EducationFormal Education – education that takes place in a formal setting of the school. It...

EDUCATION

Seth M. Alper, Ph.D. AICE A Level Sociology- Education & Social Institutions

Formal Education – education that takes place in a formal setting of the school.

It involves a specific range of subjects (formal curriculum)

Mastery is tested through formal examinations

Pre-industrial – no need for education – work in and around home

Industrialization brought about mass education – majority formal education

a need to educate the workforce

education is closely linked to the workforce (not accidental)

Education and the Economy

Functionalist View on Education

Society is a social system consisting of different institutions (family, work, education, religion, etc.)

each institution performs essential (core) functions providing the means of survival (work) or secondary socialization (education)

each institution needs things from other institutions to work. Workplace needs individuals with a certain amount of knowledge or skill. Different qualifications of knowledge or skill (degrees/certifications)

DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIP – workplace needs the education system to perform its allotted roles in order for society to function successfully


Development of Mass Education is explained in terms of functional differentiation – institutions develop to perform particular functions, such as work and education

If one of the needs of the institution are not being met, tensions develop within the system that threaten its stability and ability to function

Stability can only be restored in two ways:

Institution evolves to perform the required function

New institution, like formal education, arises to fulfill the need


UK Education 1944 Act

Established free, universal education explicitly addresses the relationship between education and the workplace through the distinction between pupils/students/learners

academic pupils – destined to move on to a university and professional employment

vocational pupils – destined to follow a practical or technical track

At age 11 - IQ test determines which track you follow and which kind of school you would go to – grammar school (professional occupations), secondary modern (vocational/service), secondary technical (skilled manual occupations)

Intelligence – capacities and abilities related to the acquisition and demonstration of knowledge and skills, such as problem-solving and decision-making.

The argument that this type of division is functional and necessary is reflected in secondary education systems worldwide

India – academic and vocational, Pakistan – similar to UK

The separation of academic and vocational educational routes reflects a belief in two kinds of work: professional and non-professional

Neo-Functionalist/New Right View on Education

Post-Industrial Societies (like USA)

move away from manufacturing

moving towards service and computer technologies

New focuses in education

breakdown of distinctions between ‘vocational’ and ‘academic’ subjects

move away from all content knowledge to skills

ability to work with others

problem solving

Education looks very different today, than 50 years ago.

Various globalizing processes have caused a long term decline in manufacturing and a rise in the financial and service sectors.

Meritocracy Theory on Education

Meritocracy – system based on equality of opportunity. Those with ability and talent achieve their just rewards regardless of their social characteristics.

Functional importance

Idea that different adult roles are measured according to their social contributions

Example – accountants have higher social status and pay because their role is functionally more important in society Can this be measured objectively? Tautological argument (one that contains its own proof)

Accountants has greater functional significance because it requires high-level academic qualifications therefore this is proof that the occupation is functionally important to the economy

Criticism – assumption that modern education systems sift and sort students in a meritocratic way Very little evidence of this in modern society Societies that use this system likely are marked by inequality

Wealthy families can afford fees for fee-based education which effectively buys them social status rather than children earning it through their own talents.

Meritocracy Theory on Education

Has been suggested that the functionalist view is merely an attempt to justify the inequality in society

Interactionists criticize the idea of meritocracy who would focus on the school processes to show that education is not meritocratic

Marxists argue that ‘meritocracy myth’ hides class reproduction - working class kids get working class jobs not because that’s what they are better suited for but because middle class kids are getting middle class jobs.

Social Democratic Theory on Education

Arguable that traditional functionalism does not consider how modern social systems operate – ideas relevant 50-150 years ago are no longer.

Social Democratic Theory – political theory that advocates technocratic and meritocratic solutions to the problem of differential educational achievement

technological changes shift from a manufacturing lifestyle to a service industry (finance, computing, IT)

social change focused on equality in regards to gender, ethnicity, and class

The solution to these problems in the UK was comprehensive education:

Comprehensive education – system where schools are open to all children, regardless of their ability to pay, where they live or prior educational achievement.

social democrats see comprehensive education as a way of reducing class inequalities by creating more opportunities for working-class children.

