNDICE

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Editorial

I wanted to start this editorial with a quote that resembles the effort of all the people involved in making this magazine a reality; I am referring to students, professors, publishing department and others at Universidad del Valle de Puebla because thanks to their contribution and support, we are about to publish our 5th edition. Pele’s quote is the perfect quote I was looking for. In this 5th edition, I want to give special thanks to Professor Guiedana López Romero, an outstanding and passionate person that I have had the chance to meet at work, and who has shown that if you wish to achieve something, it is only through hard work the way you can get it. Professor López Romero was in charge of the selection, correction, and follow up of the articles that are included in this edition. From the very beginning she was enthusiastic about this task and agreed to do it no matter the time she was to spend. López Romero selected four interesting papers developed by students enrolled in the ma in English Language Teaching at uvp; all of them are related to language acquisition. The first article was written by Yara Aguilar Sierra. In her text, she offers a deeper insight on written production and discourse competence of B1 (cefrl) students in “Universidad del Valle de Puebla” by analysing their discourse and noticing their linguistic patterns which will allow better understanding of the decision making when writing argumentative texts in an academic context. Following the same, Hugo Riveros Mejorada analyses the written production of college students at Universidad del Valle de Puebla. He mentions that discourse analysis is one of the linguistic tools that help teachers to have a better understanding about the relation in the actions with the reactions in the real language problems. He concludes his research by saying that this kind of analysis helps learners to be conscious about the elements required in a good narrative text and as teachers to focus on one of the most important competences of the language that is the communicative one.Nayeli Castillo Sánchez contributes with a remarkable proposal to the Construye-T Program, which is aimed at High School level institutions in public settings. In brief, she describes the possibility to reinforce the speaking skill in students in these contexts through activities related to their socioemotional abilities. Last but not least, Yanahui Méndez Sánchez describes some of the approaches that might be applied within the environment of the efl class and its members, in order to try to deal with this issues inhibiting the students’ language learning process. She concludes by saying that teachers must provide students with the opportunity to be part of a specific communicative society that can promote language development within and out of the classroom, in order to challenge others no matter the conditions of the environments, due to they must have the ability to adapt them with the only propose to cover and solve the needs of their students.I know this will be an interesting opportunity for our readers to get to know these proposals that I am sure will be a good platform to keep improving our teaching practice.

Mtro. Emmanuel Flores FloresDirector de la División de Artes y Humanidades

Universidad del Valle de Puebla



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Development of written expression in narrative texts based on Preliminary English TestHugo Riveros Mejorada

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this research project is to analyze the written production of college students at Universidad del Valle de Puebla. The tests are based in the Preliminary English Test of Cambridge Assessment English. The purpose of taking this exam as a departmental evaluation is to demonstrate students’ ability to produce a text in which all the elements provided in the classroom were embodied in the production of a simple text. The Coordinación del Centro de Lenguas extranjeras at universidad del Valle de Puebla is responsible of adapting the authentic material to be presented as an exam.

JUSTIFICATION

According to Hedge (2005), an effective writing is composed by certain elements like; organization in the development of the information, arguments, accuracy, use of complex grammatical structures, adequate vocabulary, sentence structures and style in the text. Taking into account all these elements, the main purpose of this project research is to analyze what are the characteristics that a student with a certain English level of proficiency presents when writing a text in a closed context for academic purposes.

ASSESSMENT OF WRITING PRODUCTION

The writing of texts by students can be a useful tool for teachers as they can be analyzed. Established by Widdowson, H.G. (2007), a text is a use of language, with a unit of linguistics analysis. Widdowson (2007) mentions that a text could be identified when is produced for communicative purposes. Hedge, T. (2005) mentions many different reasons about writing, for this research project is essential to set the writing as a pedagogic purpose, this means to help students to learn a language. The most important in this part of the research project is to point out writing for

assessment purposes, to demonstrate students’ progress of proficiency in the language. Also, there are many other reason that should be taken into account for educational purposes as: real goals, creative purposes, classroom management, acquisitional purposes and educational purposes, all of them related to the process of learning a language.

It is important to mention the assessment is taken into consideration at Universidad del Valle de Puebla, to evaluate students according with their written production. The CoordinaCión deL Centro de Lenguas extranjeras creates a escala de apreciación para evaluar resultados de aprendizaje in which some elements are given to teachers to evaluate the students’ proficiency in the production of a written expression. The rubric, previously mentioned as esCaLa de apreCiaCión, contains some elements as: a) attachment to instruction: the students attach to the established instructions, nevertheless, some mistakes are noted in certain structures connected with topics reviewed in class and that the students respect the number of words required; b) presentation: the students write organized ideas and that students do not commit basic mistakes in the structures of sentences; c) coherence, it evaluates that the text is perfectly understandable but the student still commits mistakes of verb conjugation and organization of main ideas; the last point evaluated in this rubric is d) vocabulary, in which the students make use of a diversity of tenses, however, they make a repetitive use of vocabulary.

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The previous paragraph underlines the aspects evaluated at the uvp as part of the final evaluation that students have to present to accredit an English course.

PET

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages establishes foundations for the creation of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks and so on. This framework describes in a very understandable way what language learners have to know in order to use the language for communicative and knowledge purposes. An important task of the Common European Framework is to define the levels of proficiency that help learners to have a better idea about their language level.

The Preliminary English Test (pet) is a Cambridge English Qualifications test that examines the English language basics skills. According to the CefrL, students that present this type of certification have to develop and present the following description: Students of B1 level can understand the main point of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Learners can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Also Learners can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Students can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions

and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. This is a reference of what the pet B1 have to demonstrate as part of the students’ qualifications.

For this project research the basis of the CefrL are going to take into account to know what are the aspects that a student has to contain in their written production at B1 level considering the following description by the CefrL: “a learner can write simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Learners can write personal letters describing experiences and impressions”: In regards with coherence, the CefrL establishes that a student whose proficiency level is B1 is able to: “link a series of shorter, discrete simple elements into a connected, linear sequence of points”.

TYPES OF TEXT

Types of text are important in the discourse analysis to be aware of the input and the output information required to fulfil the analytical processes. Talking about discourse, as Calsamiglia and Tusón (2015) it is to talk about a social practice among people in the use of a linguistic context, this means, the set of linguistic functions connected to construct communicative canals.

There are five different types of texts proposed by Adam and Revaz (1996); a) narrative: that aims to inform about facts and actions developed in the time; b) descriptive: this focuses in hierarchical

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order in a regulated and structured lexicon; c) argumentative: exposes opinions with the finality to convince, persuade and to make believe about something specific; d) explicative: shows the cause relationships that make associations with words and facts, and finally the e) dialogic: this type of text ask, promise and thanks in its structure.

For purposes of this research project, narrative text would be taken into account according with the use of the text that is to inform about facts and actions developed in the time and in a certain context. This type of text would be essential because is part of the instructions given in the pet examination and could be analyze in a better way taking into account the basis of this type of text that will be described below.

NARRATIVE TEXT

The narrative text appears in many canals in which the structure and rule of its core work. The narration could be found in journalistic genres, news, reports, chronicles and so on. Academically, the narrations appears as a didactic resource to give examples and to give instructions. There are so many branches of application of the narrative text as the investigations, sociology and history.In the narrative text there are some characteristics that could be analyzed in the discourse as the canonical narrative where the verbal tense is the past in its different conjugation forms. Calsamiglia and Tusón (2015), mentions that for talking about actions the indefinite preterit, past perfect and the pluperfect are used to refer to descriptive events but it is also possible to write in present tense when there are narrations in a spontaneous conversations.

Connectors and markers are also part of the narrative text as a tool to identify what are the elements included in this type of text. The most common connectors and markers are the temporal, causal, and consecutive as actions and transformative uses. For the descriptive parts of the text, the special and discursive organizers would be use in the analysis of the narration. Sözer, E., Petöfi, J.S. and Conte, M. (1989).

PARTS OF THE NARRATIVE TEXT

The narrative text is composed in its structure, according to Adam (1992), as mentioned below:

a) Temporality: it exists a succession of events in a certain time that transcends and advances. b) Thematic unit: in this unit a subject and an actor are the main characters of the text could be animated or unanimated, individual or collective and agent or patient. c) Transformation: the states and predicates change. d) Action unit: in this unit there is an integrating process, from an initial situation it reaches a final situation through a process of transformation. e) Causality: there is intrigue that is created through the causal relationships among the events.

Another important point mentioned by Calsamiglia y Tusón (2015) is that the point of view is an elemental component as part of the narrative text, it is said that, it could be found in first and third person and that could narrate from the insight of the text to the outsight or vice versa and it should be analyzed in a subjective form.

There is a structure in a narrative text suggested by Clasamiglia y Tusón (2015), the first part of the text is the introductory summary followed by the initial situation and orientation. The complication precedes these two elements above, and finally, it comes the action, resolution and evaluation.

DISCOURSE MARKERS

Discourse markers are linguistic elements that do not belong to a word class. These markers are also known as connectives, interjections, modal particles as alternatives of markers found in a text. Schiffrin (1987), defines discourse markers as: ‘sequentially dependent elements which bracket units of talk.’

Schiffrin (1987) presents a set of suggestions in which discourse markers could be found:

a. It has to be syntactically detachable from a sentence b. It has to be commonly used in initial position of an utterance c. It has to have a range of prosodic contoursd. It has to be able to operate at both local and global levels of discourse, and on different planes of discourse this means that it either has to have no meaning, a vague meaning, or to be reflexive



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According to Urgelles-Coll (2010): “discourse markers are usually short, phonological reduced, and they are usually part of a separate tone group”. Following the author’s perception, it is mentioned that discourse markers are generally at the beginning of a sentence. Discourse markers commonly are followed by a coma due to they are not part of the sentence itself, and they can be easily omitted by structuring the sentence in a different way. Urgelles-Coll (2010), mention that semantically the majority of discourse markers could not affect the sense of the sentence but some of them could vary the ungrammatical utterance.

The use of discourse markers in narrative text outline the point that a second proposition would start when the principal one ends. Extra information is required in this type of text to lead one event precede the following one. There are some special discourse markers that could give the reader the clue to be part of the narrative text.

