Foucault's Books

8/18/2019 Foucault's Books

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Foucault

Madness and Civilization

Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity

in the Age of Reason (French: Folie et Déraison: Histoire

de la folie à l'âge classique) is a 1964 abridged edition of a

1961 book by French philosopher Michel Foucault. An

nglish translation of the co!plete 1961 edition"entitled History of Madness, #as published in $une %&&6.'1

Foucaults *rst !a+or book" Madness and Civilization is

an e,a!ination of the e-ol-ing !eaning of !adness in

uropean culture" la#" politics" philosophy and !edicine

fro! the Middle Ages to the end of the eighteenth century"

and a critiue of historical !ethod and the idea of history.

/t !arks a turning in Foucaults thought a#ay

fro!pheno!enology to#ard structuralis!: though he uses

the language of pheno!enology to describe an e-ol-ing

e,perience of 0the other0 as !ad" he attributes this

e-olution to the inuence of speci*c po#erful social

structures.'%

2ackground

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness_and_Civilization#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_methodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness_and_Civilization#cite_note-Khalfa-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness_and_Civilization#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_methodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness_and_Civilization#cite_note-Khalfa-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language


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3he book de-eloped out of Foucaults earlier #riting on

psychology"' his o#n psychological di5culties" and his

e,periences #orking in a !ental hospital" and #as #ritten

!ainly bet#een 19 and 199 #hile #orking in cultural7

diplo!atic and educational posts in 8#eden (as director of

a French cultural centre attached to the ni-ersity of

ppsala)"'4

er!any" and ;oland.'

8u!!ary

Foucault traces the e-olution of the concept of

!adness through three phases: the


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and unreason (as though seen fro! abo-e) co!pared #ith

the !ore inti!ate !edie-al descriptions fro! #ithin

society.'%

Foucault contends that in the !id7se-enteenth

century" in the depths of the age of reason" the rational

response to the !ad" #ho until then had been consigned to

societys !argins" #as to separate the! co!pletely fro!society by con*ning the!" along #ith prostitutes" -agrants"

blasphe!ers and the like" in ne#ly created institutions all

o-er urope ? a process he calls 0the reat =on*ne!ent.0'%

3he condition of these outcasts #as seen as one of

!oral error. 3hey #ere -ie#ed as ha-ing freely chosen

prostitution" -agrancy" blasphe!y" unreason" etc. and the

regi!es of these ne# rational institutions #ere !eticulous

progra!s of punish!ent and re#ard ai!ed at causing

the! to re-erse those choices.'%

3he social forces Foucault sees dri-ing this

con*ne!ent include the need for an e,tra7+udicial

!echanis! for getting rid of undesirables" and the #ish to

regulate une!ploy!ent and #ages (the cheap labour of

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the #orkhouses applied do#n#ard pressure on the #ages

of free labour). >e argues that the conceptual distinction

bet#een the !ad and the rational #as in a sense a product

of this physical separation into con*ne!ent: con*ne!ent

!ade the !ad con-eniently a-ailable to !edical doctors

#ho began to -ie# !adness as a natural ob+ect #orthy of

study and then as an illness to be cured.'%'

For Foucault the !odern e,perience began at the end

of the eighteenth century #ith the creation of places

de-oted solely to the con*ne!ent of the !ad under the

super-ision of !edical doctors" and these ne# institutions

#ere the product of a blending of t#o !oti-es: the ne#

goal of curing the !ad a#ay fro! their fa!ily #ho could

not a@ord the necessary care at ho!e" and the old purpose

of conning undesirables for the protection of society.

3hese distinct purposes #ere lost sight of" and the

institution soon ca!e to be seen as the only place #here

therapeutic treat!ent can be ad!inistered. >e sees the

no!inally !ore enlightened and co!passionate treat!ent

of the !ad in these !odern !edical institutions as +ust as

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cruel and controlling as their treat!ent in the earlier"

rational institutions had been.'%

...!odern !an no longer co!!unicates #ith the

!ad!an '... 3here is no co!!on language: or rather" it no

longer e,ists the constitution of !adness as !ental

illness" at the end of the eighteenth century" bears #itness

to a rupture in a dialogue" gi-es the separation as alreadyenacted" and e,pels fro! the !e!ory all those i!perfect

#ords" of no *,ed synta," spoken falteringly" in #hich the

e,change bet#een !adness and reason #as carried out.

3he language of psychiatry" #hich is a !onologue by

reason aout !adness" could only ha-e co!e into

e,istence in such a silence.

! Foucault, #reface to t$e %&% edition'6


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beha-ior" Madness and Civilization is nonetheless so

riddled #ith serious errors of fact and interpretation as to

be of -ery li!ited -alue. Meruior notes that there is

abundant e-idence of #idespread cruelty to and

i!prison!ent of the insane during eras #hen Foucault

contends that the !ad #ere percei-ed as possessing

#isdo!" and that Foucault has thus selecti-ely citeddata that supports his assertions #hile ignoring contrary

data. Madness #as typically linked #ith sin by =hristian

uropeans" noted Meruior" and #as therefore regarded as

!uch less benign than Foucault tends to i!ply. Meruior

sees Madness and Civilization as 0a call for the liberation of

the Dionysian id0 si!ilar to Eor!an . 2ro#ns (ife )gainst

Deat$(199)" and an inspiration for illes DeleuGe and FBli,

uattaris )nti*+edius (19H%).'H

Author Ienneth Je#es #rites that Madness and

Civilization is an e,a!ple of the 0critiue of the institutions

of psychiatry and psychoanalysis0 that occurred as part of

the 0general uphea-al of -alues in the 196&s0. Je#es sees

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pro-ed Madness and Civilization far the !ost penetrating

#ork e-er #ritten on the history of !adness.0 More

speci*cally" Foucault has recently been heralded as a

prophet of 0the ne# cultural history.0 2ut criticis! has also

been #idespread and often bitter.

8ee also

•

=ogito and the >istory of Madness

• -$e )rc$aeology of 0no2ledge


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. $u!p up to:a b c utting" ary" 0Michel

Foucault0" -$e 3tanford 4ncycloedia of

#$iloso$y (8u!!er %&1 dition)" d#ard E. Oalta (ed.)

6. Jump up ̂ Foucault M.. History of Madness.

3ranslated by Ihalfa $.. EL:


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-$e >irt$ of t$e Clinic

The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of

Medical Perception (French: aissance de la clinique:

une arc$éologie du regard /édical) is a 196 book by the

French philosopher Michel Foucault. First published in

French in 196" the #ork #as published in nglish

translation by Alan 8heridan 8!ith in the nited 8tates in19H"'1 follo#ed in the I in 19H6 by 3a-istock ;ublications

as part of the series Porld of Man edited by


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1Cth century" #hich #ould be e,panded in his ne,t !a+or

#ork" -$e +rder of -$ings.