Equality of opportunity was not only seen as socially fair, but it opened the door for healthy competition

Would produced a larger number of better-qualified workers to serve the new technological requirements of changing economy

THIS PERSPECTIVE BELIEVES EDUCATION IS THE MEANS THROUGH WHICH PROBLEMS OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY CAN BE ADDRESSED AND MANAGED

A truly meritocratic system would result in a more fair distribution of economic and social rewards, increased social mobility and a decline in social inequality

Social Democratic Theory on Education

Marxist View on Education

Marxism in Education – the structure and organization of the workplace is mirrored in the organization of schools.

Workplace inequalities are reflected and reproduced through the education system in a range of ways:

Behaviors are regulated

compulsory attendance

where to be and when to be there

Hierarchy in the schools

teachers exercise authority over the students

Students have no control over

the process as a whole

content of education

the teaching and learning process

students compete for grades

Correspondence Principle – the organization of schools closely corresponds to the organization and demands of the workplace. for those destined for lower level work, focus is on rule following

for those destined for middle level work, reliability and some ability to work independently is emphasized

for those destined for higher level work, emphasis on independent work and taking some control over their academic work

The relationship between education and the economy is based around cultural reproduction Cultural Reproduction – Marxist idea that higher social classes try to reproduce their leadership

and privileges by investing time, money, and resources in the education of their offspring.

For Marxists, meritocracy is a myth – the education system works in favor of the ruling elite in various ways Payment for private schools, tutoring

Others relate to educational practices such as streaming - where children of different abilities are taught separately

Legitimating myth – education system has appearance of fairness, equality and merit, when in fact it’s the opposite.


Formal curriculum assists cultural reproduction through streaming

Streaming shows students that life is ‘unequal’, and this is normal

Cultural reproduction is disguised as a consequence of the choices students make and their differing levels of ability or aptitude

Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) – Marxist concept that argues that institutions such as schools encourage values favorable to the interests of a ruling class in capitalist societies.

Vocational education has advantages for ruling class

eliminates working-class children as competitors for high-level jobs

gives the appearance of being ‘chosen’ through academic performance


Vocationalism – the knowledge and skills required for specific types of employment.

Work-experience programs (young people)

government subsidizes employers (pay salaries) to take employees and train them in vocational positions.

Schools should make different types of academic and vocational education available based on the responses of what students different interests and experiences

Long-term unemployed

must take unpaid work

employees lose government benefits if they leave the job (is this fair?)


Criticisms of Marxist Perspective

working-class students are not passive

students resist following rules

schools are autonomous and interpret curriculum as they wish


Feminist View on Education

Feminist Argument – the relationship between education and the economy is one in which men and women are channeled into different types and levels of work

Horizontal segregation – refers to the idea that many occupations are sex segregated

Female-Dominated Professions - teaching, nursing, secretarial

Worse working conditions, job security, and lower wages

Male-Dominated Professions - engineering, computing, construction

Primary labor markets involve companies with high levels of job security, career prospects and wages

Feminist View on Education

Even in fields where women are the primary workers, males tend to dominate the higher level positions. - ie – teachers/principals, nurses/doctors, etc. (women relegated to ‘secondary labor markets’)

Gendered Curriculum – situation in which males and females choose, or are given, different subjects to study.

Subject Choices

girls typically choose English, Psychology, Sociology, Art, Design

boys typically choose Physics, Business, Physical Education

Shop Class / Home Economics

UK Educational Achievement

Educational Achievement – gaining different levels of educational qualification UK

girls are consistently outperforming boys at all levels of the UK examination system. But this is not helping women into well-paid jobs.

One cause of the discrepancy between achievement and occupation is Gender Stereotyping – assigning particular characteristics to whole gender groups, regardless of their individual differences.

Stereotypes Girls – childcare, nursing, hairdressing, secretarial

Boys – computing, accounting, plumbing

Gender Stereotyping – most fully pronounced in vocational programs 45% of girls allocated to caring placements although it did not reflect their choices

Boys allocated to placements considered as traditionally male

Girls unsuccessful in their preferred placements, were allocated to traditionally female occupations.

Therefore, vocational training is more likely to result in both male and females being channeled into traditional forms of gendered employment, however it can also be argued that academic education does not necessarily guarantee a lack of stereotyping and segregation

Educational Achievement & Intelligence

Many disagreements on what intelligence is and how it should be measured

In education, the most common test of intelligence is an Intelligent Quotient (IQ) Test– a specific measure of individual intelligence, where a score of 100 is average, conventionally based on tests of mathematical, verbal and spatial skills.