The principal use of discourse markers is to attach a first sentence with a second one making use of many other grammatical aspects related to the well construction in a very coherence way of a phrase. Proposed by Urgelles-Coll (2010), there are some axioms related to the narration in a text that can be useful to have a better understanding about the discourse markers in a narrative text.

The axioms are described below:

a) Continuation: refers to a lack of temporal effects in a veridical relation and the same constrains. b) Explanations and result: the second utterance is the cause of the first utterance, the explanations appear with the relations of the two utterances and a result is inferred and the order could be reversedc) Background: gives temporal constrains to its arguments, this means that the first sentence has temporal eventualities required by a certain background to give more information. d) Consequence and alternation: the relations are not veridical; the consequence happen in cases where the event takes place and alternation mentions that even one even or the other could happen in a relation of two separated sentences not coordinated by a discourse marker. e) Text structuring relations: structural relations are hold

in two propositions which content has certain structural constrains. f) Parallel and Contras: parallel has semantic similar constituents and contras semantic dissimilar constrains.

These elements mentioned before are established by the author to point out the clue elements in which discourse markers can be placed as part of the narrative text. There are many discourse markers that can be found in a text.

CONNECTORS IN A TEXT

These elements mentioned before are established by Urgelles-Coll (2010), to point out the clue elements in which discourse markers can be placed as part of the narrative text. There are many discourse markers that can be found in a text even though when they must show coherence and cohesion, by forming syntactical sense of on the phrase, there is a lack of use in academic texts in college students at the UVP.

As illustrated by Urgelles-Coll (2010), the following is a chart list discourse markers. This discourse markers function as connectors presented in the following chart: The main characteristic of connectors is that they give coherence to the discourse. Learners make use of connectors to give form, meaning and action of what is intended to express. The connectors have many functions in the text and could be integrated in many situational events to create coherence but as they have more than one function, they could not be used as a repetitive way in the same proposition avoiding misunderstandings in the text.

ANALYSIS

The discourse analysis is carried out at the Universidad del Valle de Puebla taking into account three departmental exams given



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by CoordinaCión deL Centro de Lenguas extranjeras. These exams are adapted from an authentic material from Cambrige Assessment pet B1 level.

The students are currently coursing the fifth semester of their careers. They are three female students. The written production that would be analyzed is part of the final evaluation of the students. Several topics are previously reviewed during the semester and previous English levels to demonstrate the proficiency of the students in their final evaluation as a final test. The analyzed texts are formed by the situation or context and the instruction. Every written production should contain between 55 and 60 words per exam to be evaluated, according to the rubric attached in Appendix 1. They are different situational tasks to avoid dishonesty among students. The analysis of the texts would be based on the basis of discourse analysis making emphasis in connectors in a text, coherence and context. Students are going to be described as; student A, student B and student C, according to the data privacy policy of the uvp. Evidence of the written expression are presented in Appendix 2, Appendix 3 and Appendix 4.

STUDENT A:

Situation: An email is presented to the student A where the issuer’s name is given. Complication: I’m sorry I couldn’t come to your party. Did many people go? Did you get some nice presents? Was it a good party?Action: Write back and let me know. Write from 55 to 60 words. Resolution: Hi Alejandra How are you? I come to the party, I don’t problem my family. I like party the my mother invite friends in the house eat soda and pizza I surprise with celebration. Seegig you. (Appendix 2)Evaluation: according with the rubric presented in Appendix 1, Student A just got 14 points out of the 30 possible points.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF STUDENT A:

The written production of Student A does not present many discourse markers on the text. Nevertheless, there are some points that could be analyzed according to the information previously mentioned. The only connector that appears is and that should connect two propositions but there are many syntactic

mistakes that do not allow the propositions to be connected as the function of the connector is. This connector intends to have a causal connection among the propositions but it does fulfill the requirements to act as a connector in the paragraph. Due to this, there are not clear relationships in the propositions established by the student.

According to the axioms proposed by Urgelles-Coll (2010), it could not be identify a continuity axiom because there are no sense and continuity in the propositions. Also, it is difficult to have explanations and results in axiom due to there are no propositions connected to be analyzed. There exists a consequence in the text due to the proposition is intended to take place as the background marks even that it is not a coherent paragraph. Alternation in narrative text is another element to be analyzed and could be possible to demonstrate this axiom due to the context, it is already established by PET examinations as a result, there is not a veridical constraint of this element. It is strongly notorious that there are not text structuring relations in this paragraph and, there are not parallel constituents in the text due to the isolated propositions.

STUDENT B:

Situation: An email is given to the student where the issuer and the receiver’s name are given.

Complication: Hi Isabell. Would you like to go to the dance show I told you about? We can go by bus and I can meet you at the station. Phone me if you want to go. My number is 7734667. Best wishes. Fiona

Action: Write back an email to Fiona. Write from 55 to 60 words. Resolution: Hello Fiona. How are you? I’ am very good, I hope you‘re well Thanks for you email, This time I’ am writing because, Me too go to the dance show, I like dance with my friends, with my family, we organized party’s and competition’s of dance, Thanks Isabell for you invitation, I can see in the station I call you. See you Fiona.

Evaluation: according to the rubric presented in Appendix 1, Student B just got 20 points out 30 possible points.



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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF STUDENT B:

The written production of Student B presents two discourse markers on the narrative text. The first discourse marker is “because”, according to Schiffrin (1987), this connector could have three possible meanings in a text: as a “cause”, “warrant” and “motive”.

In the text produced by the student B the closest meaning of “because” is related as a “cause” in the sense that intends to demonstrate the relation between the first and the second proposition right after the connector. In the complete phrase where the connector appears I’ am writing because me too go to the dance show, the intention of the student seems to give a reason of the first proposition but there is a lack of syntactic constrains that do not allow the proposition completes its function due to there are no coherence in the second proposition. The second discourse marker in the text is “and” that could be closest in use as “temporal connector”, “temporal interpretation” and as a “causal connector”. In the sentence proposed by student B we organized party’s and competition’s of dance where the connector “and” appears could be in closest meaning to a “causal connector” as the student intends to join two elements of the sentence in the same grammatical proposition.

This text it would be also analyzed according to the axioms proposed by Urgelles-Coll (2010). The two connectors “because” and “and” fit in the first axiom as they are part of a detachable sentence, there are two propositions connected intended to have separated grammatical and syntactical issues. Both of these connectors are at the beginning of the utterance having connections in the two propositions.

As a result of this analysis it could be observed that there is a relationship between the first and the second proposition even that there are grammatical mistakes that hamper the coherence of the sentence. There is a continuity axiom in the way that the sentence could have certain continuity intending to demonstrate it in the second proposition. The second utterance or proposition is the result of the first utterance in both cases of the paragraph then there are explanation and result axioms.

The background in this text is more evident due to there is previous information given in the action part of the analysis. Student B understands correctly the information and takes advantage of the background to create coherence in the text contributing to the consequence axiom. Text structuring relation is observed in these two connectors considering that has an incorrect grammatical structure but there is a sense in the other axioms. This sentences in which we can find the connectors have a parallel axiom because they intent to have the same semantic constraints.

STUDENT C:

Situation: A context is given to the student. The name of the issuer is shown in the situation.

Complication: Your English friend Emma has sent you some birthday money for you to buy a music CD.

Action: write an email to Emma. In your email, you should *thank Emma for the present, say which music CD you are going to buy, explain why you have chosen this CD. Resolution: Hi Emma! Thanks for the present! I like it I am very happy and I going to buy a music CD in “Mixup”, this is my favorite shop. I have to buy the Rihanna CD’S because is my favorite music. You should listen music with me When can you visit my house? Waiting your answer Take care!Evaluation: according to the rubric presented in Appendix 1, Student C got 27 points out of the 30 possible points.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF STUDENT C:

The written production of Student C presents two discourse markers. The discourse markers would be also analyzed by the meaning suggestions of Schiffrin (1987). The first connector that appears in the text is “and” that could be in closest use as “temporal connector”, “temporal interpretation” and “causal connector”. The second connector is “because” that its closest meaning could be “cause”, “warrant” and “motive”.

In the sentence I am very happy and I going to buy a music CD in “Mixup”, the connector functions as a causal connector



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since the second proposition is the result of the first proposition. The discourse marker appears right after the end of the first utterance then it can be said that is correctly place by the student at the initial part of the proposition that has a relationship between them. Even that there are some syntactical mistakes in the second proposition, the action is understandable with the absence of grammatical elements to complete the sentence.

The previous connector would be also analyzed taking into account the axioms proposed by Urgelles-Coll (2010). The connector “and” fulfil the functions in the text of continuity from the first proposition to the second one. The explanations and result axiom accomplishes its function since the second proposition is the result of the first one and there is an interconnected relationship between them. The background of the action given is clearly taken into account to establish the coherence in the text, even there is not a great variety of connectors use. There is a consequence in the events detailed by the connector use and as a result there is a text structuring relation in the two propositions.

In the sentence I have to buy the Rihanna CD’S because is my favorite music, the connector functions as motive since the second proposition has a condition relation from the first proposition. The discourse marker is placed semantically

correct at the end of the first utterance and at the initial part of the second one accomplishing the axiom of continuation due to there is sense and continuity in the second preposition right after the connector.

This sentence shows better syntactic constraints in its structure. The analysis of the axioms of this connector are the ones proposed by Urgelles-Coll (2010) too. To have a general idea of the analysis of the connector in the sentence, it is important to mention that the position of the connector, according to the author, is one of the important elements to analyze to demonstrate that the propositions are connected and there is a coherent text. As mentioned before, this connector accomplishes the continuation of the proposition; therefore, there is sense in the sentences.

The explanation and result that aims to demonstrate that the second proposition is the result of the first proposition is evident shown since the connector fulfill the functions to coordinate these two propositions. The background, given in the action is clearly considered by the student C to create coherence in the text applying the syntactical constraints. There exist a consequence between the two propositions and as a result the text structuring relation is demonstrated by the use of the connector.

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CONCLUSIONS

The discourse analysis is one of the linguistic tools that help teachers to have a better understanding about the relation in the actions with the reactions in the real language problems. For this brief analysis, the discourse analysis was considered from the perspective of the narrative text. Three exams of B1 English level students were taken into account to be analyzed from the perspective of the discourse markers as connectors.