3he !edical gaGe

Foucault coined the ter! 0!edical gaGe0 to denote the

dehu!aniGing !edical separation of the patients body

fro! the patients person (identity) (see !ind7body

dualis!). >e uses the ter! in a genealogy describing thecreation of a *eld of kno#ledge of the body. 3he !aterial

and intellectual structures that !ade possible the analysis

of the body #ere !i,ed #ith po#er interests: in entering

the *eld of kno#ledge" the hu!an body also entered the

*eld of po#er" beco!ing a possible target for !anipulation.

riginally" the ter! 0!edical gaGe0 #as con*ned to post7

!odern andpost7structuralist acade!ic use" but it is no#

freuently used in graduate !edical and social #ork

courses.'4

Foucault also argued that the French and A!erican

re-olutions that spa#ned !odernity also created a 0!eta7

narrati-e0 of scienti*c discourse that held scientists"

speci*cally !edical doctors" as sages #ho #ould in ti!e

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abolish sickness and so sol-e all of hu!anitys proble!s.

For the nineteenth7century !oderns" !edical doctors

replaced the discredited !edie-al clergy physicians sa-e

bodies" not souls. 3his !yth #as part of the greater

discourse of the hu!anist and nlighten!ent schools of

thought that belie-ed the hu!an body to be the su! of a

person: biological reductionis! that beca!e a po#erfultool of the ne# sages: through thorough e,a!ination

(gaGing) of a body" a doctor deduces sy!pto!" illness" and

cause" therefore achie-ing unparalleled understanding of

the patient Q hence" the doctors /edical gaze #as

belie-ed to penetrate surface illusions" in near7!ystical

disco-ery of hidden truth.

3he episte!ic change

Foucaults understanding of the de-elop!ent of

the clinique is pri!arily opposed to those histories of

!edicine and the body that consider the late 1Cth century

to be the da#ning of a ne# 0supposed0 e!pirical syste!"

0based on the redisco-ery of the absolute -alues of the

-isible.0' /n Foucaults -ie#" the birth of !odern !edicine

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#as not a co!!onsensical !o-e!ent to#ards si!ply

seeing #hat #as already there (and therefore a science

#ithout a philosophy)" but rather a decisi-e shift in the

structure of kno#ledge. 3hat is to say" !odern !edicine is

not a !ere progression fro! the late 1Cth century #herein

an understanding of the true nature of the body and

disease is gradually acuired. Foucault reco!!ends a -ie#of the history of !edicine" and clinical !edicine in

particular" as an episte!ological rupture" rather than result

of a nu!ber of great indi-iduals disco-ering ne# #ays of

seeing and kno#ing the truth:

3he clinic 7 constantly praised for its e!piricis!" the

!odesty of its attention" and the care #ith #hich it silently

lets things surface to the obser-ing gaGe #ithout disturbing

the! #ith discourse 7 o#es its real i!portance to the fact

that it is a reorganiGation in depth" not only of !edical

discourse" but of the -ery possibility of a discourse about

disease.'6

3hus the e!piricis! of the 1Cth and 19th centuries is

not a nai-e or naked act of looking and noting do#n #hat is

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before the doctors eyes. 3he relationship bet#een sub+ect

and ob+ect is not +ust the one #ho kno#s and the one #ho

tells the contact bet#een the doctor and their indi-idual

patient does not pre7e,ist discourse as 0!indless

pheno!enologies0 #ould suggest.'H


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+rder of -$ings" the ta,ono!ic era ga-e #ay to the organic

historical era thus" the clinic #as not si!ply founded upon

the obser-ation of truth" and therefore !ore correct than

any preceding !edicinal practice" but rather an artefact of

a theory of kno#ledge inserted #ithin a speci*c discursi-e

period. 3he authority of the clinician relies on a relationship

to the then current organisation of kno#ledge" instead of arelationship to a non7discursi-e state of a@airs (reality).

2ecause of this" an early 1Cth7century doctor could obser-e

an organ #ith e,actly the sa!e disease as a 19th7century

doctor" #ith both doctors co!ing to -astly di@erent

conclusions about #hat caused the disease and ho# to

treat it. Despite this di@erence" both accounts #ould be

true" since they #ere both spoken in an episte!e that

considered such state!ents to be true.

3his !eans that anato!ists

like Morgagni and 2ichat #ere not students of the sa!e

discipline" e-en though their #ork #as only thirty years

apart.'9 3he episte!ic change !eant that the bodies"

diseases" tissues and pathologies that each cut open and

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e,plored #ere articulated in co!pletely di@erent and

discontinuousdiscourses fro! one another. 3hus anato!ys

clai! to be a pri-ileged e!pirical science that can obser-e

and deter!ine a true bodily sche!a cannot stand #hen its

beginnings #ere not in a disco-ery of a #ay of co!ing to

kno# #hat #as real" but rather e!erged a!ongst a ne#

philosophical #ay of granting !eaning and organisingcertain ob+ects. >ence the use of 0birth0 in the title the

clinic had no origins" but si!ply and suddenly arri-ed.

Eotes

1. Jump up ̂ Foucault, Mic$el 5%&AB78 -$e >irt$ of t$e

Clinic8 e2 or1: #ant$eon >oo1s8

%. Jump up ̂ Foucault, Mic$el 5%&A78 -$e >irt$ of t$e

Clinic8 (ondon: -avistoc1 #ulications

(td8 .3> =@


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4. Jump up ̂ 3t8 odard, 48 48 5irt$ of t$e Clinic" p. ,i-.C. Jump up ̂ Foucault" >irt$ of t$e Clinic" p. ,-.

9. Jump up ̂ Foucault" >irt$ of t$e Clinic" pp. 1%C71

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-4http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.051067https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-4http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.051067https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_the_Clinic#cite_ref-9


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-$e +rder of -$ings

-$is article is aout t$e Foucault oo18 For t$e 0ifer

oo1, see -$e +rder of -$ings 50ifer oo178 For t$e /etal

alu/, see -$e +rder of -$ings 5alu/78

The "rder of Things: An Archaeology of the

H#$an %ciences (French: (es /ots et les c$oses: Kne

arc$éologie des sciences $u/aines) is a 1966 book by theFrench philosopher Michel Foucault. /t #as translated into

nglish and published by ;antheon 2ooks in 19H&.

(Foucault had preferred ('+rdre des C$oses for the original

French title" but changed the title because it had been used

by t#o structuralist #orks published i!!ediately prior to

Foucaults).

