Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services · 2019-12-05 · 87! forested ecosystems, the...

1

Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and 1

Ecosystem Services 2

Thematic Group Eight of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network 3

Co-chairs 4

Shahid Naeem 5

Director of the Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability, Columbia University, USA 6

Virgilio Viana 7

Director General, Amazonas Sustainability Foundation, Brazil 8

Martin Visbeck 9

Chair in Physical Oceanography, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel and Kiel 10 University, Germany 11

12 13 Members 14 15 Sérgio Amoroso, Patricio Bernal, Eduardo Brondizio, Lijbert Brussaard, Vitor Cabral, Ronnie de 16 Camino, Naoko Ishii, Carlos Joly, Sandra Lavorel, Georgina Mace, Harini Nagendra, Unai 17 Pascual, Katherine Richardson, Julien Rochette, Frances Seymour, Emma Torres, Adalberto 18 Val, Wendy Watson-Wright. 19 20

Contributions made by Mariana Pavan, Victor Salviati, Suelen Marostica and María Cortés Puch 21

22 23

Advanced Working Draft Open for Comments 24 (email to [email protected] by 14 April, 2014) 25

26 27 28 29 30 This report will be submitted to UN Secretary-‐General and the Open Working Group on the Sustainable 31 Development Goals. It has been prepared by members of the Thematic Group on Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and 32 Ecosystem Services of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN). All members are acting in their 33 personal capacity. The report may not represent the views of all members of SDSN Leadership Council. 34

2

Table of Contents 35 Preface ......................................................................................................................................... 3 36

Sustaining life ............................................................................................................................ 3 37

Sustaining Life as a Thematic Group ........................................................................................ 3 38

A network of solutions ........................................................................................................... 3 39

Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES) ........................................ 4 40

The Work Ahead ....................................................................................................................... 5 41

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6 42

The Living World ....................................................................................................................... 6 43

Environmental sustainability on a rich and varied planet ....................................................... 6 44

New beginnings, new commitments ...................................................................................... 7 45

Development’s scorecard ...................................................................................................... 8 46

A fundamental framework for the 21st Century ...................................................................... 9 47

Ecosystems: Earth’s environmental engines ....................................................................... 10 48

Life is everywhere ................................................................................................................ 10 49

Biodiversity and environment: a two-way interaction .......................................................... 11 50

Dominant ecosystems in the pathway to sustainable development .................................... 13 51

FOBES Sustainable Development Solutions .............................................................................. 15 52

Initiating the Process ............................................................................................................... 15 53

FOBES Solutions .................................................................................................................... 17 54

Solution 1. Reduce agricultural expansion by improving efficiency .................................... 17 55

Solution 2. Develop economic instruments for ecosystem services ................................... 20 56

Solution 3. Emphasize the participatory process ................................................................ 21 57

Solution 4. Expand biodiversity and ecosystem function/service research ........................ 22 58

Solution 5. Develop smart ecosystem governance ............................................................ 24 59

Solution 6. Develop smart sustainable management of biodiversity and ecosystem services60 ............................................................................................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 61

Key Metrics ............................................................................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido. 62

Literature Cited ........................................................................................................................... 27 63

64

65

3

Preface 66

Sustaining life 67 The diversity of life on Earth is our greatest asset in the campaign to achieve sustainable 68 development. Found in every crevice and corner of every habitat on Earth, from the alpine 69 tundra of the Tibetan Plateau to the deepest parts of the Mariana Trench, millions of plant, 70 animal, and microbial species work day in and day out providing us with benefits valued in the 71 trillions of dollars. Much of these benefits are invisible, such as maintaining Earth’s 72 stratospheric ozone layer that shields us from harmful radiation or pumping unwanted 73 atmospheric carbon into the ocean’s depths or in the trees of a forest. The productivity our 74 forests, farms, and fisheries, however, are highly visible benefits. They are the sources of our 75 food, fiber, materials, and fuels and the foundation of our health, well-being, and national wealth 76 and the more diverse they are the more productive and robust they will be. Thus, preserving 77 biodiversity and wisely managing our ecosystems ensures environmental sustainability, which is 78 the necessary precursor to achieving sustainable development. It is important to note here that 79 the SDSN fully supports the Rio+20 vision of sustainable development as a holistic concept 80 addressing four dimensions of society: economic development (including the end of extreme 81 poverty), social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and good governance including peace 82 and security. 83

Life on earth, however, is undergoing significant change, making the pathway to environmental 84 sustainability extraordinarily challenging. Habitat degradation, overfishing, climate change, and 85 the human transport of invasive species, pests and pathogens, have led to enormous losses of 86 forested ecosystems, the collapse of major fisheries, and the decline in the majority of services 87 ecosystems provide. 88

Fortunately, biodiversity and ecosystem services have been under intense scientific 89 investigation since 1992, following on the heels of the Earth Summit in Rio. Today, some 90 solutions to the challenges of achieving environmental sustainability are to hand. However, 91 much more can and needs to be done. 92