To sum up, it is important to consider the elements mentioned before as language learners and teachers. This analysis aims to demonstrate the elements considered at the moment of writing a text, for this project it was a written exam, to apply all the elements related to the language evidently coordinated and related to each other to accomplish the linguistic elements to generate an understandable text to develop the communicative competence.

On one hand, the elements analyzed in this project help teachers to be aware of the discourse markers that should be taught and instruct to students during school periods to help them to improve certain abilities in the language. On the other hand, this analysis helps learners to be conscious about the elements required in a good narrative text and as learners to focus on one of the most important competences of the language that is the communicative one.

APPENDIXESAppendix 1: Escala de apreciación para evaluar resultados de aprendizaje



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Appendix 2: Student A



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Appendix 3: Student B



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Appendix 4: Student C



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REFERENCES

Adam, J. M. (1992). Les textes: types et prototypes. Récit, description, argumentation, explication et dialogue. Paris, Nathan.Calsamiglia, H. y Tusón, A. (2015). Las cosas del decir: Manual de análisis del discurso. Tusón, A.: Grupo Planeta.Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. UK:

Cambridge University Press.Hedge, T. (2005). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Pietrandrea, P.; Cornillie, B. & Degand, L. (2013). Discourse Markers and Modal Particles: Categorization and Description. Amsterdam:

John Benjamins Publishing Company.Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse Markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sözer, E.; Petöfi, J. S. & Conte, M. (1989). Text and Discourse Connectedness: Proceedings of the Conference on Connexity and

Coherence, Urbino, July 16-21, 1984. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Urgelles-Coll, M. (2010). The Syntax and Semantics of Discourse Markers. London: Continuum.Widdowson, H. G. (2007). Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Reinforcing the speaking skill through the development of the socioemotional abilities from construye-t program un High School Students based on the

Nayeli Castillo Sánchez

Learning a foreign language implies the challenge to know grammar, vocabulary and specific features the language has. It has been observed that learning a foreign is of high importance from kindergarten to the high school level as each level has specific characteristics and needs, and the systems are not the same. However, the goal is the same, make students communicate in a foreign language; in the Mexican context, the most common foreign language is English.

One of the great difficulties educators face today to achieve the learning of their students is the low motivation and apathy that students present in classes, as well as the difficulty to promote

disciplines and values in the classroom. The lack of motivation and implementation of discipline at home and in school makes teachers use ineffective methods such as authority under pressure, embarrassment, punishment, signaling, threat and bribery which causes a hostile and boring atmosphere carrying many students to school failure. Leaving a positive mark on students that they will remember significantly promote students´ participation. In this process of teaching, creating atmospheres of confidence could help to improve students learning.

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

The aim of this design for a further research is to make a contribution to the Construye-T program in high school, showing how it is useful to reinforce the speaking skill in English based on its activities. Moreover, to know the roll that the sociolinguistic competence sets in the students´ learning. Because nowadays, this program has generated some problematic situations such as all teachers from the different public high| schools do not want to spend 10 minutes or more from their classes to do an activity of Construye-t, and some students do not want more activities from this program. However, this research proposes an interesting way to implement the Construye-t activities in English to reinforce the speaking skill. It is pertinent to mention that results are not presented, since this is just a first approach to a possible proposal to study the next matters.

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sociolinguistic competence



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RESEARCH QUESTION

To give the structure to this possible research it was necessary to start from asking which problem presents the school CBTIS 154 due to the new changes in the educational reform so it was observable the lack of participation from students and teachers about Construye-T program. This research set the following questions for testing:

• How can Construye-T program help to elicit the speaking skill in English class? • How is Sociolinguistic Competence related to Construye-T program?These questions will present a solution to improve student´s speaking skill, getting the confidence to do it.

HYPOTHESIS

This research presents the posible hypothesis of creating a “Construye-T” environment where students can get the confidence to improve speaking skill in English based on the sociolinguistic competence. Also, to give a better way to achieve one of the teacher requirements that is to do activities from Construye-t program and present evidences at the end of semester. And of course to get more practice in speaking skill from the students.

SECRETARÍA DE EDUCACIÓN PÚBLICA

Secretaría de Educación Pública (sep) is the national ministry of education in Mexico. It is responsible of the education in all the levels in Mexico, analyzing and proposing contents, study programs of the subjects that are studied in each level and calendars, where specific dates are stablished with the activity to do. This system is compound by three sections: basic (from kindergarten to 9th grade), mid higher (from 10th to 12th grades) and higher (universities).

Currently, public schools in Mexico must implement educational, cultural and social programs that contribute to the education; these are provided by sep. To mention some: English program that says English should be required in all schools, reinforcement of the quality of education that show the steps to get excellent education in students.

SECRETARÍA DE EDUACIÓN MEDIA SUPERIOR

Secretaría de Educación Media Superior (sems) refers to the level of high school. There are public and private institutions. However, it is integrated by five sectors the public ones:

• Dirección General de Educación Tecnológica Agropecuaria (dgeta)• Dirección General de Educación Tecnológica Industrial (dgeti)• Dirección General de Centros de Formación para el Trabajo (dgCft)• Dirección General de Educación en Ciencia y Tecnología del Mar (dgeCytm)• Dirección General de Bachillerato (dgb)

So, students choose the best option to study and get the orientation to the next educational level. Each dependency offers a range of technical professions to students, so that if they continue studying at college or not they have something to defend in the laboural area.

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DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DE EDUCACIÓN TECNOLÓGICA INDUSTRIAL

The Dirección General de Educación Tecnológica Industrial (dgeti) is a dependency from the Subsecretaría de Educación Media Superior (sems) that comes from Secretaría de Educación Pública (sep). dgeti offers an educational service in a technologic level and controls schools as Cetis and Cbtis where develop, reinforce, preserve a cultural technology and an industrial infrastructure.

CENTRO DE BACHILLERATO TECNOLÓGICO INDUSTRIAL Y DE SERVICIOS NO. 154 (Cbtis)

It is located in Calpulalpan, Tlaxcala; Mexico. It is 61 km far from Tlaxcala city. Cbtis #154 (Centro de Bachillerato Tecnológico Industrial y de Servicios, número 154) is near Calpulalpan downtown and it is the high school that have more students. Cbtis offers specific specialties to students as: Construction, Food Preparation, Accounting, Programming, Human Resources Management and Child Care.

CONSTRUYE-T

CONSTRUYE-T is a program that was stablished by sep and the Program of United Nations to the Development in High Schools. Its objective is to improve the scholar environments and promote the learning of the socioemotional abilities of the students to give them the tools (academic and personal) to have welfare in the present and future.

According to the Subsecretaría de Educación Media Superior (sems), the socioemotional learning refers to the capacity students have to face different risks affording to their age. This program has helped many students to continue their scholar education. Also, it has worked as warm up in all the subjects students have because it brings to teachers diverse activities through cards that explain the objective and steps to follow, and then, get a better conscience and behavior in the students.

SOCIOEMOTIONAL ABILITITES

This program develops socioemotional abilities (Habilidades Socioemocionlaes [hse]) on the students, so they can create a better scholar environment that can increase their confidence in their learning development. Also these socioemotional abilities are tools that allow people understand and regulate their emotions, feel and show empathy to others, stablish and develop positive relations, take responsible decisions and define and reach personal goals. There are many researches that highlight the concern about some limitations students have in a foreign language learning, one of these is how socioemotional abilities can improve their scholar life. But how? CONSTRUYE-T brings helpful tools to get good results. The benefits of the socioemotional abilities are: to get a better academic development, generate a positive scholar environment, get successful paths and prevent risk situations such as: pregnancy, drug addiction, violence, scholar neglect, and others. All these socioemotional abilities have three transversal abilities: attention, clarity and emotional language.

DIMENSIONS

Construye-T develops socioemotional abilities based on the results of research in the fields of psychology, education, economy and neuroscience. The program offers a platform online



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where teachers can download and do the activities to do in the classroom. It has practical strategies: Construye-T moment where teachers have to spend time (10 minutes) of their class to create a Construye-T moment using the activities the program perform, these are divided into three dimensions: “Conoce-T”, “Elige-T” and “Relaciona-T” and Construye-T Style that implies communication using the socioemotional abilities. The main idea of this program is that students can be “fine” in their lives, balancing situations that happen around them and being concentrated at school.

Conoce-T, Relaciona-T and Elige-T (knowing yourself, having relationship and choosing yourself) and these provides general abilities: Conoce-T: consciousness, self- regulation, self-determination; Relaciona-T: social conscious and relationship to others; and Elige-T: make decisions in a responsible way. Besides this, Construye-T allows to eradicate the scholar abandon due to familiar problems and how they get along with putting away the negative aspects that distract them.

In this proposal research, the speaking skill in English has as a goal to be reinforced and to achieve the requirement of spending ten minutes of the class to create a Construye-T moment based on the sociolinguistic competence.

ACTIVITIES The activities will be chosen by the teachers because they will do those activities in their classes. But, as it was previouslym mentioned, each dimension has two socioemotional abilities so according to the grade of the students will be taught the socioemotional ability. For example: in the dimension of Conoce-T, the socioemotional abilities are: consciousness and self- regulation, so the first ability is for 1st semester, and self-determination is for 2nd semester; and so on, and so forth. The next dimension is Relaciona-T: social conscious for 3rd semester and relationship to others for 4th semesters; and Elige-T: make decisions for 5th semester in a responsible way and perseverance for 6th. The activities will be reported to the teacher who is the head of the program in the school. Also, each activity from Construye-T has to be in the lesson plan. The activities are from the mentioned dimensions. Moreover, the activities used in this research have to be translated into English.

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SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

To comprehend more how linguistics is related in this research, it is necessary to know that this research is based on functional linguistics where the language is a social condition, in other words, language meaning depends on the communicative situations that are from a social aspect. While the formal linguistics emphasizes the grammar, that is to follow certain structures to communicate. For functionalists, the defining feature of language is meaning. As a curious fact, the 'father' of functionalism, British-born Michael Halliday, was a student of John Firth. Also, it is crucial to know that Language faces problems when it is used. However, Applied Linguistics is the field that tries to explain the reasons of those problems based on social and political values. Some examples of those problems are from a reading comprehension to the accent problems or a conversation between a doctor and a patient where the codes of communication are different, but all of them depends on the context and emerge from the origins of each speaker. It is essential to be clear that the linguistic view is the laboratory view while the applied view is the real world view.