IQ – used at age 11 to determine who is set on grammar school track or vocational track.

SAT – partly used for entrance into college in the USA


Supporters argue that they measure ‘intelligence’ independently of class, gender, age, or ethnicity

Ethnicity – expression of the cultural background of different groups, which includes factors such as religious affiliations, country of birth and residence, cultural beliefs, traditions, and customs.

Critics argue that prior education, reading habits, experience with tests, cultural upbringing, mental and physical health will effect scores.

Critics argue that intelligence is too complex to be reduced to simple forms of testing. These tests are all context dependent.

IQ tests justify social and academic segregation

IQ tests provide support for middle and upper classes families to have a privileged status.

List the pros and cons of using IQ tests to measure intelligence and education


Intelligence and achievement may be socially constructed and explanations for their relationships take place in three forms: agnostic, positive, and negative

Agnostic – we do not know if there is a correlation between intelligence and achievement

1. there is no agreed definition of intelligence so we do not know what is being measured.

2. if we could agree on what intelligence is, there is no consensus about how it can be reliably and validly measured.

Further problems arise if intelligence is conceptualized as a relationship

This means it is seen as something fluid, created by individuals as they go about their lives and expressed in different ways and contexts, rather than as a permanent quality.

Suggests intelligence develops through cultural practices and ways of learning rather than it being something we are born with.

Intelligence is difficult to define precisely, but we can all agree that it refers to ability as opposed to achievement


Positive Correlation – argues we can assume IQ tests measure significant aspects of intelligence in the form cognitive skills - research shows a positive correlation between intelligence and educational achievement.

In the UK, Saunders argues that intelligence while not determined at birth differs amongst social classes.

knowledge and experience passed from middle class parents to children

middle class parents instill the importance of educational qualifications.

Intelligent working-class children are educationally successful and rise into the middle class – social selection

Middle class children who fail to capitalize on their social advantages fall back into the working class

Middle class children will, on average, be more intelligent than working class children.


Negative – follows two lines of reasoning No surprise if there is no correlation between intelligence and educational achievement

mainly because the skills valued and taught in schools and tested in public examinations are those measured by IQ tests

Educational achievement is not related to intelligence, rather it is related to cultural factors inside and outside the education system that allow some students to do well but severely limit the ability of tohers.

“The vast majority of one’s ultimate niche is society is determined by non-IQ factors, ranging from social class to luck” Social Class – the individual’s position in a class-based system of social stratification,

conventionally defined by occupation. Some argue that because the people who make the IQ tests are from the educated middle

class that if you score high on the IQ tests then you must be as intelligent as the person who made the test. The values reflected in IQ testes are those of the middle class.

Relationship b/w Education & Social Mobility

Social Mobility – the ability to move up or down the class structure

relative to where you start

Inter-generational mobility – movement between generations, parent and child as adult

Intra-generational mobility – movement within one person’s lifetime

Modern Industrial Societies – position in society is not fixed by characteristics such as age, gender, or ethnicity, rather it is earned or achieved on the basis of factors such as educational qualifications

Consensus Approaches

Functionalism – the relationship between education and social mobility focus on how education system represents a bridge between family and the economy

important social positions are filled by those most qualified

upward mobility earned through merit

Meritocracy – inevitable that mass education systems develop in modern industrial societies, because their primary function is differentiation– allowing individuals to demonstrate their differences in objective ways

high pay and high status are rewards for abilities and efforts in education, therefore inequality is inevitable

must be equal opportunity for everyone

Neo-Functionalism / New Right

blends a meritocracy with individual and group’s choices.

if societies provide the same opportunities to their members through meritocratic schooling system, then educational success or failure results from the different choices people make


Social Inequality – unequal and unfair distribution of resources in any system such as education. - Inequality of educational opportunity, for example, refers to the way some children are treated unfairly based on class, gender, or ethnicity.

Social Capital – extent to which people are connected to social networks (who you know) and how this can be used to their advantage.

Why do functionalists believe that education systems must be meritocratic?