Foucault endea-ours to e9cavate the origins of the

hu!an sciences" particularly but not

e,clusi-ely psychology andsociology. 3he book opens #ith

an e,tended discussion of Diego RelSGueGs painting (as

Meninas and its co!ple, arrange!ent of sightlines"

hiddenness" and appearance. 3hen it de-elops its central

clai!: that all periods of history ha-e possessed certain

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underlying episte!ological assu!ptions that deter!ined

#hat #as acceptable as" for e,a!ple" scienti*c discourse.

Foucault de-elops the notion of episte!e" and argues

that these conditions of discourse ha-e changed o-er ti!e"

fro! one periods episte!e to another. Foucault

de!onstrates parallels in the de-elop!ent of three *elds:

linguistics" biology" and econo!ics. 3he concept of episte!e

3he key concept of the book is that -arious periods of

history ha-e been characteriGed by a certain nu!ber of

conditions of truth or discourse #hich are co!!on to

-arious areas of kno#ledge and deter!ine #hat it is

possible or acceptable to a5r!" and that these ha-e been

sub+ect to change o-er ti!e.'1 Foucault analyGes shifts in

the paradig! of thought bet#een the classical and !odern

periods:

• /n respect of language : fro! general gra!!ar

to linguistics

• /n respect of li-ing organis!s : fro! natural

history to biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoursehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Things#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoursehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Things#cite_note-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology


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• /n respect of !oney : fro! the science of #ealth

to econo!ics.

Foucault references three episte!es :

1. 3he episte!e of the


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critiue the pro+ection of !odern categories of kno#ledge

onto sub+ects that re!ain intrinsically unintelligible" in spite

of historical kno#ledge.

-$e +rder of -$ings brought Foucault to pro!inence

as an intellectual *gure in France. A re-ie# by $ean7;aul

8artre attacked Foucault as 0the last barricade of

the bourgeoisie0. Foucault responded" 0;oor bourgeoisie /fthey needed !e as a barricade" then they had already lost

po#erT0'

$ean ;iaget" in 3tructuralis/" co!pared Foucaults

episte!e to 3ho!as Iuhns notion of a paradig!.'6

Eotes

1. Jump up ̂ Foucault" Dits et Lcrits ." in 3ur la Justice

oulaire" p.1%9

%. Jump up ̂ Foucault" (es /ots et les c$oses" o8 cit8"

p. %&

. Jump up ̂ C$a/on, )drienne 5%&&&78 Eeading

Foucault for 3ocial or18 e2 or1: Colu/ia Kniversity

#ress8 8 BBA8 .3> =*


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4. Jump up ̂ ;orter" 3heodore (199%). Uuanti*cation and

the accounting ideal in science. 3ocial 3tudies of

3cience %%(4): pp. 6?61.

. Jump up ̂ Miller" $a!es (1994). -$e #assion of Mic$el

Foucault . Ee# Lork: Anchor 2ooks. p.19.

6. Jump up ̂ ;iaget" $ean (19H&). 3tructuralis/. Ee#

Lork: >arper K irt$ of t$e

Clinic" and -$e +rder of -$ings.'1 /t is Foucaults only

e,plicitly !ethodological #ork.

3he pre!ise of the book is that syste!s of thought

and kno#ledge (0episte!es0 or 0discursi-e for!ations0) are

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go-erned by rules (beyond those of gra!!ar and logic)

#hich operate beneath the consciousness of indi-idual

sub+ects and de*ne a syste! of conceptual possibilities

that deter!ines the boundaries of thought and language

use in a gi-en do!ain and period.'1

Most pro!inently in its /ntroduction and =onclusion"

the book also beco!es a philosophical treat!ent andcritiue of pheno!enological and

dog!atic structural readings of history and philosophy"

portraying continuous narrati-es as naV-e #ays of

pro+ecting our o#n consciousness onto the past" thus being

e,clusi-e and e,cluding. =haracteristically" Foucault

de!onstrates his political !oti-ations" personal pro+ects

and preoccupations" and" e,plicitly and i!plicitly" the !any

inuences that infor! the discourse of the ti!e.

3heory

Foucault argues that the conte!porary study of the

history of ideas" although it targets !o!ents of transition

bet#een historical #orld-ie#s" ulti!ately depends on

continuities that break do#n under close inspection. 3he

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history of ideas !arks points of discontinuity bet#een

broadly de*ned !odes of kno#ledge" but the assu!ption

that those !odes e,ist as #holes fails to do +ustice to the

co!ple,ities of discourse. Foucault argues that

0discourses0 e!erge and transfor! not according to a

de-eloping series of unarticulated" co!!on #orld-ie#s"

but according to a -ast and co!ple, set of discursi-e andinstitutional relationships" #hich are de*ned as !uch by

breaks and ruptures as by uni*ed the!es.'%

Foucault de*nes a 0discourse0 as a #ay of speaking.

' 3hus" his !ethod studies only the set of things said in

their e!ergences and transfor!ations" #ithout any

speculation about the o-erall" collecti-e !eaning of those

state!ents" and carries his insistence on discourse7in7itself

do#n to the !ost basic unit of things said: the state!ent

(énoncé). During !ost of )rc$aeology " Foucault argues for

and against -arious notions of #hat are inherent aspects of

a state!ent" #ithout arri-ing at a co!prehensi-e

de*nition.'% >e does" ho#e-er" argue that a state!ent is

the rules #hich render an e,pression (that is" a phrase"

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a proposition" or a speech act) discursi-ely !eaningful.

3his concept of !eaning di@ers fro! the concept of

signi*cation:'4 3hough an e,pression is signifying" for

instance 03he gold !ountain is in =alifornia0" it !ay

ne-ertheless be discursively /eaningless and therefore

ha-e no e,istence #ithin a certain discourse.' For this

reason" the 0state!ent0 is an e9istencefunction for discursive /eaning.'6

2eing rules" the 0state!ent0 has a special !eaning in

the )rc$aeology : it is not the e,pression itself" but the rules

#hich !ake an e,pression discursi-ely !eaningful. 3hese

rules are not the synta, and se!antics'H that !akes an

e,pression signifying. /t is additional rules. /n contrast

to structuralists" Foucault de!onstrates that the se!antic

and syntactic structures do not su5ce to deter!ine the

discursi-e !eaning of an e,pression.'C Depending on

#hether or not it co!plies #ith these rules of discursi-e

!eaning" a gra!!atically correct phrase !ay lack

discursi-e !eaning or" in-ersely" a gra!!atically incorrect

sentence !ay be discursi-ely !eaningful 7 e-en

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!eaningless letters (e.g. 0UP


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Foucault concludes )rc$aeology #ith responses to

criticis!s fro! a hypothetical critic (#hich he anticipates

#ill occur after his book is read).


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C. Jump up ̂ French -ersion: p. 1&C" 11?14" 11C?