One of the contributions of the functional linguists is sociolinguistics, that is, the study of linguistic behavior as determined by sociocultural factors. According to Hudson (1996) sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. Its main focus is “Society on Language”. Another definition is that it



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is a field of study that involves the interaction of both language and society, sociolinguistics has contributed to help foreign language teaching achieve a better understanding of the nature of language, as well as the nature of society.

The idea of competence and performance arose as Chomsky’s generative grammar theory appeared. Chomsky defined competence as the grammar one knows without being necessarily aware of it (linguistic knowledge); whereas performance was defined as the way people use that linguistic knowledge when communicating (Coupland, et al., 1997).

In terms of sociolinguistics, competence and performance could be defined as follows: Competence is the knowledge of a language grammar as well as the factors behind it (connotation, levels of formality, style, register, among others). Performance is the actual use of the sociolinguistic knowledge one possesses when interacting in society (Hudson, 1988). However, the importance of this research is the sociolinguistic competence. And how this competence is related to the program CONSTRUYE-T that highlight the socioemotional abilities.

Communicative Competence includes the social and cultural knowledge to understand and use linguistic forms in context. To add more elements to the Communicative Competence, Canale and Swain (1980) proposed four dimensions:

1. Grammatical or linguistic competence. It is an essential part of being communicatively competent. This type of competence includes the linguistic forms which are traditionally subsumed under the category of 'grammar', including rules of sentence structure, word formation and pronunciation. 2. Sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence. This competence refers to the ability to use language to achieve communicative goals, drawing on the norms and conventions of the culture in question. This kind of competence depends on a knowledge of culture and the way we use language to participate in social context.3. Discourse competence. It regulates the way in which language, whether spoken or written, is interconnected. Discourse competence in writing is understood in terms of coherence.

Systemic Functional Linguistics has developed very sophisticated analyses of how texts, both spoken and written, cohere to convey particular meaning.

4. Strategic competence. It refers to the ability to keep communication going, an important skill for language learners. A knowledge of strategic competence will help a speaker to negotiate language situations when there is a breakdown in communication.

In this research the competence number two is emphasized. This does not mean that the rest are not important.

SPEAKING SKILL

Learning a language involves to be able to understand, speak, write and read. However, many times learners face with some problems due to a lack of practice of the language. Language is a tool for communication. We communicate with others, to express our ideas, and to know others’ ideas as well. Communication takes place, where there is speech. Without speech we cannot communicate. Without speech, a language is reduced to a mere script.

Taking into account the socioemotional abilities through activities from Construye-T program and the sociolinguistic competence will help students to get confidence in the practice of the speaking skill.

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SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH

Moreover, there is another element that is important, this is culture. In the learning process of a language is essential to know more than the language. To get the idea of this process the sociocultural approach will help.

In this approach, the language is a tool of meditation, connecting the individual and the social environment. In other words, a relationship between the self and the external world, allowing and individual to translate their thoughts into social action. The sociocultural approach is based on the relationship between society and culture. According to this approach a person thinks and speaks when he/she links to his/ her sociocultural background. However, it is essential from the teacher gives students, most of the time, real examples of the use of the target language. This approach emphasizes the influence of the society that people living on our learning process.

The sociocultural view is sometimes also called the 'neo-Vygotskyan' view because L.S. Vigotsky (1896-1934) proposed ideas of this view with the help of James Lantolf. Vygotsky argued that learning is socially mediated, requiring interaction. He proposed principles for language development as scaffolding (providing assistance and direction for the learner to support their development), Zone of Proximal Development (Zpd) (the learner moves from a dependent to an independent state).

Another reason why this view has been well received is its emphasis on the value of collaborative learning. For this reason, the process of learning is seen as one of co-constructing knowledge. As such, learning is by definition a social process, especially in the early stages. One aspect of the learning process seen as crucial by Vygotsky is imitation, an active process. Other main elements of Vygotsky are: Self-regulation (an advanced stage which will come through sufficient scaffolding) and object regulation (learners use physical objects to help them to develop their knowledge). All these aspects contribute to the language development, also this development relies on internalization, which is the development of psychological functions. This process regulates the relationship between the individual and the social environment. The whole system is seen as dynamic because language is a process of developing social norms, while at the same time social norms are shaped by the use of language.

According to the sociocultural approach, cultural factors such as language, art, social norms and social structures can play a significant role in the development of the cognitive abilities. Also, the sociocultural approach looks at how a person's experiences, influences and culture help shape why they act the way they do. This maintains a relation to the activities from CONSTRUYE-T because some of them are about how is going to be the student around their social circles: friends and family for example.

As Firth and Wagner (1997) argue that meaning is not a brain-to brain activity, but rather 'a social and negotiable product of interaction, transcending individual intentions and behaviours'.

IDENTITY

Another aspect that involves this research is identity. Language users can display their identities, but they cannot affect them in any way. Language use and identity are conceptualized rather differently in a sociocultural perspective on human action. When language is used, individuals do social histories. These histories are defined by a membership in a range of social groups such as gender, social class, religion and race. While the social identities and roles are to a great extent shaped by the groups and communities to which we belong, as individual agents also play an important role.

From this perspective, individual identity is always in production, an outcome of agentive moves rather than a given. These social identities influence the individuals’ linguistic actions, they do not determine them. As Joseph (2004) said: “Thinking about language and identity ought to improve our understanding of who we are in our own eyes and in other people’s, and consequently it should deepen our comprehension of social interaction”. This means that each person has their own way to think and speak or write, so these elements provide identity.

Finally, this view recognizes that culture does not exist apart from language or apart from individuals, as language users. It sees culture, instead, as reflexive, made and remade in our language games, lived experiences, and ‘exist[ing] through routinized action that includes the material (and physical) conditions as well as the social actors’ experience in using their bodies while moving through a familiar space’ (Duranti, 1997, p. 45).



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To undertake this research, it is essential to clarify key concepts to get the main objective that is helping high school students to get confidence in productive skills (speaking) through Construye-T activities where the socioemotional abilities are basis.

Nowadays, education is not only a relationship between teaching and learning concepts, is more than that. New concepts have emerged. Students show different behaviors from the past generations; technology and a society with multiple changes have transformed their way of thinking. All these have caused changes in education where concepts are not the only important aspect, but motivation as well; how can teachers motivate students? Based on the management of emotions using Construye-T activities with a sociolinguistic competence.

These socioemotional abilities let create the emotions as a source of motivation. Motivation is crucial to get learning advances from the students. In this way, Construye-T is a good tool to inspire motivation.

Another aspect to highlight is the requests educational programs want to acquire. One of these is to achieve bilingual students who can communicate ideas in a foreign language, in this case, English. However, teachers face difficulties in the skills that are pretended to reach in the students. As it is known, learning a foreign language is necessary to get specific skills like: reading,

listening, speaking and writing; the first two are part of receptive skills and the last two are productive ones. During the learning process, the receptive skills have been easier to practice, while the productive skills, most of the time students avoid due to less confidence.

Nevertheless, this research presents a proposal to increase the speaking skill based on Construye-T activities in which emotions are a motivational resource to get confidence in the students´ learning process of a foreign language through a sociolinguistic competence.

After going over my interpretation matrix, the following issues were identified:

A number of studies have focused on motivation, the importance emotions have in the learning process and the development of the productive skills in a foreign language. Key concepts of this thesis. For example, Méndez López (2011) emphasizes that the link between emotions and motivation is therefore a decisive one in instructed foreign language learning. The diverse emotions that students may experience during learning activities can cause different affective reactions in students.

The powerful force our emotions play in language learning motivation is reflected in early motivational studies, in which

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positive feelings towards the target language community (integrative orientation) or the instrumentality of language (instrumental orientation) were seen as strong determinants of success (Gardner and Lambert, 1972).

Another research from Méndez López (2015) stablishes emotions can help students develop their language learning process. So, as teachers it is important to observe the influence emotions have in students because they can encourage them to learn or not.

One more finding was the one by Bambirra (2016) indicating students’ and their teacher’s motivation are deeply interrelated. Not only the theory of something that is going to be learned is the relevant issue in the process of teaching- learning, but the way teachers stimulates as well. Teachers have to look for strategies and dynamics according to their students.

Also, Parra (2010) in his research called Explicit Teaching of Socio-Affective Language Learning Strategies to Beginner EFL Students highlights affective factors are important considerations that both teachers and students need to reflect on to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of language learning. Instruction in affective factors and socio-affective strategies can promote and facilitate the process of English learning by stimulating students to have deeper thoughts about their learning state as well as the affective factors they had brought into the learning process, which can ultimately encourage them to plan more effective learning methods and directions for future efforts. This statement is closed to Construye-T program focus where the socioemotional abilities are tools that help students in their learning process.

Therefore, emotions are significant to be studied as motivation in the foreign language learning process. As a result of all mentioned, language learning is a process replete with negative and positive emotions.

On the other hand, improving the productive skills in the students who are learning a foreign language is also essential to describe. According to Mawlood Dizayi (2016) most of EFL students are not competent in speaking English. The lack of confidence has stopped the fluency students could have in the speaking skill, so he proposes something new in the English classes and it is

creating challenges as best motivational strategies to make students speak.

In addition, Bakić and Škifić (2016) establish the language acquisition process is connected with different situations and surroundings, such that in some situations, one language has dominance while in other situations, another language takes over. First language (L1) is not always chosen first and that may lead to sometimes second language (L2) is chosen first, there may even be a combination of usage of both languages. This encourages confidence in students to speak.

Based on a study of motivational factors in the ESL classroom, Baublitz (2010) added the significance of the teacher’s enthusiasm for the subject and for teaching considering that is key to helping stimulate motivation in the classroom. In other words, helping students to become motivated to achieve a higher level of English and pursue learning should be the paramount goal. To achieve the mentioned goal, teachers have to look for strategies that attract students’ attention and at the same time, motivate them to practice the different skills: reading, listening, writing and speaking. Although this paper is focused in the productive skill, speaking.

As well, Al-Shourafa (2012) suggests that a teacher who effectively uses models, simulation and activities instead of textbook explanation is likely to keep all students motivated because motivation is an important psychological construct that affects learning and performance.