Equality of Opportunity – absence of discrimination within institutions such as schools

According to Neo-Functionalists, out choices determine out outcomes. - Do you choose to work hard in school, or do you choose to drop out of school and get pregnant?

Marketization – process whereby the supply and consumption of educational goods and services are opened up to private and public competition. Neo-functionalist approach argues that schools should be privately owned rather than

state controlled Must respond to consumer demand by continually innovating and improving their service

to attract and retain customers

This approach of marketization is seen as being limited by producer capture – limits a child’s chances of mobility, especially children from lower levels of society who cannot afford to pay for an alternative education to that offered by the state

Cultural Capital – anything in the individual’s cultural background that gives them advantages over others. - ie - higher educational qualifications are exchanged for more better jobs and higher pay.

Conflict Approaches

While consensus approaches generally see open, competitive and meritocratic education system as the most important source of social mobility in modern industrial societies, conflict approaches take the opposite view

Education is not a source of social mobility but rather the means through which bourgeois class is able to cement its privileged social position.

Marxism – main role of education is Cultural reproduction through education, cement your social status

educate the masses just enough to be useful employees, then a select few ‘more than enough’ to rule over them

education is a way of reproducing inequality in the workplace

costs associated with advancing educationally are huge.

Neo-Marxism - inequality like Marxism, but with the ‘consent’ of the led, particularly through the media. - IQ tests and myth of equality of opportunity has people blaming themselves - the myth of meritocracy

Functionalism – Causes of educational underachievement

Functionalism – supports argument for a meritocratic system.

Working Class underachievement explained by cultural deprivation

Cultural Deprivation – a lack of important cultural resources such as parental encouragement are the cause of educational underachievement of working class.

parental interest in education

family size (poorer families are typically larger)

position within family (older children typically achieve more)

deficient care of babies (at home parenting has positive effect)

Cultural Deprivation

Cultural deprivation has two main applications: Working-class children encounter difficulties adjusting to middle-class norms and values found in

schools.

Elaborated speech codes – complex vocabulary and ideas. (Middle Class) clashes with restricted speech codes – simple language to convey direct meanings. Predictable and express relatively simple, straightforward ideas. (Working Class)

Restricted speech of students clashes with the elaborated speech of middle class teachers. Research shows that this has influenced teacher assessments.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XvdaMYWq5yM



Cultural Deprivation

Wider-economic pressures on family life result in working-class children leaving school at the earliest opportunity.

Immediate Gratification – parental attitudes and economic pressure has working class children leave school to

enter workforce at earliest opportunity.

families living hand to mouth

Goodman and Gregg (2010)

80% of most affluent mothers expected their children to go to universities

40% of least affluent mothers “hoped” their children would go to university

Children from poorer families believed they were less academic and were consequently less concerned about

doing well academically than their middle class peers

Compensatory Education

Contemporary ideas about cultural deprivation have focused on ways of compensating working-class children for their dysfunctional family life to give them an equal opportunity to compete with their culturally advantaged middle-class peers

Compensatory Education – supplementary educational programs designed to compensate children for their deprived home background.

services provided to pre-school children and families to increase achievements

programs to get pregnant teenagers back into school

outside of school activities and events to encourage parent involvement

New Right Perspective

Argues that material and cultural factors are the causes of the educational failure of those disconnected from society.

the socially excluded are not just poor but are victims of anti-education, anti-marriage policies which have undermined personal responsibility

The argument is that the underclass is responsible for their underachievement due to parents not taking responsibility for socialization and childcare.

Higher number of female-headed single-parent households that fail to provide role models for male children

poor parenting

‘anti-school’ peer pressure

inability to take responsibility for their own behavior

New Right Perspective

Suggests that the disproportionate representation of ethnic minorities in the underclass is related to failures in their cultural organization

Caribbean families – highest rates of single parent house and lowest rates of educational achievement

High levels of academic achievement of Asian students has a correlation to parent attitudes, higher marriage rates, and supportive extended families.

Other Explanations

Social Exclusion – being excluded from participation in social institutions such as education or employment.

Many working class parents argue they care about education but feel excluded from decision making within schools

marginalized youth struggle to come to terms with their low status and social exclusion

Marxists believe that differential achievement comes from material deprivation and cultural capital.

