Foundations of Group Behavior - Always · Foundations of Group Behavior. How Groups Work Synergy is...

Foundations of Group Behavior

How Groups Work

Synergy is the goal(Things so combined that they are more effective together

than the sum of their separate parts)

Study Questions

• What is the nature of groups in organizations?

• The dynamics of group formation and various types of groups

• What are the stages of group development?

• What are the foundations of group performance?

• How do groups make decisions?

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

• The group is recognized as an important sociological and social psychological unit of analysis in the study of organizational behavior

• Studying groups is valuable when the dynamics are analyzed

• Group dynamics-are the interactions and forces among group members in social situations


• Work group and teams is soaring

• First used in corporate giants such as Toyota • Motorola, General Mills and General Electric

• Study and application of groups is undergoing considerable controversy and change


• In a commentary about the status of groups in the field of OB Alderfer noted:-

• Groups and Group dynamics are a little like the weather-something that nearly everyone talks about and only few do anything about it

• In the world of practice –we hear leaders speaking out to encourage team work-support empowering people-establish organizational cultures that promote total quality management

• Each initiatives depends on understanding groups and acting effectively with them


• Today’s social environment surrounding groups is changing

• Example-There is the assumption that Generation Xers and now called “Echo Generations”(offspring of the now aging “Baby Boomers”)

• Difficult to manage in groups-they have low needs for group affiliation –high needs for individual achievement-doing their own thing

• Solution may be found in the careful construction of rewards and performance measures –to obtain cooperation and collaboration

Meaning of a Group• Group

– a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals

– In a true group 1.Members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve

common goals2.Members interact with one another to pursue those goals over a

sustained period of time• Groups are important resources that are good for both

organizations and their members• Help accomplish important tasks• Help maintain a high-quality workforce by satisfying needs of

their members

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics• The term group can be defined in a number of different ways-

depends on the perspective that is taken

• A comprehensive definition would say that if a group exists in an organization its members

1. Are motivated to join2. Perceiving the group as a unified unit of interacting people3. Contribute in various amounts to the group processes(some

people contribute more time or energy to the group than do others)

4. Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics• No one definition of the term group • No universal agreement on what is meant by group dynamics• Kurt Lewin father of group dynamics popularized the term in

the 1030’s• One normative view is that the group dynamics describes how a

group should be organized and conducted• Democratic leadership• member participation• and overall cooperation are stressed

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics• Another view of group dynamics is that it consists of a set of

techniques- Here Role playing Brainstorming Focus groups Leaderless groups Group therapy Sensitivity training Team building Transactional analysis Johari Window are traditionally equated with group dynamics

-as are the more modern self managed and virtual teams

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics• A recent example of a new group technique is called “creative

abrasion”

• Search for a clash of ideas rather than “personal abrasion” or the clash of people

• Goal is to develop creativity


What is an effective Group• Scholar Harlod J.Leavitt well known advocate for the

power and usefulness of groups

• Describes effective groups as power groups

• They thrive in conditions of crises and competition and whose competition and whose creativity and innovativeness generates extraordinary returns

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• Effective group– one that achieves high levels of task performance,

member satisfaction, and team viability


• Effective groups achieve high levels of:– Task performance

• Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results

– Members satisfaction• Members believe that their participation and experiences

are positive and meet important personal needs

– Team viability• Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working

together on an ongoing basis

Synergy is the goal

Synergy and Group accomplishment• When groups are effective they help organizations accomplish

important tasks-particularly they offer the potential for synergy

• Synergy Is the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts– When synergy occurs groups accomplish more than the total

of their members individual capabilities– Group synergy is necessary for organizations to become

competitive and achieve long –term high performance in today’s dynamic times

The Effective Manager

• How groups can help organizations

Groups are good for people

Groups can improve creativity

Groups can make better decisions

Groups can increase commitments to action

Groups help control their members

Groups help offset large organization size


• Situations in which groups are superior to individuals– When there is no clear expert in a particular

problem or task– When problem solving can be handled by a

division of labor and the sharing of information– When creativity and innovation are needed


• Potential benefits for group members– People learn from each other and share job skills

and knowledge– The learning environment and the pool of

experience within a group can be used to solve difficult and unique problems

– Helpful to new comers – Groups are important sources of need satisfaction

for their members


- Group members support and help each other in acquiring and improving job competencies-may make up for the deficiencies in organizational training systems

Why People Join Groups• Security

• Status

• Self-esteem

• Affiliation

• Power

• Goal Achievement


• Groups can also have problem• Social loafing-Ringlemann effect

– The tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually.