To link this performance, Miño-Garcés (2009) presents Learning for Life (L for L) as a great way to motivate. This kind of motivation could be associated to the Construye-T program objective due to Learning for Life incorporates all areas of knowledge and human values in a unit. These collaborate to the three areas Construye-T program develops: Conoce-T, Relaciona-T and Elige-T (knowing yourself, having relationship and choosing yourself).

Other finding about the strategies, activities and methodologies teachers have to search to improve students´ productive skills is the research of Jorquera Torres (2017) where it is said that most of the time, teachers must employ other research techniques to explore the affective domain in language learning. It is not



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teaching without updating; it is seeking the best ways to reach the goal, being updated. Finally, Velandia (2007) conclude teacher can be a tutor who accompanies student’s learning. The tutoring was a pressure-free activity in which the student does not worry about grades. Tutoring also helps to take responsibility for learning process.

This proposal of study will attempt to find out the effect of CONSTRUYE-T activities to reinforce the speaking skill in English. The analysis of this study will be based on a mixed method that presents a use of qualitative and quantitative researches. The mixed method research is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both mentioned researches. (Creswell, 2009). The design of this mixed method will be a triangulation. According to Creswell (2009), triangulation collects qualitative and quantitative data and them compares the two databases to determine if there is convergence, differences, or some combination.

The possible participants of this research will students from 5th semester since they are studying the speciality of production of food in Cbtis #154, located in Calpulalpan, Tlaxcala. They are 47 students who 24 are women and 23 are men. Most of them have a good level of English due to they are in the last scholar year.

Two types of data collection will be employed: questionnaires that students background information is included; and interviews to gather qualitative data.

REFERENCES

Al-Shourafa, A. (2012). The effect of motivation on Jordanian 10th grade students' writing skill in English. Jordan: Mordan University Press.

Bahous, R. (2011). Motivating Students in the EFL Classroom: A Case Study of Perspectives. Lebanon: Department of Education, Lebanese American University.

Bakić, A. & Škifić S. (2016). The Relationship between Bilingualism and Identity in Expressing Emotions and Thoughts. Croacia: University of Zadar.

Bambirra, R. (2016). Motivational dynamics in English classes at a Brazilian public school. CEFET-MG. Minas Gerais: Federal Center of Technological Education of Minas Gerais Belo Horizonte.

Baublitz, K. (2010). Motivational Factors in the ESL Classroom. Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, English Department 89 Wangsan-ri, Mohyeon-myeon, Cheoin-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do.

Creswell, J. (2009). Research Design. Los Angeles: SAGE.Davies, A, (2007). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics.

Great Britain: Edinburgh University Press.Frandiño Parra, Y. J. (2010). Explicit Teaching of Socio-

Affective Language Learning Strategies to Beginner EFL Students. Bogota: Centro Colombo Americano.

Jorquera Torres, O. C. (2017). High School Students’ Affective Reaction to English Speaking Activities. Concepción: Universidad de Concepción.

Mawlood Dizayi, M. A. (2016). Motivating English Foreign Language Students to Speak in English Classrooms. Istanbul: Department of English Language and Literature, Istanbul Aydin University

Méndez López, M. G. (2015). Emotional experiences of Mexican language learners: A qualitative study of their effects on motivation. Chetumal: Universidad de Quintana Roo.

Miño-Garcés, F. (2009). Learning for life, a structured and motivational process of knowledge construction in the acquisition/learning of English as a foreign language in native Spanish speakers. Quito: Center for Latin American Studies.

Whong, M. (2011). Language Teaching. Linguistic Theory in Practice. Great Britain: Edinburgh University Press.



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Development of communicative environments within an efl class through applied linguistics fieldsYanahui Méndez Sánchez

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INTRODUCTION

There are different factors that interfere in the language learning process such as the different instruction styles of the language teachers, the no motivation from students, among others. But, it is the lack of approximation to the language; one of the most mentioned. Ordoñez (2011) states that “approximations” to the conventions of language use, and knowledge construction are encouraged because supportive responses will be provided by more knowledgeable learners. What is more, the fact that people do not need to use English to be part of the society causes an obstacle to learn it. Thus, different methods and techniques are taken up by universities and language institutions to achieve a process in which real learning is gained.

One of the most popular techniques in this process is immersion; this process is described as that opportunity for learners to be involved in a context where English is a priority, and it is employed

as much as possible by students and teachers. However, not all learners have the possibility to be integrated to this kind of learning environments given that only bilingual schools may provide these conditions in a Spanish language country. Otherwise, traveling abroad is probably the best form that a student has, in order to learn the language, but once again that represents a series of conditions that learners cannot always control.

In this work, there will be exposed some of the approaches that might be applied within the environment of the EFL class and its members, in order to try to deal with this kind of issues that are presented in classes.

JUSTIFICATION

The language is an essential element within the interaction of the human beings given that it generates communication between them. Thus, efL teachers have the task to do their best in the classroom in order to create environments where learners could interact in such a way that they are willing to learn within and outside.

Hence, the interaction between efL learners will depend on the environments where it is done, but at the same time on the integration of the needs of the learners, and participation of the teachers in the creation of language environments where the students may have the correct motivation to be integrated



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in specific contexts with a meaningful and relevant practice engagement.

The diverse sociocultural approaches have, per se, the integration of all the elements mentioned previously; hence, they must be the basis of the implementation of different methods and approaches which embed all those components presented in the teaching and learning processing with the purpose of obtaining the acquisition of language as a result. On the other hand, another applied linguistics field that may complement sociocultural approaches are those discourse-based ones, because as well as the first one mentioned they are founded on linguistic, sociocultural and pragmatical functions of language.

The reasons presented above lead to the integration of approaches that allow the creation of communicative environments within the classroom in order to generate communication and interaction, that is the reason why this work is based on applied linguistics fields such as sociocultural approaches which have the purpose of involve the cluster of all those elements which are the core of the dynamic of learning and teaching processing. Furthermore, teaching as an essential element of language must be studied by applied linguistics due to it forms part of the diverse issues that concern it, as it embeds language application in real situations.

FUNCTIONALISM

Language teaching and learning process have been seen from different perspectives according to what they are focused

on, which is the reason why there are two main paradigms in linguistics. On one hand, there is the Formalism whose representative is Noam Chomsky. Formalists are inclined to rules and structures that form the language. Cabré and Lorente (1993) define the formal approach as the cluster of theoretical methods which have the objective to describe the languages and explain the language acquisition process form formalisms inspired by mathematical logic.

Whong (2011) mentions according to Chomsky’s Generative theory, that the language is constrained by generative principles, which are an innate property of humans. These principles permit to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences. For the generativists, the studying of language is focused on the structures more than on meaning because it is given by those structures, even if the native speakers are aware or not of that “rules” or transformations.

The generative theory has had different changes from the first approach “The Standard Theory” to the recent version “Minimalist Theory”. The changes have been based on different elements of the language such as structures, principles and parameters going beyond particular aims to more general ones that can be fit for all the languages.

Furthermore, the predisposition of humans to create natural language through a logical path can lead to a linguistic competence; the core of any native language. This competence is based on a knowledge that is modular. Thus, this modular knowledge is related with the way that the cognitive processes are represented and understood to operate.

Besides the aims exposed above, Whong (2011) indicates that Chomsky talks about Language Acquisition as the process of determining parameter settings based on language input. The rules that form this input are developed during the exposition that a child has torwards language. It is worth to mention that generativists believe that children have an in-built mechanism for language acquisition.

Furthermore, the Second Language Acquisition has not been a particular interest in Chomsky’s theory, especially in the classroom. One of the reasons is that Generative linguistics

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considers that the natural language is not taught and based on abstract principals. Nevertheless, there is a division between the researchers who investigate about generative sLa; some of them consider that language acquisition is not a product of teaching. In contrast, other linguists establish a relation between sLa and pedagogy.

The reason why the relationship between language acquisition and teaching is not clear for the Formalism perspective is due to formalists establish that the process on the Universal Grammar claimed by Chomsky, provides a predisposition to language learning in the learners.

On the contrary, there is the other linguistics school: Functionalism. It focuses on communicative properties, and the way that ideas are organized within the language, emphasizing the inductive aspects of the language (rules-of-thumb, heuristics); linguistic elements are studied in terms of how they contribute to the functions of language (communication being the major one). One of the most significant differences between Formalism and Functionalism is that Functionalism relates the structure of the language with the needs, purposes, means and the circumstances of the human communication.

Functionalism is the more appropriate paradigm that may support the interaction that is developed in an efL class due to it has the need to discover the language from the study of real use of its speakers in specific communicative situations. (Cabré and Lorente 1993, p. 10). Functionalism is developed in the social sphere due to it studies the real use and the variation of the language, as Functionalists state that the structures which vehicle the meanings of language are conditioned by the different communicative situations presented in that process.

FUNCTIONALISM: ITS CORE, THE MEANING

Even though, Formalism takes slightly into account the exposition to language in the learning process, the Functionalism takes interaction as the key element in language acquisition due to it is in the social context where the learners can exchange meanings given that language is seen as a discourse that is developed in interpersonal contexts.

In the same way, Functionalism represents the language as a creative process, which it is determined by the context and the exchange presented in the interaction between the speakers. It is that the reason that the core of the functionalism is the meaning given that its purpose is to facilitate interaction and communication. However, Functionalism states that structure as well is an essential part of the language. In fact, functionalists take the language as a system. Thus, some of their approaches are based on it.

Hallyday (1993) states that “a human infant engages in symbolic acts, which I have referred to as acts of meaning; children are predisposed, from birth, (a) to address others, and be Towards a Language-Based Theory of Learning addressed by them (i.e., to interact communicatively); and (b) to construe their experience (i.e., to interpret experience by organizing it into meanings). Signs are created at the intersection of these two modes of activity. Signs evolve (a) in mediating-or, better, in enacting-interaction with others, and (b) in construing experience into

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meaning; specifically, in exploring the contradiction between inner and outer experience (between what is perceived as going on “out there” and what is perceived as going on “in here,” within the child’s own consciousness)”.Likewise, Functionalism is focused on social norms and rules more than structural rules. And construction grammar is a cluster of patterns that are related with particular meanings. According to functionalists, these constructions become conventionalized by speech communities, and that is the reason why are a product of language use and not the product of grammar rules. Thus, language use is more formulaic; due the corpus linguistics has a preference for collocations and colligations. It is in this way how the importance of interaction in relevant contexts is essential in the teaching and learning language processing, as it is in the real environment where the learners can develop this meaning process, especially for those efL learners whose main context of using the foreign language is the classroom.