Material deprivation – a cause of educational underachievement, refers to factors such as poverty, a lack of

physical resources, etc.

Marxists focus on materialistic explanations of poverty

poor diet

lack of study facilities

need to work to help family

Marxism & Educational Achievement

Education systems are dominated by middle class norms, values, and beliefs. This creates a class sub-culture within schools and many students can not adapt.

Middle class – educational qualifications are an important way of reproducing individual class positions

Working class – the work-based route to money and status has always been more important

the by-products are underachievement, truancy and exclusion

Social class is the best predictor of academic achievement

Suggest a way in which material deprivation may disadvantage working class pupils

Marxist View: Gender and Ethnicity in Education

Marxists focus on gender in education by looking at gender within social class. - go figure… Marxism and Social Classes

Little difference in male/female attainment in math/science

No difference at the lowest achievement levels for all other subjects

Girls do better than boys among mid-to-high achievers with a correlation between achievement and class that there is between achievement and gender

Ethnicity is a good general predictor of educational achievement

some argue this is correlated to social class

some argue that there is institutional and cultural racism

Labelling – a process by naming something and, by so doing, associating it with a specific set of social characteristics

Implies that school processes such as labelling, stereotyping and low teacher/pupil expectations are potentially significant explanations

Schools can make a difference; levels of working class achievement can be raised but the behavior and expectations of teachers can also compound the levels of material and cultural disadvantages many working-class children bring to the school.

Do schools fail to inspire and educate working class pupils?

Feminist View on Education Today

Feminism has shifted from female underachievement to learning to cope with school and workplace disadvantages.

girls now typically outperform boys academically

Traditional gender roles are stronger with working class girls

Today families are getting more involved in their daughters education

Today girls have a wider range of gender identities

Feminist View on Education Today

Natural differences – brain functions

Feminization of schools

Lack of male role models in schools

Female-friendly teaching practices

Positive discrimination – preferential treatment based on the individual’s class, gender, ethnicity and so forth.

Curricula reflects positive discrimination in favor of girls - ie – AICE Sociology, dual burden, triple shift, etc.

Relationship b/w Class, Gender, & Ethnicity

Combination approaches are typically associated with Marxist perspective

Marxists – Class is the primary factor, gender and ethnicity are subgroups of class

Educational Achievement Predictors - class is the best predictor of educational achievement - ethnicity is in the middle - gender is the narrowest

Compounding of inequalities are more significant than simply class, gender, or ethnicity

Modernity & Education

Formal Curriculum is defined by those in power (Marxism)

Remember cultural reproduction? – the ability of the ruling class to pass on its political and economic demonization from one generation to the next

Teachers are agents of ideological control who transform pupil consciousness by trying to get them to accept the realities of life and their likely future social positions

Education, the media and religion are seen as instruments of class oppression and domination through the power they have over what people learn and how they learn it

Access to knowledge is limited through control of curriculum

Exams validate qualifications – make sure students are reaching “approved” levels

Some knowledge is more valuable than others, (AICE v. core v. electives)

Clear division between vocational and theoretical knowledge

Suggest one way in which knowledge is categorized in schools

De-Schooling – A reaction to Modernity

De-Schooling – proposed by Illich, based on the abolition of formal schools.

His basic ideas about power and control:

1. Institutionalization – schools destroy student creativity, and through qualifications turn education into a commodity.

2. Professionalism – the middle class teachers are shaping the structure, content, and development of the curriculum in their own image. Middle class is deciding what “legitimate knowledge” is.

3. Commodification – Institutionalism and Professionalism are turning something abstract, “knowledge”, into something concrete, “qualification”.

The distinction between education and training according to Dewey and followed by Illich:

Education should be transformative, focusing on individuals and their social, psychological, and moral development as people in ways that enable them to achieve their full potential

Training is the mechanical and repetitive learning of a narrow range of undisputed facts

Briefly explain what is meant by the “commodification of learning”. Suggest one weakness with the idea that learning has been commodified

Cultural Capital (Neo-Marxist)

Cultural Capital – different advantages and disadvantages conferred by people’s cultural histories.

Provides a significant mechanism for cultural reproduction that is carried out by the education system “in the background”

Critical of the theory that schools operate on meritocratic lines because differences in cultural capital influence both the relative starting points of students as they enter the education and their relative starting points of students and their relative progress throughout the system.