19" 14

9. Jump up ̂ French -ersion p. 114

1&. Jump up ̂ utting, ary 5%&&@78 -$e Ca/ridge

Co/anion to Foucault8 Ca/ridge: Ca/ridge Kniversity

#ress8 8 =*6and.

Jondon: Althone" 19CC. /82E &7C%647HC&7&.

• Foucault" Michel. 1969. -$e )rc$aeology of

0no2ledge. 3rans. A. M. 8heridan 8!ith. Jondon and Ee#

Lork:


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Disciline and #unis$

(iscipline and P#nish: The Birth of the

Prison (French: 3urveiller et unir: aissance de la #rison)

is a 19H book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault.

An analysis of the social and theoretical !echanis!s

behind the !assi-e changes that occurred in

Pestern penal syste!s during the !odern age" it focuses

on historical docu!ents fro! France. Foucault argues

against the idea that the prison beca!e the consistent

for! of punish!ent due !ainly to

thehu!anitarian concerns of refor!ists. >e traces the

cultural shifts that led to the prisons do!inance" focusing

on the body and uestions of po#er. ;rison is a for! used

by the 0disciplines0" a ne# technological po#er" #hich can

also be found" according to Foucault" in places such

as schools" hospitals" and !ilitary barracks.'1

/n a later #ork" 3ecurity, -erritory, #oulation" Foucault

ad!its that he #as so!e#hat o-erGealous in his

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descriptions of ho# disciplinary po#er conditions society

he uali*es and de-elops his earlier ideas.'%

8u!!ary

3he !ain ideas of Disciline and #unis$ can be

grouped according to its four parts: torture" punish!ent"

discipline" and prison.'1

Torture

Foucault begins by contrasting t#o for!s of penalty:

the -iolent and chaotic public torture of


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>e belie-es that the uestion of the nature of these

changes is best asked by assu!ing that they #erent used

to create a !ore hu!anitarian penal syste!" nor to !ore

e,actly punish or rehabilitate" but as part of a continuing

tra+ectory of sub+ection. Foucault #ants to tie scienti*c

kno#ledge and technological de-elop!ent to the

de-elop!ent of the prison to pro-e this point. >e de*nes a0!icro7physics0 of po#er" #hich is constituted by a po#er

that is strategic and tactical rather than acuired"

preser-ed or possessed. >e e,plains that po#er and

kno#ledge i!ply one another" as opposed to the co!!on

belief that kno#ledge e,ists independently of po#er

relations (kno#ledge is al#ays conte,tualiGed in a

fra!e#ork #hich !akes it intelligible" so the hu!aniGing

discourse of psychiatry is an e,pression of the tactics of

oppression).'4 3hat is" the ground of the ga!e of po#er

isnt #on by liberation" because liberation already e,ists

as a facet of sub+ection. 03he !an described for us" #ho!

#e are in-ited to free" is already in hi!self the e@ect of a

sub+ection !uch !ore profound than hi!self.0' 3he

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proble! for Foucault is in so!e sense a theoretical

!odelling #hich posits a soul" an identity (the use of soul

being fortunate since identity or na!e #ould not

properly e,press the !ethod of sub+ectionQe.g." if !ere

!ateriality #ere used as a #ay of tracking indi-iduals then

the !ethod of punish!ent #ould not ha-e s#itched fro!

torture to psychiatry) #hich allo#s a #hole !ateriality ofprison to de-elop. /n Phat is an Author] Foucault also deals

#ith notion of identity" and its use as a !ethod of control"

regulation" and tracking.'

>e begins by e,a!ining public torture and e,ecution.

>e argues that the public spectacle of torture and

e,ecution #as a theatrical foru! the original intentions of

#hich e-entually produced se-eral unintended

conseuences. Foucault stresses the e,actitude #ith #hich

torture is carried out" and describes an e,tensi-e legal

fra!e#ork in #hich it operates to achie-e speci*c

purposes. Foucault describes public torture as cere!ony.

3he intended purposes #ere:

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• 3o !ake the secret public (according to Foucault the

in-estigation #as kept entirely secret e-en fro! the

accused). 3he secret of the in-estigation and the

conclusion of the !agistrates #as +usti*ed by the publicity

of the torture.

• 3o sho# the e@ect of in-estigation on confession.

(According to Foucault torture could occur during the

in-estigation" because partial proofs !eant partial guilt. /f

the torture failed to elicit a confession then the

in-estigation #as stopped and innocence assu!ed. A

confession legiti!iGed the in-estigation and any torture

that occurred.)

•


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of the so-ereigns body" and so the re-enge !ust take the

for! of har!ing the con-icts body.

0 .t PtortureQ assured t$e articulation of t$e 2ritten on

t$e oral, t$e secret on t$e ulic, t$e rocedure of

investigation on t$e oeration of t$e confession it /ade it

ossile to reroduce t$e cri/e on t$e visile ody of t$e

cri/inal in t$e sa/e $orror, t$e cri/e $ad to e

/anifested and annulled8 .t also /ade t$e ody of t$e

conde/ned /an t$e lace 2$ere t$e vengeance of t$e

sovereign 2as alied, t$e anc$oring oint for a

/anifestation of o2er, an oortunity of aRr/ing t$e

dissy//etry of forces8G'6

Foucault looks at public torture as the outco!e 0of a

certain !echanis! of po#er0 that -ie#s cri!e in a !ilitary

sche!a. =ri!e and rebellion are akin to a declaration of

#ar. 3he so-ereign #as not concerned #ith de!onstrating

the ground for the enforce!ent of its la#s" but of

identifying ene!ies and attacking the!" the po#er of

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#hich #as rene#ed by the ritual of in-estigation and the

cere!ony of public torture.'H

8o!e unintended conseuences #ere:

• ;ro-iding a foru! for the con-icts body to beco!e a

focus of sy!pathy and ad!iration.

•


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participation of the people. 3orture #as !ade public in

order to create fear in the people" and to force the! to

participate in the !ethod of control by agreeing #ith its

-erdicts. 2ut proble!s arose in cases in #hich the people

through their actions disagreed #ith the so-ereign" by

heroiGing the -icti! (ad!iring the courage in facing death)

or in !o-ing to physically free the cri!inal or toredistribute the e@ects of the strategically deployed po#er.

3hus" he argues" the public e,ecution #as ulti!ately an

ine@ecti-e use of the body" uali*ed as non7econo!ical. As

#ell" it #as applied non7unifor!ly and haphaGardly. >ence"

its political cost #as too high. /t #as the antithesis of the

!ore !odern concerns of the state: order and

generaliGation. 8o it had to be refor!ed to allo# for greater

stability of property for the bourgeoisie.