– Reasons for social loafing• Individual contributions are less noticeable in the group

context• Some prefer to see others carry the workload


• Ways of preventing social loafing– Define roles and tasks to maximize individual

interests – Raise accountability by making individuals’

performance expectations clear and identifiable– Tie individual rewards to performance

contributions to the group


• Social facilitation is an important aspect of group work– The tendency for a person’s behavior to be

influenced by the presence of others


• Social facilitation theory – indicates that working in the presence of others

creates an emotional arousal or excitement that stimulates behavior and therefore affects performance

– World class athlete in front of an enthusiastic hometown crowd

– Social facilitation can be negative when task is not well learned –public speaking-trying to talk about an unfamiliar topic

Classifying Groups

Formal Group

A designated work group defined by the organization’s structure.(work unit headed by manager & direct reports)

Informal Group

A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; appears in response to the need for social contact.(are unofficial & serve special interest)

Classifying Groups Command Group(permanent)

A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager.

Task Group(temporary)

Those working together to complete a job or task.

Interest Group(informal)

Those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.

Friendship Group

Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics.

Formal groups

Formal groups can be permanent or temporary

• Permanent work groups or command groups in the vertical structure often appears in the organization chart as departments( market research dept)

-division (consumer product division) -or teams (product assembly teams)

• Vary in size• They are formed to perform specific function on an ongoing

basis-continue till some decision to change or reconfigure the organization

Formal groups

Temporary work groups are task groups specifically created to solve a problem or perform a defined task

-They disband once the assigned purpose or task is accomplished

-Committees-Organizations make use of cross functional teams and task

forces for special problem solving efforts• Task force to examine possibility of implementing flexible

work hours for non managerial position• Project team –specific task like (new email system-cross

functional)


• Types of formal groups– Cross-functional teams or task forces

• Engage in special problem-solving efforts drawing on input of the functional areas

– Project teams• Formed to complete a specific task with a well-defined

end point

– Virtual group• Members work together via computers


• Informal groups– Emerge without being officially designated by the

organization– Types of informal groups

• Friendship groups• Interest groups

Dynamics of Group formation

Dynamics of Group formation• Why do individuals form into groups?• Lets discuss social psychology theories of group

formation• Why people affiliate with one another• Basic theory of affiliation is “propinquity”• Affiliation is because of Spatial and geographical

proximity


• The drawback of propinquity theory is that it is not analytical and does not begin to explain some of the complexities of group formation and modern development of globalization and electronic –online networking and telecommuting

- virtual teams that are linked in cyberspace rather than physical proximity

- Give new meaning to spatial or geographic proximity


Theories of group formation• More comprehensive theory of group formation is the

Classic theory of George Homans based on• Activities-Interactions and Sentiments• The major element is interaction• Persons in a group interact with one another not just

in the physical propinquity sense or increasingly electronically

• But to accomplish many group goals through cooperation and problem solving


• Theodore Newcomb’s classic balance theory of group formation

• Similar attitudes and common relevant objectives and Goals

Individual X Individual y

ZCommon Attitudes and Values

ReligionPoliticsLifestyle

Marriage-Work-Authority


Another Theoretical approach to Group formation from Social psychological theory

• Exchange theory similar to its functioning as a work –motivation theory

• Based on reward –cost outcomes of interaction• Rewards from interactions gratify needs • Costs incur anxiety –frustration-embarrassment-

fatigue • Propinquity-interaction –common attitudes all have

roles in exchange theory


• Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s.

• The Forming Storming Norming Performing theory is an elegant and helpful explanation of team development and behaviour.

• Similarities can be seen with other models, such as with Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership® model, The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum model developed about the same time.

•


• Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability, relationships establish, and the leader changes leadership style.

• Beginning with a directing style, moving through coaching, then participating, finishing delegating and almost detached. At this point the team may produce a successor leader and the previous leader can move on to develop a new team.

Five stages of group development

The Four Leadership Styles

© 2003 The Ken Blanchard Companies. All rights reserved. Do not duplicate •

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What are the stages of group development?

• Forming stage– Initial entry of members to a group– Member challenges

• Getting to know each other• Discovering what is considered acceptable behavior• Determining the group’s real task• Defining group rules

Forming stage• High dependence on leader for guidance and direction. • Little agreement on team aims other than received from leader. • Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear. • Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions about the

team's purpose, objectives and external relationships. Processes are often ignored. Members test tolerance of system and leader. Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Telling' mode).