OTHER REGULATION

The cognitive process that is developed in the individual during the language is determined by the metacognition which is regulated by others. Esteve and Arumi (2012) claim that the sociocultural theory born from Vigotsky´s theories has its core in mediation through the interaction with others that promote upper cognitive processes that favor learning. If the language acquisition is determined by social exchanges; the other-regulation is part of the development of language. It is the process in which the learner obtains support in their development known as scaffolding that provides the accurate conditions to learn given that it provides a co-constructing knowledge between the speakers of the language communities, which in this case represents the classroom. In this form, learning processing is a gradual procedure where learners start from an initial stage forwards another more complex through the interaction with their counterparts, but at the same time with experts both others, learners and teachers. From this perspective the importance of interaction it is not only in its procedure from emission to reception of messages, but in the learning process.

According to Esteve and Arumi (2012) sociocultural approaches add two aspects to the cognitive perspective of learning: a) auto regulation has its origin in the social field through sociocultural activities, and later being part in the individual field; b) auto regulation is possible thanks to instruments and systems of signs such as language and discourse.

Nevertheless, auto regulation is not a spontaneous process, but a result of the integration of external elements that promote the mediation between internal and external discourse.

It is important to mention that other important aim in language learning is imitation that could start with an inner process that means a private speech with self-regulation; developing the process to internalization.



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THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Zpd)

The first stage before reaching the language auto-regulation is the autoregulation, and that transition is done thanks to the range of potential development known as the zone of proximal development (Zpd), through which learners move from dependent to independent states.

According to Esteve and Arumi; Vigotsky (1978) refers to Zpd as the cognitive state that can be transformed from the interaction with others. He also claims that in learning there are two development levels the first is what the learner knows and is able to do by himself and another one that is potential which represents what the learner can do through others’ help.

Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev & Miller (2003) disagree with the common concept of Zpd mention three aspects that represent an ‘ideal type’ that will be called the common interpretation of the zone of proximal development: a) assumption (i.e., applicable to learning all kinds of subject matter), b) assistance assumption (learning is dependent on interventions by a more competent other), and c) Potential assumption (property of learner, which enables best and easiest learning).

The first aspect focuses on the idea that a person is able to perform a certain number of tasks alone, while in collaboration, it is possible to perform a greater number of tasks. The range of tasks performed in collaboration is sometimes presented as the definition of zone of proximal development but this is surely mistaken. Even the classic definition refers to levels of development, not tasks. At best, the number (or kinds) of tasks must be taken as indicators to be interpreted in relation to a level of development.

The second aspect is more focused on the Zpd where the learner is a child as it emphasizes how an adult/teacher/more competent person should interact with a child. Sometimes this aspect is presented as the defining characteristic. The third aspect focuses on properties of the learner, including notions of a learner’s potential and/or readiness to learn. This aspect often seems to inspire the idea or expectation that it will be possible to greatly accelerate or facilitate a learner's learning, if the zone can be identified properly. In this way, Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev & Miller (2003) state that the most important reason why Vigotsky established the Zone of Proximal Development is based on his interest is to develop a theoretical basis for appropriate pedagogical interventions, including principles for possible instructional grouping of



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children, and identification of specific interventions for individual children. Interventions must be based on diagnostic procedures grounded in an explanatory understanding of a child’s current state of development.

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SITUATED LEARNING THEORY

Other approach that enhances sociocultural aims, it is the Situated Learning Theory, learners are involved in communities of practice, in order to participate in an environment that is relevant for them.

Members of the Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center define situated learning as an instructional approach developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, who claim that students are more inclined to learn by actively participating in the learning experience.

Contrary to the traditional teaching and learning processing which is commonly based on textbooks and master classes; Situated Learning Theory promotes through the knowledge of authentic, informal, and often unintended contextual learning. In this way, the development of students’ learning is done through implicit activities that allow them to reach specific tasks due to their active collaboration within the social community. This last aspect allows that the leaning goes beyond the classroom, as the different activities may be applied even out of the classroom.Stein (1998; as cited in Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center) recommends the following guidelines to develop situated learning classroom activities:

• “Learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations. • Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations. • Learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge. • Learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex, social environments made up of actors, actions, and situations” (p. 3).

In brief, the core task of Situated Learning Theory is the implementation of real situations within the classroom where learners have the opportunity to acquire knowledge through activities that allow them to use problem-solving (critical thinking) skills while they are immersed in authentic leaning situations with the purpose to tap their prior knowledge and to challenge others in their community.

DISCOURSE-BASED APPROACHES

In addition, another field of applied linguistics that must be part of the implementation of authentic communicative environments within an efL classroom is the use of Discourse-Based approaches due to the fact that they are supported on the pedagogic field. Likewise, the role of applied linguistics in these areas is to find the generalizations in order to apply them to the contexts where they may be fit, and in this way provide both explanations and options of action. Furthermore, applied linguistics takes into consideration that the different issues related to language are not connected just with language per se, but at the same time they provide information about the speakers, so the more the elements which integrate communicative situations are known the better the employment of possible solutions will be.

Action and explanations may be the bridge of the lacks that exists between teaching and learning processing and the learners who do not have the accurate conditions within the learning environment to develop the foreign language acquisition.

One feature that makes Discourse-Based approaches suitable in the creation of authentic communicative environments in an efL class is that their emphasis is on the communicative field more than on grammar structures. But, at the same time Discourse-



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based approaches are the “building block” of learning and teaching process.

Hinkel (2007) proposes that Discourse-Based approaches should be central in the process of enabling learners to become competent and efficient users of the new language. Hence, it is how the discourse should be integrated in one of the pedagogical objective that is communicative competence, so according to the authors pedagogical discourse analysis must become central in all sub disciplines contributing to language pedagogy (methodology, language teacher training, materials development, syllabus design, second language acquisition research, classroom’s research and language assessment).

In the same field of pedagogy, there is an issue that worries both teachers and students of an efL class, this is about fluency and accuracy, as they reflect the range of the managing of the language by the learners. However, a good range of fluency and accuracy does not always provide the same level in each aspect given that, some learners may manage language structures but not communicative competence or vice versa. In this way, the best path is to promote the application of both clusters of elements together.

This aspect is related to another controversial element that must be taken into account in teaching and learning process correctness. On one hand, teachers try to focus on providing English grammar structure but at the same time to generate an accurate oral and writing production. But if Discourse-Based approaches are focus on the communicative development such production; it must be based on emphasizing if the structures are or not well done. Moreover, these approaches suggest the integration and interaction with the other members of the communicative society because in this way leaners can be exposed to a great deal of comprehensible input in the target language.

Another aspect that can be taken as part of the creation of communicative environments in the efL class is that Discourse-Based approaches is that the language building blocks, that means those elements that embed grammatical structures, cultural extension, and patterns of organization in discourse must be taught in both implicit and explicit forms. They must

be implicit because in this way the process occurs in a natural or artificial form; and at the same time it must be also explicit as this process provides awareness in the students during their learning.

Besides, one of the key components of Discourse-based approaches is that they take into account the integration of authentic and adapted materials in the development of the teaching activities. These elements are worthy in the integration of the lessons in order to apply real materials as possible as it can be; thus, they provide authentic situations where learners can be exposed, even if they are either natural or artificial.

SUGGESTIONS OF APPLICATION

After analyzing and describing some of the elements that integrate the immerse field of language teaching and learning processing, it is applied linguistics suggestion to employ them into action; this is the reason way the core of the interaction in an efL class must be apply. It means that the possible issue that may be presented in the efL class has to be solved, or at least treated. At the beginning, it was established that one of the most recurring complications that teachers of an efL class have to face is the fact that even though, the grammar structures are taught the lack of specific communicative environments may interfere in the language acquisition process, that is why teachers should apply activities and material that provide accurate conditions within the efL class in order to reach real elements as possible as it can be.

Consequently, the implementation of different linguistic approaches is necessary to draw on the mere features of language, as “creativity”. Hence, even though teachers are not given the tools to create this kind of environments, they may generate them in benefit of their students.

Furthermore, most of the grammar issues can be completed or related with sociocultural elements in a real context, so even if the activities are not totally based on real materials they can adopt those material according to the purpose of the session.



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For instance, if teachers have to teach Present Simple tense and clothes vocabulary, they have the opportunity to develop an environment which is the most real possible. They can ask to the students to take different kind of clothes to the class and print fake money with the purpose to create “an artificial market” where the students may employ both top-down and bottom-up processing.

So, it is only required that teachers know the needs of their students in order to solve the diverse complications that could be presented, and in this way do not just solve language issues, but promote language development in their students.

CONCLUSIONS

Teachers of English as a Foreign Language have the responsibility to deal with a cluster of different situations according to the needs, the conditions and the features of their students in the learning process. Furthermore, they must promote an accurate processing of the language acquisition where the grammar structures and sociocultural elements as part of any language have to be integrated.

Even though, such task is not easy to do; teachers have many methods and approaches that they can take as the basis of the different solutions that they may develop. In this work, those methods and approaches were exposed with the purpose to motivate them to use the knowledge and abilities that they acquire through the grammar structures that they possess, and the knowledge that they have obtained as applied linguists in their role of teaching the language.

In sum, efL teachers as users and vehicles of the language teaching and learning process should integrate sociocultural and Discourse-based approaches within the classroom with the purpose of create authentic communicative environments that allow to students to be involved in relevant contexts for them. But at the same time provide them the opportunity to be part of a specific communicative society that can promote language development within and out of the classroom, in order to challenge others no matter the conditions of the environments, due to they must have the ability to adapt them with the only propose to cover and solve the needs of their students.

REFERENCES

Cabré, T. & Lorente, M. (1993). Linguistics and Education. Enciclopedia Iberoamericana de Filosofía. Madrid, pp. 93-116.

Celce, M. & Olshtain, E. (2005). Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. In Hikel, Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (Eds). Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. England: Lawrence Earlbaun Associates, Publishers.

Esteve, R. & Ribas, M. (2009). La Evaluación por Competencias y el Portafolio del Estudiante: Dos Experiencias en Asignaturas de Lengua Alemana y de Interpretación Simultánea Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Fabra.