Punishment

3he s#itch to prison #as not i!!ediate. 3here #as a

!ore graded change" though it ran its course rapidly. ;rison

#as preceded by a di@erent for! of public spectacle. 3he

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theater of public torture ga-e #ay to public chain gangs.

;unish!ent beca!e 0gentle0" though not

for hu!anitarian reasons" Foucault suggests. >e argues

that refor!ists #ere unhappy #ith the unpredictable"

une-enly distributed nature of the -iolence the so-ereign

#ould inict on the con-ict. 3he so-ereigns right to punish

#as so disproportionate that it #as ine@ecti-e anduncontrolled.


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their punish!ent" and thus to reect on the cri!e. 2ut

these e,peri!ents lasted less than t#enty years.

Foucault argues that this theory of 0gentle0

punish!ent represented the *rst step a#ay fro! the

e,cessi-e force of the so-ereign" and to#ards !ore

generaliGed and controlled !eans of punish!ent. 2ut he

suggests that the shift to#ards prison that follo#ed #as the

result of a ne# 0technology0 and ontology for the body

being de-eloped in the 1Cth century" the 0technology0 of

discipline" and the ontology of 0!an as !achine0.

Discipline

3he e!ergence of prison as the for! of punish!ent

for e-ery cri!e gre# out of the de-elop!ent of discipline in

the 1Cth and 19th centuries" according to Foucault. >e

looks at the de-elop!ent of highly re*ned for!s of

discipline" of discipline concerned #ith the s!allest and

!ost precise aspects of a persons body. Discipline" he

suggests" de-eloped a ne# econo!y and politics for

bodies. Modern institutions reuired that bodies !ust be

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indi-iduated according to their tasks" as #ell as for training"

obser-ation" and control. 3herefore" he argues" discipline

created a #hole ne# for! of indi-iduality for bodies" #hich

enabled the! to perfor! their duty #ithin the ne# for!s of

econo!ic" political" and !ilitary organiGations e!erging in

the !odern age and continuing to today.

3he indi-iduality that discipline constructs (for the

bodies it controls) has four characteristics" na!ely it !akes

indi-iduality #hich is:

• =ellularQdeter!ining the spatial distribution of the

bodies

• rganicQensuring that the acti-ities reuired of the

bodies are 0natural0 for the!

• eneticQcontrolling the e-olution o-er ti!e of the

acti-ities of the bodies

• =o!binatoryQallo#ing for the co!bination of the

force of !any bodies into a single !assi-e force


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Foucault suggests this indi-iduality can be

i!ple!ented in syste!s that are o5cially egalitarian" but

use discipline to construct non7egalitarian po#er relations:

Historically, t$e rocess y 2$ic$

t$e ourgeoisie eca/e in t$e course of t$e eig$teent$

century t$e olitically do/inant class 2as /as1ed y t$e

estalis$/ent of an e9licit, coded and for/ally egalitarian

Juridical fra/e2or1, /ade ossile y t$e organization of a

arlia/entary, reresentative regi/e8 >ut t$e

develo/ent and generalization of discilinary

/ec$anis/s constituted t$e ot$er, dar1 side of t$ese

rocesses8 -$e general Juridical for/ t$at guaranteed a

syste/ of rig$ts t$at 2ere egalitarian in rincile 2as

suorted y t$ese tiny, everyday, $ysical /ec$anis/s,

y all t$ose syste/s of /icro*o2er t$at are essentially

non*egalitarian and asy//etrical t$at 2e call t$e

discilines8 (%%%)

Foucaults argu!ent is that discipline creates 0docile

bodies0" ideal for the ne# econo!ics" politics and #arfare

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of the !odern industrial age 7 bodies that function in

factories" ordered !ilitary regi!ents" and school

classroo!s. 2ut" to construct docile bodies the disciplinary

institutions !ust be able to (a) constantly obser-e and

record the bodies they control and (b) ensure the

internaliGation of the disciplinary indi-iduality #ithin the

bodies being controlled. 3hat is" discipline !ust co!eabout #ithout e,cessi-e force through careful obser-ation"

and !olding of the bodies into the correct for! through

this obser-ation. 3his reuires a particular for! of

institution" e,e!pli*ed" Foucault argues" by $ere!y

2entha!s #anoticon. 3his architectural !odel" though it

#as ne-er adopted by architects according to 2entha!s

e,act blueprint" beco!es an i!portant conceptualiGation of

po#er relations for prison refor!ers of the 19th =entury"

and its general principle is a recurring the!e in !odern

prison construction.

3he ;anopticon #as the ulti!ate realiGation of a

!odern disciplinary institution. /t allo#ed for constant

obser-ation characteriGed by an 0uneual gaGe0 the

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constant possibility of obser-ation. ;erhaps the !ost

i!portant feature of the panopticon #as that it #as

speci*cally designed so that the prisoner could ne-er be

sure #hether they #ere being obser-ed at any !o!ent.

3he uneual gaGe caused the internaliGation of disciplinary

indi-iduality" and the docile body reuired of its in!ates.

3his !eans one is less likely to break rules or la#s if theybelie-e they are being #atched" e-en if they are not. 3hus"

prisons" and speci*cally those that follo# the !odel of the

;anopticon" pro-ide the ideal for! of !odern punish!ent.

Foucault argues that this is #hy the generaliGed" 0gentle0

punish!ent of public #ork gangs ga-e #ay to the prison. /t

#as the ideal !oderniGation of punish!ent" so its e-entual

do!inance #as natural.

>a-ing laid out the e!ergence of the prison as the

do!inant for! of punish!ent" Foucault de-otes the rest of

the book to e,a!ining its precise for! and function in our

society" laying bare the reasons for its continued use" and

uestioning the assu!ed results of its use.


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Prison

/n e,a!ining the construction of the prison as the

central !eans of cri!inal punish!ent" Foucault builds a

case for the idea that prison beca!e part of a larger

0carceral syste!0 that has beco!e an all7enco!passing

so-ereign institution in !odern society. ;rison is one part of

a -ast net#ork" including schools" !ilitary institutions"

hospitals" and factories" #hich build a panoptic society for

its !e!bers. 3his syste! creates 0disciplinary

careers0'C for those locked #ithin its corridors. /t is

operated under the scienti*c authority

of !edicine" psychology" and cri!inology. Moreo-er" it

operates according to principles that ensure that it 0cannot

fail to produce delinuents.0'9 Delinuency" indeed" is

produced #hen social petty cri!e (such as taking #ood

fro! the lords lands) is no longer tolerated" creating a

class of specialiGed 0delinuents0 acting as the polices

pro,y in sur-eillance of society.

