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Near Net Shape Cold, Warm & Hot Forging
A Short Course Developed at
The Engineering Research CenterFor Net Shape Manufacturing (ERC/NSM)
Presented ByDr. Taylan Altan, Professor & Director
© Copyright Engineering Research Center for
Net Shape Manufacturing. All Rights Reserved.
http://www.ercnsm.org
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References
• T. Altan. S.Oh, H. Gegel, Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications, American Society for Metals, Metal Park Ohio 1983.
• K. Lange, Hand Book of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill Book Company 1985.
• A.J. Schey, Tribology in Metal Working, American Society for Metals, Metal park Ohio 1983.
• Forging Industry Association (FIA), Forging Handbook –www.forging.org
• ASM International, ASM Hand Book: Forming and Forging, Volume 14, 1988.
• T. Altan, F.W. Boulger, J.R. Becker, N.Akgerman, & H.J. Henning, Forging Equipment, Materials, and Practices, Metals and Ceramic Information Center, Ohio 1973.
• International Cold Forging Group – Various Documents
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1.1 & 1.2Forging Processes
Near Net Shape Cold, Warm & Hot Forging
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Cold Forging - Starts at room temperature(RT to 600-800 F)
Warm Forging - Below or near recrystallization temperature (900 F - 1800 F for steel)
**Tool designs for cold & warm forging are similar,but temperatures and lubricants are different
Hot Forging - Above recrystallization temperature (1800 F - 2200 F for steel, 800 F for Al)
Forging Processes
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Effects of Test Temperature and Test Speed
Effects of test temperature and test speed (strain rate) on tensile strength and
reduction of area of hot rolled type 1045 steel(Courtesy: Technical Report by Bethlehem Steel Corporation,
Bethlehem, PA)
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Cold, Warm, & Hot Forging-- Advantages & Disadvantages -
Cold Warm HotAdvantages
• Precision Process (Tight Tolerances)
• Improved Part Strength• Better Surface Finish• Material Conservation
Disadvantages• High Forming Pressures• Several Pre-Forming Steps
Needed• Annealing Steps May Be
Required During Process• Low Formability
Advantages• Combines Advantages of
Cold & Hot Forging• Better Formability• Lower Forming Pressures• Higher Deformation Ratio• No Annealing Required
Disadvantages• High Tooling Costs• Tooling Must Withstand
Forming Pressures as well as High Temperatures
Advantages• Can Forge Complex
Shapes• Good Formability• Low Forming Pressures• Can Forge Parts of Higher
Weight and Volume
Disadvantages• Formation of Scale• Decreased Accuracy
(Larger Tolerances)
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Cold Forging- Forming Sequence -
Rear View Mirror Holder(Cold Forged)
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Standard terminology for various features of a typical forging die
Forging With Flash
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Hot Forging With Flash
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Hot Forged Connecting Rods
Preforms prepared in reducer rolls
Finish forging before and after trimming
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Hot Forging - Track Links
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Examples Of Hot Forgings
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A billet with carefully controlled volume is deformed (hot or cold) by a punch to fill a die cavity without any loss of material
Forging Without Flash(trapped die)
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Multiple-step Cold Forging
(a) Sheared Billet
(b) Forward rod and backward cup extrusion
(c) Forward extrusion
(d) Backward cup extrusion
(e) Upsetting of flange and coining of shoulder
(a)
(b) (c)(d) (e)
Schematic illustration of forming sequences in cold forging of a gear blank
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Cold Forged Components
Reference: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
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Cold Forged Parts
Courtesy: Raufoss
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Open Die Forging
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Various Stages in Orbital Forging Processes
Orbital Forging
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Radial Forging of a Shaft
Radial (Or Rotary) Forging
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Upset Forging
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Economics of Cold Forging
Minimum number of parts in a production lot for economic production in cold forging of steel
Number of forged parts in:Part Weight Universal Special
machines machines
<20 g…………..………………..… 10,000 500,00020 to 500 g……………………….. 5,000 50,000500 g to 10 kg……………………. 1,000 20,00010 to 50 kg…………….………….. 1,000 10,000
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Forging Process as a System
(1) Billet Material(2) Tooling(3) Tool/Material Interface(4) Deformation Zone/Workpiece
(5) Equipment(6) Product(7) Plant Environment
(1)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(2)
(4)
(2)
(4)
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Forging Process as a System- Significant Variables -
• Billet Material– Flow Stress (instantaneous yield stress) as a Function of
Strain, Strain Rate,Temperature, & Microstructure– Workability (forgeability) as a Function of Strain, Strain
Rate,Temperature, & Microstructure– Surface Conditions– Thermal/Physical Properties– Initial Conditions (composition, temperature, history)– Effects of Changes in Microstructure & Composition
• Tooling– Geometry of Tools– Surface Conditions– Material/Heat Treatment/Hardness– Temperature
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• Conditions at Tool/Material Interface– Lubricant Type and Temperature– Insulation & Cooling Characteristics of the Interface Layer– Lubricity & Frictional Shear Stress– Characteristics Related to Lubricant Application &
Removal
• Deformation Zone– Deformation Mechanics, Model Used for Analysis– Metal Flow, Velocities, Strain Rates, & Strains– Stresses (variation during deformation)– Temperatures (Heat Generation & Transfer)
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• Equipment– Speed/Production Rate– Force/Energy Capabilities– Rigidity & Accuracy
• Product– Geometry– Dimensional Accuracy, Tolerances, Surface Finish– Microstructure, Mechanical & Metallurgical Properties
• Plant & Environment– Manpower– Air, Noise, & Wastewater Pollution– Plant & Production Facilities and Control
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Process & EquipmentVariables in Forging
SLIDE VELOCITY, Vp
CONTACT TIME, tp
STIFFNESS, C
CLEARANCES, FLATNESS,
& PARALLELISM
MACHINE LOAD, LM
MACHINE ENERGY, EM
STROKES/MIN, no(IDLE)
STROKES/MIN, no(UNDER LOAD)
STRAIN RATE
DIE TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE, θ
MATERIAL FLOW STRESS
FRICTION,LUBRICATION
PART GEOMETRY
VARIATIONS INSTOCK WEIGHT
& TEMPERATURE
PARTTOLERANCES
REQ’D LOAD, LpENERGY, EP
MACHINE VARIABLESPROCESS VARIABLES
SURFACE TO VOLUME RATIO