Middle and Upper classes are willing to invest more time, money and effort into their children’s education. - This gives these students a distinct advantage - This undermines the idea of a meritocracy

Postmodernist View on Education

Postmodernists – see schools as systems of social control - teachers and students are constantly challenging the systems of control- question their roles and demanding greater control

The tension between both of these processes has important implications for both the social construction of knowledge and learning, and how power and control are exercised and experienced. The control operates on two different levels:

Mental Control - subjects, knowledge, curriculum (which texts we read)

Physical Control - Bodies – what teachers and pupils can and can not do, ie- where to sit, when to speak, etc.

- Space – security, patrolled hallways, bell schedules

Structure - periods, bells, quantification through tests, little sense of individuality

Teacher-Pupil Relationships

Teacher/Student relationship is key to having students ‘conform’ to a particular teaching style. - this affects a student’s perception of education

Teaching Styles - teacher-centered – teacher directs and informs class - demonstrator – teacher-centered but focus on demonstration and having students experiment - student-centered – teacher as facilitator, students responsible for learning - delegation – students work independently of teacher

Students “Switching Off”

When pupils fail to see what they are learning as useful now and in the future, it turns a large number of them off to learning.

This is influenced by teaching styles and teacher-pupil relationships.

Two typical responses by students

learned dependence - educationally successful students quickly learn to follow what the demands.

experienced alienation - students see school, teachers and education as alien, irrelevant and threatening.

These responses have their origins at home, based on values and norms.

Higher suspension/expulsion rates for working-class students

Middle/Upper Class students see school as “gaining qualifications”

Hidden Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum – things students learn through the ‘process’ of attending school, both positive and negative. ie – making friends, consequences of disobeying authority.

Informal Education – things students learn that are not part of the curriculum. ie- value of learning, behavior within the school, attitudes of authority.

Socialization Messages – behavior to succeed in school ie – attendance, rules, recognize teacher’s authority, not question what is being taught

Status Messages – Messages relate to the ideas a student has about their “worth” ie – private schools, school grade, streaming (labels), academic/vocational

Identify something pupils informally learn from the experience of attending school

Labeling & Streaming

Labeling determined by classes (AP/regular) also by reputation.

Cultural capital has a significant impact on a student’s ability to negotiate barriers to success such as exams or negative labeling.

Streaming has a strong correlation with social class. Middle/Upper classes in the higher streams.

Streams make students feel like a “success” or “failure”

Labels have a crucial influence on how students are perceived by new teachers.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – a prediction about something, such as ‘ability’ that, by being made, causes it to occur.

Teacher beliefs about ‘good’ and ‘bad’ students are transmitted by attitudes and behavior.

Class, gender and ethnicity consciously and subconsciously influence labeling

Think about labels that we assign to girls and boys in school……

Now lets think about professions dominated by males and females……

Can a whole school receive a positive or negative label?

Ethnicity in Education

Overt Racism plays some part in the experience of schooling - White British students have less positive attitudes towards immigrants of other countries - Saturday (neighborhood supplementary schooling) exists because black communities feel dissatisfied with ‘white institutions’ failing them,

Cultural Racism (ethnocentrism) is a more subtle form of racism - ethnocentric curriculum involves teaching practices and expectations based on cultural norms, histories, and cultural references unfamiliar to ethnic-minorities - lack of role models within schools for ethnic minority pupils. 5% of UK teachers are ethnic minorities, while 15% of students are ethnic minorities

Ethnicity in Education- UK examples

Criticism from teachers, stereotypes of cultural differences, communities or speech… all affect academic performance

Black Caribbean boys do the worst in UK schools + are set in the lowest bands.

Black Caribbean families have the highest rates of single parenthood, and have the lowest rates of educational achievement.

Subtle forms of labeling and stereotyping seem to influence educational experiences. - how students are expected to speak and write - teachers generally underrate abilities of black Caribbean students

Gender in Education

Gender differences in school go back to the socialization process at home - expectations and gender roles are different

Labeling - girls are increasingly labeled as high achievers who work hard and have the least behavioral problems - boys are increasingly negatively labeled in terms of underachievement, laziness, and behavioral problems.

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