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3he structures Foucault chooses to use as his starting

positions help highlight his conclusions. /n particular" his

choice as a perfect prison of the penal institution at

Mettray helps personify the carceral syste!. Pithin it is

included the ;rison" the 8chool" the =hurch" and the #ork7

house (industry) 7 all of #hich feature hea-ily in his

argu!ent. 3he prisons at Eeufchatel'disa/iguation

needed" Mettray" and Mettray Eetherlands #ere perfect

e,a!ples for Foucault" because they" e-en in their original

state" began to sho# the traits Foucault #as searching for.

3hey sho#ed the body of kno#ledge being de-eloped

about the prisoners" the creation of the delinuent class"

and the disciplinary careers e!erging.'1&

=riticis!

Fi-e theoretical argu!ents in fa-or of re+ecting the

Foucauldian !odel of panopticis! !ay be considered:

1(Displace!ent of the panoptical ideal by

!echanis!s of seduction"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neufchatelhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mettray_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_institution_at_Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neufchatelhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttp://dispenser.homenet.org/~dispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Discipline_and_Punish&editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&client=Template:Dnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mettrayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mettray_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticism


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%(


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3he third argu!ent for post7panopticis!" concerning

action before the fact" is articulated by Pillia! 2ogard:

3he *gure of the ;anopticon is already haunted by a

parallel *gure of si!ulation. 8ur-eillance" #e are told" is

discreet" unobtrusi-e" ca!ouaged" un-eri*able ? all

ele!ents of arti*ce designed into an architectural

arrange!ent of spaces to produce real e@ects of discipline.

-entually this #ill lead" by its !eans of perfection" to the

eli!ination of the ;anopticon itself . . . sur-eillance as its

o#n si!ulation. Eo# it is no longer a !atter of the speed

at #hich infor!ation is gained to defeat an ene!y. . . .

Eo#" one can si!ulate a space of control" pro+ect an

inde*nite nu!ber of courses of action" train for each

possibility" and react i!!ediately #ith pre7progra!!ed

responses to the actual course of e-ents . . . #ith

si!ulation" sight and foresight" actual and -irtual begin to

!erge. . . . /ncreasingly the technological enlarge!ent of

the *eld of perceptual control" the erasure of distance in

the speed of electronic infor!ation has pushed sur-eillance


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beyond the -ery li!its of speed to#ard the purest for!s of

anticipation.'1

Anticipation is e-ident in e!ergent sur-eillance

technologies such as social net#ork analysis.'citation needed

Fourth" the ^8ynopticon_ concerns the sur-eillance of

the fe# by the !any.'14 ,a!ples of this kind of

sur-eillance !ay include the theatre" the coliseu!" and

celebrity tabloid reporting. 3his Zre-ersal of the ;anoptical

polarity !ay ha-e beco!e so !arked that it *nally

deconstructs the panoptical !etaphor altogether\.'11

3he *fth point concerns the self7defeating nature of

panoptical regi!es. 3he failure of sur-eillance states is

illustrated by e,a!ples such as Zprison riots" asylu! sub7

cultures" ego sur-i-al in ulag or concentration ca!p"

'and retribaliGation in the 2alkans.\'11

/n their %&&H article" Dobson and Fisher'1 lay out an

alternati-e !odel of post7panopticis! as they identify

three panoptic !odels. ;anopticis! / refers to $ere!y

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Mathiesen-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Dobson_Fisher-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Benthamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Bogard-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Mathiesen-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Boyne-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_and_Punish#cite_note-Dobson_Fisher-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham


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2entha!_s original conceptualiGation of the panopticon"

and is it the !odel of panopticis! that Foucault responds

to in Disciline and #unis$. ;anopticis! // refers to

an r#ellian ^2ig 2rother_ ideal of sur-eillance. ;anopticis!

///" refers to the high7technology hu!an tracking syste!s

that are e!ergent in the %1st century. 3hese geographical

infor!ation syste!s (/8) include technologies such ascellphone ;8"


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1%. Jump up^ 2au!an" O. (199C) lobaliGation: 3he

>u!an =onseuences" =a!bridge: ;olity.QQ 1999 ^n

post!odern uses of se,_" in Mike Featherstone (ed.) Jo-e

and roticis!" Jondon: 8age.

1. Jump up^ 2ogard" P. (1996). 3he 8i!ulation of

8ur-eillance " =a!bridge: =a!bridge ni-ersity ;ress.

14. Jump up^ Mathiesen" 3. (199H) ^3he -ie#ersociety_" 3heoretical =ri!inology 1(%).

1. $u!p up to:a b Dobson" $. ." and ;. F. Fisher.

%&&H. 3he ;anopticons changing geography. eographical


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-$e History of 3e9uality

The History of %e)#ality (French: (SHistoire de lase9ualité) is a three7-olu!e study of se,uality in

the #estern #orldby French historian and

philosopher Michel Foucault. 3he *rst -olu!e" -$e ill to

0no2ledge ((a volonté de savoir )" #as *rst published in

19H6 by ditions alli!ard an nglish translation

by urley #as published by Allen Janein 19HC. /t

#as follo#ed by -$e Kse of #leasure (l'usage des laisirs)"

and -$e Care of t$e 3elf (le souci de soi)" both published in

19C4.

/n -$e History of 3e9uality " Foucault e,a!ines the

e!ergence of 0se,uality0 as a discursi-e ob+ect and

separate sphere of life. >e argues that the notion that

e-ery indi-idual has a se,uality is a relati-ely recent

de-elop!ent in Pestern societies. /n Rolu!e /" Foucault

e,plores the 0repressi-e hypothesis0" the idea that #estern

society suppressed se,uality fro! the 1Hth to the !id7%&th

century due to the rise of capitalis! and bourgeois society.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttps://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hurley_(translator)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Lanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttps://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_sexualit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hurley_(translator)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Lanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism


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Foucault !aintains that the hypothesis is incorrect" and

that discourse on se,uality proliferated during this period"

during #hich e,perts began to e,a!ine se,uality in a

scienti*c !anner" encouraging people to confess their

se,ual feelings and actions. /n the 1Cth and 19th centuries"

he argues" society takes an increasing interest in

se,ualities that did not *t #ithin the !arital bond: the0#orld of per-ersion0 that includes the se,uality of

children" the !entally ill" the cri!inal and the ho!ose,ual.