Eun, B. & Lim H-S. (2009) A Sociocultural View of Language Learning: The Importance of Meaning-Based Instruction. TESL Canada Journal.

Hinkel, E. (2007). Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Seattle University. [Chapter 40 ‘Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning’ by Marianne Celce-Murcia and Elite Olshtain’, pp. 729-742].

Kozulin, A.; Gindis, B.; Ageyev, V. & Miller, S. (2003). Vygotsky’s Educational Theory and Practice in Cultural Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ordoñez, C. L. (2011). Education for Bilingualism: Connecting Spanish and English from the Curriculum, into the Classroom, and Beyond. 13(2), pp. 147–161.

Whong, M. (2003) Language Teaching: Linguistic Theory in Practice. Edi. pp. 41- 67.



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Discourse analysis on written production

Yara Elideth Aguilar Sierra

INTRODUCTION

Written production is a production ability that requires morphological, syntactic, pragmatics and critical skills. As such complex task as it is, for Foreign Language (fL) learners, it involves more complex processes. As some linguistics suggest, like Bruce (2008) production tend to reflect more about language understanding rather than just receive language input as it involves skills and knowledge not only linguistically but socially. As a consequence, a writing task can be more significant for students and it can also give further information about their proficiency. Writing tasks can give information about the author in matters of discourse competence, style, beliefs, opinions and so on. Therefore, there is information about the writer that cannot be seen explicitly but with a discourse analysis which at the same time, it could be more insightful and used academic purposes.

Discourse analysis is a subfield of pragmatics which considers socio-cultural background. According to Tejada, Castellanos-Olmedo, and Robayo (2017) stated refers to it as an analysis in means of the structure and function. It entails the identification of unconscious patterns, hidden meanings, word choices, context. A sentence can involve great amounts of data, needless to say that a text is even deeper and complex. A text can be descriptive, narrative, expository or argumentative. A discourse analysis of an argumentative text of second language learners can be meaningful to analyze, since its textual patterns reflect language uses according to the student’s perspective and their attitude towards the language. Thus, the discourse analysis describes not only linguistic decisions and patterns but also information about the writer.

The following project offers a deeper insight on written production and discourse competence of B1 (CefrL) students in “Universidad del Valle de Puebla” which is a private university located in Puebla, Mexico by analyzing their discourse and noticing their linguistic patterns which will allow better understanding of the decision making when writing argumentative texts in an academic context; and if there are any other aspects to consider as result of the discourse analysis like a communicational impact.

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JUSTIFICATION

This project offers an analysis of discourse of argumentative texts which allow a more perceptive understanding of the processes that students experience when writing academic texts. As well, it might give awareness of what students consider to write, and even why do they write like that. This short discourse analysis can give new information about the cognitive process of B1 students in written tasks. Consequently, it can be inferred students’ data through written tasks like the level of proficiency of the students according to what is understood about their language expression and the production as a reflection on linguistic decision and patterns.

The project will analyze textual pattern and the writing genre where foreign language students reflect their discourse competence. Thus, by knowing the writing process of the students, teachers can choose better strategies for teaching where they can fulfill the communicative competence while being aware of the language’s structures.

TEXT

A text is known as the representation of the reality of the speakers through language. According to Widdowson (2007), a text is the application of the language with a communicative purpose. Therefore, a text is the result of the need of communication, which is in other words, transmitting a message but it is not its only aim; in order to communicate, it is needs to transmit meaning. For McKee (2003), a text is no other thing than a source of meaning, it can be found on advertisements, comics, plays, podcasts and so on, as long as it can be interpreted and show culture’ realities. Following this description, it can also be inferred that it is not necessary written, it can be also spoken as stated by Trappes-Lomax (2004). For matters of the project, Bókay’s definition (1989) states “the text is a process of construction and reconstruction that has linguistic objects/sentences as its background, but the textuality of which is constructed in a process of use” (p. 364). This is significant as a text can be reconstructed in the process of interpretation and its functionality relies in its use for communicative purposes.

WRITING PRODUCTION

Writing can be an evidence for student’s proficiency, it must not be confused that it is the only ability to be considered. Outcome tasks tend to be more significant since if students know grammar and function, then they are able to produce texts for communication. According to Swain & Lapkin (1998), the production tasks reflect deeper cognitive process of the students than comprehension tasks as they must be aware of the language in order to communicate. Therefore, written tasks as an output or production tasks can echo students’ understanding of the language in matters of structures and lexis. As well, Widdowson (2007) would affirm that “writing the text is unilaterally produced and remains as a permanent record. But it is still only a discourse trace, and what is meant by it has to be inferred by interpretation”. This statement is significant since the communication process it is not simultaneous, and its message meaning is interpreted later, which means that there is not direct interaction.

Another aspect to consider is that teachers tend to use written production as a part of Task-Based Learning, emphasizing it is not always. This is important to contemplate, as Tejada, Castellanos Olmedo, & Robayo (2017) would refer to target an activity based on specific results and functions. In other words, written tasks are set to cover specific topics, thus the students can apply them in a practical manner and with an actual language use. This is more significant for students, as they can notice its functionality. It is also important to remark that writing is developed not only to evaluate students’ proficiency and illustrate its functionality, it is a mean of communication. As stated by Bruce (2008), academic writing can be a tool for “development of discourse competence” (p. 10), considering that writing is a condition for scholar processes and standards in a global competence. Thus additionally, developing writing can be a mean for students to access better opportunities like having the abilities and competence to write in the foreign language and therefore job requirements can be achieved. Related to academic writing as well, teacher must be aware that this type of production involves knowledge about textual conventions. According to Chandrasoma (2010), there are “frameworks”, “normative” and “criteria” when producing text; therefore, teachers must consider them too, so when analyzing learners’ written tasks, they can advise to accomplish these requirements.



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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Analysis can be useful to understand the patters of writing. According to Tejada, Castellanos Olmedo & Robayo (2017), analyses “should include the implementation of text processing tools, such as discourse markers, text structure and lexico-grammar analysis” (p. 3). Thus, analysis focuses on the structure, vocabulary, and distinctive markers in the text. As for Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001), discourse analysis focuses on from the sociocultural aspects to the linguistics aspects of the discursive productions. This entails a whole domain, where other disciplines can be involved. For matters of the research, it would focus on major degree on textual characteristics.

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

The purpose or approach of textual analyses can vary; but as Bhatia (2002) stated most of them are more focused on the way a text is structured as a mean of communication. When referring to textual analysis it is common to find morpho-syntactical characteristics like discourse markers, relying on language as a system for communication. Other approaches like text linguistics intends to do analysis more objective, McKee (2003) states that those analyses focus on the “realist perspective” and “structuralist perspective” (p. 14). He even affirms that textual is considered “unscientific” (p. 73) for its lack objectiveness in the interpretation.

Whether how insightful text analysis can be, it has its limits. According to Widdowson (2007), those analysis are helpful

to analyze text as a mean for communication, including relationships among meaning, interpretation, discourse decision and corpus; however, they are not able to explain the implication outer of the text itself. Thus, only predictions can be made about the text’s reaches.

In the following points, aspects of discourse analysis will be discussed for better understanding on how an interpretation and study of the text can be done.

GENRES

Genres are common in discourses and communities. As Bhatia (2002) refers them as a mean of belongness of the community’s members where users use specific discourse characteristics. However, Widdowson (2007) attempts to explain genre as the name conventions in communicative processes. Consequently, genres can be considered as the categorization of situations given by a community; some example can include interviews, conferences, lectures and so on. As for Bruce (2008), genres are categories of text which are portrayed by the “similarities of content, the staging of the content, and the linguistic resources employed” (p. 6). This comprise genre as the categorization of text according to their likenesses to other text structures and functions.

Another related concept and subcategory suggested by Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001) is the didactic-essay genres, which illustrates essays and articles. Being those examples of argumentative texts a mean for study of this project.

LINGUISTIC-TEXTUAL CHARACTERISTICS

In order to analyze or evaluate the textual decision in matters of grammar, syntax, and lexicon, analysis can consider linguistic characteristics. According to Calsamiglia-Blancafort, & Tusón-Valls, (2001), these characteristics are referred as grammatical, phonological, morphosyntactic and lexical (conventions) levels. They are a reflection of the text structuration considering academic writing conventions.



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MODALITY

Modality can reflect the nature and purpose of the text, as it denotes its audience. As said by Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001), modality defines the text by its manner of writing and structuration making a text formal or in formal. This particular meaningful for academic written production, where the tasks are set to specific communicative purposes and genres.

CHANNELS

When considering channels in writing outcomes, it would depend on the presentation of the text. For Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001), it rests on whether the text was produced on a machine (mechanic) or through handwriting (manual). This is also for consideration, since the mean of production can reflect if the writer can modify its content and its design, which is matter of language awareness too.

CONTEXT

The denotation of context can entail further domains. For Scott & Tribble (2006), context can be analyzed from 10 scopes: among the words, in a sentence, in a paragraph, in the moment of the story, in the chapter, in the complete text, in the text

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category, in related texts, in culture, and where the text is being read. Therefore, context involves all the aspects where a text is, it can include from a textual level and to an external level. In more straightforward words, Widdowson (2007) would refer to context as the constructions of the reality where the text is developed. Through texts, context can be a transmission of the conditions where the text or writer intends to transmits through the language.

COHESION

Cohesion is commonly known for the students as the text characteristic and need to be interconnected among all the ideas and structures within the text. As for Widdowson (2007), cohesion is considered as linkage of previous ideas or context to the understanding of the following ideas. He even refers to “cohesive devices” (p. 46) as the means for contextual connections. It is an important aspect for texts, since without cohesion there is not an understandable follow up of the text’s ideas. In order to emphasize this aspect, the Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls’ definition (2001) states that cohesion is the set of linguistic elements to relate semantic units. Their definition involves aspects like punctuation and connection ideas through textual structures.



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COHERENCE

In matters of coherence, a text must be comprehensible so it can accomplish the communicative purpose, it must have sense. Widdowson (2007) also have a definition for it, coherence is the acceptance or familiarity where readers can “make sense” (p. 50) of the ideas expressed in a text neither find it a purpose. This mean that a text may cohesive but it might lack of sense for the reader. Coherence is particularly important in writing since if not well established, it can cause communication problems. Although, according to Charolles (1989), the issues caused for coherence errors might not be real issues in natural settings, as linguists may think. However, as academic writing is taught to students, there are concerns and reluctance to this view.