• Storming stage– A period of high emotionality and tension among

group members– Member challenges

• Hostility and infighting• Formation of coalitions and cliques• Clarification of members’ expectations

Storming• Decisions don't come easily within group. • Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish

themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members.

• Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles.

• The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be required to enable progress. Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Selling' mode).


• Norming stage– Sometimes called initial integration– The point at which the group really begins to

come together as a coordinated unit

Norming• Agreement and consensus is largely forms among team, who

respond well to facilitation by leader.• Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. • Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller decisions

may be delegated to individuals or small teams within group. • Commitment and unity is strong. The team may engage in fun

and social activities. • The team discusses and develops its processes and working

style. There is general respect for the leader and some of leadership is more shared by the team. Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).


• Performing stage– Marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and

well-functioning group– Structure is stable– Members are motivated by group goals

Performing• The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it is doing

what it is doing. • The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet with no

interference or participation from the leader. There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader.

• The team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the team.

• The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way. team members look after each other. The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The team does not need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal development. Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational Leadership® 'Delegating' mode).

Ten criteria for measuring the maturity of a group


• Adjourning stage– A well-integrated group is:

• Able to disband when its work is finished• Willing to work together in the future

– Particularly important for temporary groups


• Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the group, hopefully when the task is completed successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can move on to new things, feeling good about what's been achieved.

• From an organizational perspective, recognition of and sensitivity to people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly if members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of insecurity or threat from this change.

• Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high 'steadiness' attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments' or DISC model) and with strong routine and empathy style (as regards the Benziger thinking styles model, right and left basal brain dominance).

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Johari window

• Known by self Ask unknown by self

known To others

Unknown By others

OPEN FREE AREA(Arena)

ABLIND AREA

B

HIDDEN AREA(CLOSED)

CUNKNOWN AREA(DARK)

DSELFDISCOVE

RY

SHARED DISCOVERY OTHERS OBSERVATION

Feedback

Tell

Self disclosure


• Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum• The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum management style

tends to offer more freedom as the group matures.

• As the team matures and becomes more self-suffient and self-directing, so the manager's style should react accordingly, ideally becoming more detached, more delegating, encouraging and enabling the group to run itself, and for a successor (or if you are a good manager or a lucky one, for more than one successor) to emerge.

An Alternative Model: Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Sequence of actions:1. Setting group direction2. First phase of inertia3. Half-way point transition4. Major changes5. Second phase of inertia6. Accelerated activity

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

Temporary groups under time constrained deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activity---at the half-way point, they experience an increase in productivity.

The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

What are the foundations of group performance?

• To understand the foundations of group performance let us understand the open systems model

• Help us understand how groups like organizations pursue effectiveness by interacting with their environments to transform resource inputs into product output

Open System Model


• Tasks– Technical demands of a task includes:-– Routineness, difficulty, and information

requirements– Social demands of a task

• Relations, ego involvement, and controversies over ends and means


• Goals, rewards, and resources– Long-term performance relies on:

• Appropriate goals• Well-designed reward systems• Adequate resources


• Technology– Provides the means to get work accomplished– The right technology must be available for the task

at hand– Workflow technology can affect the way group

members interact- e.g to be a part of a group that crafts products to

specific customer request(cross functional )- To be a part of a group whose members staff one

section of a machine paced assembly line


• Membership characteristics– A group must have the right skills and

competencies available for task performance and problem solving

– In homogeneous groups, members are very similar to one another

– In heterogeneous groups, members vary in age, gender, race, and ethnicity


• Diversity-consensus dilemma– The tendency for increasing diversity among group

members to make it harder for group members to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving.


• The blend of personalities is also important in a group• FIRO-B theory

– Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups

– Based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection

– Developed by William Schutz– Group Members who have compatible needs are effective –

than incompatible needs


• Symptoms of incompatibilities in a group include withdrawn members ,open hostilities, struggle over control and domination of the group by a few members

• Schutz states the management implications of FIRO –B theory this way:

- “If at the outset we can choose a group of people who can work together harmoniously, we shall go far toward avoiding situations where a group’s efforts are wasted in interpersonal conflicts”

What are the foundations of group performance?Another source of diversity within group membership is Status

– A person’s relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group– Status is based on age, work seniority, education, – occupation, performance ,standing in other groups

• Status congruence– Involves consistency between a persons status within and

outside of a group(High power distance cultures-Malaysia –chair of a committee expected to be highest ranking member of the group)

– When status incongruence is present, problems will likely occur( a young member heads the group)