According to Foucault" by the 19th century se,uality #as

being readily e,plored both through confession and

scienti*c enuiry. /n the second t#o -olu!es" Foucault

deals #ith the role of se, in reek and


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Publication

3hree -olu!es of -$e History of 3e9uality #ere

published before Foucaults death in 19C4. 3he *rst

-olu!e" -$e ill to 0no2ledge (pre-iously kno#n as )n

.ntroduction in nglishQHistoire de la se9ualité, %: la

volonté de savoir in French) #as published in France in

19H6" and translated in 19HH" focusing pri!arily on the last

t#o centuries" and the functioning of se,uality as an

analytics of po#er related to the e!ergence of a science of

se,uality" and the e!ergence of biopo#erin the Pest. 3he

#ork #as a further de-elop!ent of the account of the

interaction of kno#ledge and po#er Foucault pro-ided

in Disciline and #unis$ (19H).'1

3he second t#o -olu!es" -$e Kse of #leasure (Histoire

de la se9ualité, ..: l'usage des laisirs) and -$e Care of t$e

3elf (Histoire de la se9ualité, ...: le souci de soi) dealt #ith

the role of se, in reek and


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the hypo!ne!a #hich #as used to establish a per!anent

relationship to oneself. 2oth #ere published in 19C4" the

year of Foucaults death" the second -olu!e being

translated in 19C" and the third in 19C6.

/n his lecture series fro! 19H9 to 19C& Foucault

e,tended his analysis of go-ern!ent to its 0...#ider sense

of techniues and procedures designed to direct the

beha-iour of !en0" #hich in-ol-ed a ne# consideration of

the 0...e,a!ination of conscience0 and confession in

early =hristian literature. 3hese the!es of early =hristian

literature see!ed to do!inate Foucaults #ork" alongside

his study of reek and


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Rolu!e /: 3he Pill to Ino#ledge

Part I: We "Other Victorians"

;art ne" entitled 0Pe Zther Rictorians\0" opens #ith

a discussion of #hat Foucault calls the 0...repressi-e

hypothesis0" the #idespread belief a!ong late %&th7

century #esterners that se,uality" and the open discussion

of se," #as socially repressed during the late 1Hth" 1Cth"

19th and early %&th centuries" a by7product of the rise

of capitalis! and bourgeois society. Arguing that this #as

ne-er actually the case" he asks the uestion as to #hy

!odern #esterners belie-e such a hypothesis" noting that

in portraying past se,uality as repressed" it pro-ides a

basis for the idea that in re+ecting past !oral syste!s"

future se,uality can be free and uninhibited" a 0...garden of

earthly delights0.'

Part II: The Repressive Hypothesis

e /ust888 aandon

t$e $yot$esis t$at

/odern industrial

!

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-3


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societies us$ered in an

age of increased se9ual

reression8 e $ave not

only 2itnessed a visile

e9losion of unort$odo9

se9ualities ut and t$is

is t$e i/ortant oint a

deloy/ent quite

diTerent fro/ t$e la2,

even if it is locally

deendent on rocedures

of ro$iition, $as

ensured, t$roug$ a

net2or1 of

interconnecting

/ec$anis/s, t$e

roliferation of secic

leasures and t$e

/ultilication of disarate

se9ualities8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repressionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_repression


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! Foucault, %&A8'4

;roceeding to go into further depth in ;art 3#o" 03he

ypothesis"0 Foucault notes that fro! the 1Hth

century to the 19H&s" there had actually been a

0...-eritable discursi-e e,plosion0 in the discussion of se,"

albeit using an 0...authoriGed -ocabulary0 that codi*ed

#here one could talk about it" #hen one could talk about it"

and #ith #ho!. >e argues that this desire to talk so

enthusiastically about se, in the #estern #orld ste!s fro!

the =ounter7e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(religion)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(religion)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Secret_Life_(erotica)


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notes that in that century" go-ern!ents beca!e

increasingly a#are that they #ere not !erely ha-ing to

!anage 0sub+ects0 or 0a people0 but a 0population0" and

that as such they had to concern the!sel-es #ith such

issues as birth and death rates" !arriage" and

contraception" thereby increasing their interest and

changing their discourse on se,uality.'

ntering the second chapter of this section" 03he

;er-erse /!plantation0" Foucault argues that prior to the

1Cth century" discourse on se,uality focuses on the

producti-e role of the !arried couple" #hich is !onitored

by both canonical and ci-il la#. /n the 1Cth and 19th

centuries" he argues" society ceases discussing the se,

li-es of !arried couples" instead taking an increasing

interest in se,ualities that did not *t #ithin this union the

0#orld of per-ersion0 that includes the se,uality of

children" the !entally ill" the cri!inal and the ho!ose,ual.

>e notes that this had three !a+or e@ects on society.

Firstly" there #as increasing categoriGation of these

0per-erts0 #here pre-iously a !an #ho engaged in sa!e7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage


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se, acti-ities #ould be labeled as an indi-idual #ho

succu!bed to the sin of sodo!y" no# they #ould be

categorised into a ne# 0species"0 that of ho!ose,ual.

8econdly" Foucault argues that the labeling of per-erts

con-eyed a sense of 0pleasure and po#er0 on to both those

studying se,uality and the per-erts the!sel-es. 3hirdly" he

argues that bourgeoisie society e,hibited 0blatant andfrag!ented per-ersion"0 readily engaging in per-ersity but

regulating #here it could take place.'6

Part III: %cientia %e)#alis

/n part three" 08cientia 8e,ualis0" Foucault e,plores the

de-elop!ent of the scienti*c study of se," the atte!pt to

unearth the 0truth0 of se," a pheno!enon #hich Foucault

argues is peculiar to the Pest. /n contrast to the Pests

se,ual science" Foucault introduces the 0ars erotica0 #hich

he states has only e,isted in Ancient and astern societies.

Further!ore" he argues that this scientia se9ualis has

repeatedly been used for political purposes" being utiliGed

in the na!e of 0public hygiene0 to support state racis!.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_racismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_racism


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out Foucaults argu!ent that #e need to de-elop an

0analytics0 of po#er through #hich to understand se,.

>ighlighting that po#er controls se, by laying do#n rules

for it to follo#" he discusses ho# po#er de!ands

obedience through do!ination" sub!ission" and

sub+ugation" and also ho# po#er !asks its true intentions

by disguising itself as bene*cial. As an e,a!ple" hehighlights the !anner in #hich the feudal absolute

!onarchies of historical urope" the!sel-es a for!

of o2er " disguised their intentions by clai!ing that they

#ere necessary to !aintain la#" order" and peace. As a

lefto-er concept fro! the days of feudalis!" Foucault

argues that #esterners still -ie# po#er as e!anating fro!

la#" but he re+ects this" proclai!ing that #e !ust

0...construct an analytics of po#er that no longer takes la#

as a !odel and a code"0 and announcing that a di@erent

for! of po#er go-erns se,uality. 0Pe !ust"0 Foucault

states" 0at the sa!e ti!e concei-e of se, #ithout the la#"

and po#er #ithout the king.0'C

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-8


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/n the second chapter" 0Method0" Foucault e,plores