As for Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001), coherence is the way to achieve meaning among word structure and text sense, allowing steadiness and uniformity of the interpretation. Consequently, it is important to remark that coherence is the key for the sense of a writing production and readers’ attention and understanding. It is an ability hard to master which requires structuration of the logic.

DISCOURSE MARKERS

The definition or purpose of discourse markers may vary; however, it can be denied that they are commonly used in written production as a type of connectors. On the word of Urgelles-Coll (2010), they are items to ease coherence and which can lead the communication and even can have some phonological, syntactical and semantical characteristics. They are the words which allow the text flow. There are some examples of these connectors like though, well, therefore and so on.

TEXTUAL PATTERNS

For matters of this project, textual patterns will be considered as the types of text organization, where text are classified into narrative, descriptive, argumentative and explicative. And as for the textual pattern of the project’ analyses, argumentative text will be studied.

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ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS

When studying argumentative, it can be inferred that those types of text reflect deeper reflections and opinions of an established subjects. As stated by Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001), argumentative texts aims to convince the reader to a specific stance by giving compelling claims and evidences. This type of text can show students’ position in topic in an objective matter as they have to substantiate their arguments. The basic structure includes subject, position, arguments and conclusion (ibidem). Considering Hedge’ (2007), position about argument development methodologies in writing, an argumentative text must include topic, points and evidences. Therefore, argumentative texts structures share a subject/topic, substantiated arguments and conclusions.



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PARTICIPANTS

The participants for this project are four students of the “Universidad del Valle de Puebla” which is located in the city of Puebla, in Mexico. These students are taking the fourth term of the majors on Industrial Engineering and Accounting. They are working in a system known as Open system, where students only assist on Saturdays due to personal or working conditions. As well, they are aided by the institution’s online platform where they have personalized English exercises according to the classes they have on Saturdays. They have also scheduled nine written productions where they practice specific syllabus topics. The participants are taking the second English course out of three institutional courses, yet their English level is the fourth which can be regarded as a B1 in CefrL.

TASK DESCRIPTION

In the week tenth of their English course, learners were studying relative clauses in the inventions topic. Then, in its eighth written production they were requested the following:

Instrucciones: Elabora un párrafo sobre la importancia del internet, utilizando relative clauses. El producto será evaluado considerando los siguientes lineamientos generales:

- Es elaborado en WORD- Tiene una extensión mínima de 35 palabras y máxima de 60.- Es enviado a la plataforma

Therefore, students were requested to write a paragraph using relative clauses with a due date of a week later. It must include an argumentative text about the importance of internet since they were discussing inventions’ vocabulary and debates. The number of words were decided according to what was suitable for that English level (or B1) which was from 35 to 60 words. It was also requested to delivered on the Word format as there would be feedback (by the online English tutor) through that mean. It was demanded to be uploaded in the university’s platform, since only those students had access and there was scheduled a deadline for delivery.

In addition to the instructions, students were aware of the rubric which would evaluate their tasks. This rubric is attached on Appendix A; it evaluates students’ competences, considering six indicators: instruction compliance, number of words, ideas’ order, sentence’s structure, tense conjugation and main ideas, and the use of different tenses and vocabulary. They are graded in a base of 30 points, with the highest grade of 5 for each indicator.

TEXT SAMPLES AND STRUCTURE FOR ANALYSIS

There are four written productions which are attached on Appendix B, C, D and E. The appendixes B and C are the written production from the students on the major of Accounting, corresponding on Student 1 and Student 2; while appendixes D and E are from the learners on the major of Industrial Engineering which correspond to Student 3 and Student 4.



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In order to make a discourse of the four written productions, it was designed a chart where includes aspects considered on Widdowson (2007) and Calsamiglia-Blancafort & Tusón-Valls (2001) approaches in discourse analysis. This chart is embedded on Appendix F. This model of analysis considers eight indicators which are:

1. Genres: to explain the text categorization.2. Linguistic-textual characteristics: to illustrate all the grammatical, lexical and syntactical structures to be remarked. 3. Modality: to define the text as formal or informal.4. Channel: to indicate whether is manual or mechanical.5. Context: to represent the entailments of text background.6. Cohesion: to show if ideas connections are achieved in a smoother manner.7. Coherence: to illustrate whether can be interpreted with sense for the reader in this case the tutor.8. Discourse markers: to exemplify the use of connectors.

There are as well two sections: Quotation and Analysis. In the former, it could be illustration the section of the text where can be illustrated the indicator; and in the second, analysis from that indicator the interpretation of the results.

Below the analysis chart, there is the function evaluation of text Task evaluation as an argumentative text which focuses on if the written production accomplishes the characteristics of argumentative text. The last section of the analysis are the general remarks of the text analysis; it includes a general overview of text interpretation through the analysis.

Discourse analysis of the texts

Student 1 (S1)In the first case, analyzing the Appendix B.



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Task evaluation as an argumentative text:-The text contains a strong topic.-The author is in favor of using the Internet-The text includes arguments that support the use of the Internet like “to communicate or to make purchases or research an article which is of interest to us”.-It closes with a conclusion statement.

General remarks of the text analysis:-The text is susceptible to correction before its uploading to the platform.-It lacks of punctuation in some sections.-Its arguments rely on daily and common situations on the writer’s life.

Student 2In the second case, analyzing the Appendix C.



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Task evaluation as an argumentative text:

-The text contains a clear topic.-The author is in favor of using the Internet-The text includes arguments that accentuate the improvement of knowledge access through Internet.-It closes with a conclusion statement by a known fact.

General remarks of the text analysis:

-The text is susceptible to correction before its uploading to the platform.-It lacks of discourse markers to improve cohesion.-Its arguments focus on the academic and data search.-A syntactical mistake when using participle.

Student 3In the third case, analyzing the Appendix D.



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-The text contains a clear topic.-The author is in favor of using the Internet-The text includes arguments that illustrate the advantages of using the Internet.-It closes with a conclusion statement, where S3 uses the word revolution denotating the great impact it has had in the writer’s life.


-The text is susceptible to correction before its uploading to the platform.-It lacks of punctuation and discourse markers in some sections.-Its arguments reflect two of the main interest of S3, as it refers to the impact of technology on the study and work.

Student 4In the last case, analyzing the Appendix E.



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-The text contains a clear topic.-The author is in favor of using the Internet-The text includes arguments according to the writer’s perspective and examples.-It closes without a conclusion statement.


-The text is susceptible to correction before its uploading to the platform, yet S3 did not give a second review to avoid mistakes.-It lacks of punctuation in some sections, discourse markers, and ideas connection.-Its arguments rely on daily and common situations on the writer’s life without further support than personal experience.

CONCLUSIONS

The analyses of the four writing productions offer a better understanding on how students tend to structure their argumentative written tasks. Patterns have been identified which are enunciated below:

• Students tend to focus on content rather argumentative structures, as some forget to use a conclusion closing sentence.• Punctuation affect their coherence and at some extent the cohesion of arguments.• Discourse markers are almost not employed, if so, students only use basic connectors like “and” and “but”.• Students prioritize first content, structure and grammar and then, they consider cohesion, coherence and punctuation.

The main outcome of this project was awareness of textual discourses analysis on teaching. Teachers tend to focus only on morphosyntactic aspects and grade task productions based on that; yet if a discourse analysis is carried out, it can allow to the teacher not only to identify some mistakes but to find weaknesses of textual structuration. It can be an area for improvement where the teacher can guide the student for better language use in matters of functionality, structure and presentation.

Consequently, discourse analysis has been a tool to examine students’ patterns and writing competence in argumentative texts. In this project, it has been noticed that students are able to give solid arguments about topics they are familiar with as it is shown in the context section in the analysis. Students intends to use the language like in their mother tongue to represent their close reality. Discourse analysis can also give some insights about the writer’s patters which the teachers can use to adapt the lessons according the students’ needs and writing characteristics.



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APPENDIXES

APPENDIX A



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APPENDIX B

Reproduction of the written production which below is shown.

APPENDIX C

Reproduction of the written production which below is shown.

WORD FILE



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APPENDIX DReproduction of the written production which below is shown.

WORD FILE

WORD FILE



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APPENDIX EReproduction of the written production which below is shown.

WORD FILE



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APPENDIX FCHART FOR DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON WRITTEN PRODUCTION



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REFERENCES

Bhatia, V. (2002). Applied genre analysis: a multiperspective model. Ibérica, (4), pp. 3-19.Bókay, A. (1989). Understanding, Text, and Coherence. In Sözer, E., Petőfi, J. S., & Conte, M. (Eds). Text and Discourse Connectedness:

Proceedings of the Conference on Connexity and Coherence, Urbino, July 16-21, 1984. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co, pp. 363-376.

Bruce, I. (2008). Academic Writing and Genre: A Systematic Analysis. London: ContinuumCalsamiglia-Blancafort, H. & Tusón-Valls, A. (2001). Las cosas del decir: Manual de análisis del discurso. Barcelona: Editorial

Ariel S.A.Chandrasoma, R. (2010). Academic Writing and Interdisciplinarity. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Charolles, M. (1989). Text Coherence and Text Interpretation Processing. In Sözer, E., Petöfi, J. S. & Conte, M. (Eds). Text and

Discourse Connectedness: Proceedings of the Conference on Connexity and Coherence, Urbino, July 16-21, 1984. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co, pp.377-386.

Hedge, T. (2007). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Mckee, A. (2003). Textual Analysis: A beginner’s guide. California: Sague Publications, Ltd.Scott, M. & Tribble, C. (2006). Textual Patterns: Key Words and Corpus Analysis in Language Education. Amsterdam: John

Benjamins Publishing Co.Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together.

The Modern Language Journal 82, pp. 320-337.Tejada, H.; Castellanos Olmedo, M. & Robayo, F. (2017). Genre Analysis Applied to Two Textual Patterns for an English for Specific

Purposes Course ESP. Revista Folios, (46), pp. 145-162.Trappes-Lomax, H. (2004). Discourse analysis. In Davies, A., & Elder, C. (Eds). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Australia:

Blackwell Publishing Ltd, pp. 133-164.Urgelles-Coll, M. (2010). The Syntax and Semantics of Discourse Markers. London: Continuum.Widdowson, H. G. (2007). Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.



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