• Group size– Can make a difference in a group’s effectiveness – As group size increases, performance and member

satisfaction increase up to a point– Problem-solving groups should have 5 to 7

members


• Group and intergroup Dynamics• Effectiveness of a group depends on how well

members work together to utilize inputs –to produce desired outputs

• When we speak – people “working together” in groups-dealing with group dynamics(forces operating in groups that affect the way members relate to and work with one another)

• Open system model group dynamics are the processes through which inputs are transformed into outputs


What goes on within Groups• Workgroup behaviors• George Homans classic model of group involves two sets of

behaviors– Required behaviors — those that are formally defined and

expected by the organization-punctuality, respect for customers, assistance for co-workers

– Emergent behaviors — those that group members display in addition to what the organization asks of them(email message sent to a absent group member to keep her informed about what happened in the meeting)


Member relationships(Homans model of group dynamics)

• Activities – the things people do or the actions they take

• Interactions– interpersonal communications and contacts

• Sentiments– the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, or values held by

group members


• What goes on between groups• Intergroup dynamics

– The dynamics that take place between two or more groups

– Competition– Intergroup problems(sales and manufacturing

don’t get along)Negative


Ways to achieve positive intergroup dynamics• Refocusing members on a common enemy or goal• Negotiating directly• Training members to work more cooperatively• Refocusing rewards on contributions to the total

organization and how much groups help each other

Interaction pattern and communication network in groups

How do groups make decisions?

• Decision by lack of response– One idea after another is suggested without any

discussion-taking place• Decision by authority rule

– The chairperson, manager, or leader makes a decision for the group

• Decision by minority rule– Two or three people are able to dominate or

“railroad” the group into making a decision to which they agree


• Decision by majority rule– Formal voting may take place, or members may be

polled to find the majority viewpoint • Decision by consensus

– Discussion leads to one alternative being favored by most members and the other members agree to support it

• Decision by unanimity– All group members agree totally on the course of

action to be taken

How do groups make decisions?Assets and Liabilities of Group Decision making• Potential advantages of group decision making

• Information-More knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the problem

• Alternatives-A greater number of alternatives are examined

• Understanding and acceptance-The final decision is better understood and accepted by all group members

• Commitment-More commitment among all group members to make the final decision work

How do groups make decisions?• Potential disadvantages of group decision making

• Social pressure to conform-Individuals may feel compelled to conform to the apparent wishes of the group

• Minority domination-The group’s decision may be dominated by one individual or a small coalition

• Time delays-Group decisions usually take longer to make

How do groups make decisions?• An Important potential problem when groups make decisions

was identified by social psychologist Irving Janis and called Groupthink

– the tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical evaluative capabilities

– Members unwilling to criticize one another’s ideas and suggestions

– Avoid unpleasant disagreement – The possible result is poor decision

• Group leaders and members should be alert to the symptoms and take necessary action to prevent occurrence

Group Decision Making (cont’d)Groupthink

Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action.

Group shift

A change in decision risk between the group’s decision and the individual decision that member within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or greater risk.


• Ways to avoid groupthink– Assign the role of critical evaluator to each group

member– Have the leader avoid seeming partial to one

course of action– Create subgroups that each work on the same

problem– Have group members discuss issues with outsiders

and report back


• Ways to avoid groupthink– Invite outside experts to observe and react to

group processes– Assign someone to be a “devil’s advocate” at each

meeting– Write alternative scenarios for the intentions of

competing groups– Hold “second-chance” meetings after consensus is

apparently achieved

How do groups make decisions?How to improve Group Decisions• Brainstorming

– Group members actively generate as many ideas and alternatives as possible

– Four rules govern the brainstorming process• All criticism is ruled out(judge and evaluate idea)• “Freewheeling” is welcomed(emphasis on creativity and

imagination)Wilder and more radical the idea -the better• Quantity is wanted(number of ideas)• “Piggy-backing” is welcomed(Every one is encouraged to

suggest-others ideas turned to new ideas-two or more ideas joined into still another new idea)


• Nominal group technique– Puts people in small groups of six to seven members and

asks everyone to respond individually and in writing to a “nominal” question (What should be done to improve the effectiveness of this work team ?)

– List alternative ideas– Read aloud in Round Robin fashionClarify-no evaluation-structured voting procedure to prioritize

responsesThis procedure allows ideas to be evaluated without risking the

inhibitions-hostilities and distortion which may occur in a open meeting


• Delphi technique– Involves generating decision-making alternatives

through a series of survey questionnaires

• Computer-mediated decision making– Group decision making takes place across great

distances with the aid of group decision support systems

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