#hat he !eans by 0;o#er0" e,plaining that he does not

!ean o2er as the do!ination or sub+ugation e,erted on

society by the go-ern!ent or the state" but instead

re!arks that po#er should be understood 0as the

!ultiplicity of force relations i!!anent in the sphere in

#hich they operate.0 /n this #ay" he argues" 0;o#er ise-ery#here . . . because it co!es fro! e-ery#here"0

e!anating fro! all social relationships and being i!posed

throughout society botto!7up rather than top7do#n.'9

Part V: Ri%ht o Death an& Po'er over (ie

/n part *-e" 03he


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decides to e,ecute so!eone as a safe guard to society not

as +usti*ed" as it once #as" as -engeful +ustice. 3his ne#

e!phasis on po#er o-er life is called 2iopo#er and co!es

in t#o for!s. First" Foucault says it is 0centered on the body

as a !achine: its disciplining" the opti!iGation of its

capabilities" the e,tortion of its forces" the parallel increase

of its usefulness and its docility" its integration into syste!sof e5cient and econo!ic controls.0'1& 3he second for!"

Foucault argues" e!erged later and focuses on the 0species

body" the body i!bued #ith the !echanics of life and

ser-ing as the basis of the biological processes:

propagation" births and !ortality" the le-el of health" life

e,pectancy and longe-ity" #ith all the conditions that

cause these to -ary.'11 2iopo#er" it is argued" is the source

of the rise of capitalis!" as states beca!e interested in

regulating and nor!aliGing po#er o-er life and not as

concerned about punishing and conde!ning actions.

8cholarly reception

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-11


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3he reception of -$e History of 3e9uality a!ong

scholars and acade!ics has been !i,ed.

)*+,-)*.*

>istorian $ane =aplan calls -$e History of

3e9uality 0certainly the !ost a!bitious and interesting

recent atte!pt to analyse the relations bet#een the

production of concepts and the history of society in the

*eld of se,uality0" but criticiGes Foucault for using 0an

undi@erentiated concept0 of speech and an i!precise

notion of 0po#er0.'1% ay acti-ist Dennis Alt!an describes

Foucaults #ork as representati-e of the position that

ho!ose,uals e!erged as a social category in 1Cth and

19th century #estern urope.'1 Fe!inist er!aine

reer #rites that Foucault rightly argues that" 0#hat #e

ha-e all along taken as the breaking7through of a silence

and the long delayed gi-ing of due attention to hu!an

se,uality #as in fact the pro!otion of hu!an se,uality"

indeed" the creation of an internal focus for the indi-iduals

preoccupations.0'14

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Altmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Altmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine_Greerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-14


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>istorian ;eter ay #rites that Foucault is right to

raise uestions about the 0repressi-e hypothesis0" but that

0his procedure is anecdotal and al!ost #holly

unencu!bered by facts using his accusto!ed techniue

(re!iniscent of the principle underlying scar Pildes

hu!or) of turning accepted ideas upside do#n" he turns

out to be right in part for his pri-ate reasons.0'1

=lassicist;age du2ois describes -$e Kse of #leasure as 0one of the

!ost e,citing ne# books in the *eld of classical studies0

and 0an i!portant contribution to the history of se,uality0"

but adds that Foucault 0takes for granted" and thus

authoriGes" e,actly #hat needs to be e,plained: the

philosophical establish!ent of the autono!ous !ale

sub+ect0.'16 >istorian ;atricia 2rien #rites that Foucault

#as 0#ithout e,pertise0 in dealing #ith antiuity" and

that -$e History of 3e9uality lacks 0the !ethodological

rigor of Foucaults earlier #orks" and especially

of Disciline and #unis$.0'1H

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wildehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-17


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)**/-present

=lassicist Da-id M. >alperin #rites in +ne Hundred

ears of Ho/ose9uality (199&) that the appearance of the

nglish translation of the *rst -olu!e of Foucaults #ork in

19HC" together #ith the publication of I. $. Do-ers ree1

Ho/ose9uality the sa!e year" !arked the beginning of a

ne# era in the study of the history of se,uality.'1C >e

suggests that -$e History of 3e9uality !ay be the !ost

i!portant contribution to the history of #estern !orality

since Friedrich EietGsches +n t$e enealogy of

Morality (1CCH).'19

8cholar =a!ille ;aglia re+ects >alperins

-ie#s as uninfor!ed" calling -$e History of 3e9uality a

0disaster0 and clai!ing that !uch of it is fantasy

unsupported by the historical record. ;aglia obser-es that

the book 0is ackno#ledged e-en by Foucaults ad!irers to

be his #eakest #ork0.'%&

$urist and econo!ist


67/113

brilliant and that the book is lucidly #ritten.'%1 >istorian

Michael Mason #rites that in -$e History of

3e9uality Foucault presents #hat a!ounts to an argu!ent

0against the possibility of !aking historical connections

bet#een beliefs about se, and se,ual practices0. Mason

#rites that Foucaults argu!ent is only acceptable if one

accepts the need to shift attention fro! 0se,uality0 to 0se,0in thinking about the se,ual culture of the last three

centuries" and that Foucault does not !ake a case for such

a need.'%% Jiterary critic Ale,ander Pelsh criticiGes Foucault

for failing to place 8ig!und Freud in the conte,t of 19th

century thought and culture.'%>istorian erbert Marcuse in 4ros and Civilization (19)" that

0industrialiGation de!anded erotic austerity.0'%4

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcusehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eros_and_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Porterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcusehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eros_and_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_note-24


68/113


69/113

. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. 1?14.

4. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 49.

. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. 1?6.

6. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. H?49.

H. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. pp. ?H.

C. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. HH?91.

9. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 9%?1&%.1&. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 19.

11. Jump up^ Foucault 19H6. p. 19.

1%. Jump up^ =aplan 19C1. p. 16.

1. Jump up^ Alt!an 19C%. p. 4C.

14. Jump up^ reer 19C. p. 19C.

1. Jump up^ ay 19C. pp. 46C79.

16. Jump up^ du2ois 19CC. p. %.

1H. Jump up^ 2rien 19C9. p. 4%.

1C. Jump up^ >alperin 199&. p. 4.

19. Jump up^ >alperin 199&. p. 6%.

%&. Jump up^ ;aglia 199. p. 1CH.

%1. Jump up^ ;osner 199%. p. %.

%%. Jump up^ Mason 199. pp. 1H%7.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Cap81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Alt82https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gre85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gay85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#duB88https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#O.27B89https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Pag93https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Pos23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Mas95https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Fou76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Cap81https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Alt82https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gre85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Gay85https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#duB88https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#O.27B89https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#cite_ref-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality#Hal90https://en.wikipedia.org/wik

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