Sustaining Life as a Thematic Group 93

A network of solutions 94 Achieving sustainable development is not just about economics and environment, but about 95 meeting a wide array of interconnected challenges. These challenges include finding solutions 96 to food, energy, and water security, improving health, alleviating hunger and poverty, and wisely 97 managing biodiversity and ecosystem services. No single challenge among these will find its 98 solution in isolation. Sustainable solutions to poverty, health, and hunger, for example, are 99 strongly tied to solutions to securing ecosystem services, such as the provisioning of food and 100 materials by forests, agro-ecosystems, the provisioning of water by watersheds, healthy and 101 productive ocean and coasts. 102

To mobilize science and technology and to accelerate problem solving for sustainable 103 development, the General-Secretary of the United Nations has established the Sustainable 104

4

Development Solutions Network (SDSN). Jeffrey Sachs serves as its director and Guido 105 Schmidt-Traub its executive director, and an Executive Committee and Leadership Council 106 comprised of world leaders in sustainable development from across all sectors brought together 107 to develop integrative solutions. 108

The Solutions Network is organized into twelve thematic groups (Box 1), each representing a 109 node made up of experts drawn from academia, civil society, local and indigenous 110 representatives and the private sector to develop integrated solutions to the complex challenges 111 that confront those working towards meeting sustainable development goals. 112

Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES) 113 Of the twelve Thematic Groups, the one centered on biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem 114 services is entitled, Forest, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES). This 115 Thematic Group serves as the network node for scientific and technical expertise centered on 116 biodiversity and ecosystem services. It interacts with all other SDSN nodes and serves all 117 sectors seeking integrative solutions to sustainable development. One of its chief functions is to 118 help inform the establishment of goals, targets, and 119 indicators. In that sense, the FOBES thematic group 120 has been actively involved in the preparation of the 121 report prepared by the SDSN for the UN Secretary 122 General “An Action Agenda for Sustainable 123 Development.” In particular, the FOBES group will 124 contribute to bolster a discussion around potential 125 targets and indicators to measure the success towards 126 Goal 9 proposed by this Action Agenda: Secure 127 ecosystem services and biodiversity, and ensure good 128 management of water and other natural resources. 129

It has also supported the High-level Panel of Eminent 130 Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The 131 FOBES thematic group draws its members from of 132 academia, civil society, and the private sector who 133 interact closely with members of the other Thematic 134 Groups. 135

It might not seem easy to connect forests, savannas, 136 deserts, coral reefs, and kelp forests, let alone wildlife, 137 and millions of species of insects known only to entomologists, and a largely unexplored deep 138 sea to human well-being, but they are closely linked to one another and humans in general 139 because they are supplying the most important life support system. Somewhere on the order of 140 ten million species populate earth’s ecosystems. Weighing at over a trillion tons of biomass, 141 half of which consists of beneficial microbes in our soils, sediments, and oceans, these species 142 cycle billions of tons of carbon, nutrients, and other elements among the biomes and 143 ecosystems of the earth. Through their biological, chemical, and physical work, this diversity of 144 life on earth, or biodiversity, is what make our soils fertile, water potable, air breathable, climate 145

Box 1. Thematic Groups of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) _______________________________

1: Macroeconomics, Population Dynamics, and Planetary Boundaries

2: Poverty Reduction and Peace-‐Building in Fragile Regions

3: Challenges of Social Inclusion: Gender, Inequalities, and Human Rights

4: Early Childhood Development, Education, and Transition to Work

5: Health for All 6: Low-‐Carbon Energy and Sustainable

Industry 7: Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems 8: Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity, and

Ecosystem Services 9: Sustainable Cities: Inclusive, Resilient, and

Connected 10: Good Governance of Extractive and Land

Resources 11: Global Governance and Norms for

Sustainable Development 12: Redefining the Role of Business for

Sustainable Development

5

equitable, and ecosystems productive. They also regulate climate, flooding, the spread of 146 infectious diseases, and control agricultural pests, invasive species, and provide pollination 147 services for our orchards and vegetable crops. Valuations of these services, from greenhouse 148 gas regulation by forests to markets for wild-caught fish, range in the billions, sometimes trillions 149 of dollars annually for individual services. Biodiversity, ecosystem services, and our basic 150 livelihood and well-being are inextricably linked. 151

The relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem services is complex, but increasingly 152 understood and new mechanisms for their inclusion into our markets and economies are under 153 rapid development such as carbon trading and payment for ecosystem services. There is a 154 need to reduce transaction costs and increase the scale of PES schemes. 155

Of the many biomes and ecosystems that make up the living Earth, forests and oceans are 156 undergoing rapid change, representing places where biodiversity and ecosystem services need 157 urgent and special attention. Thus FOBES, though its domain encompasses all of life on Earth, 158 emphasizes forest and ocean biodiversity and ecosystem functions when considering solutions 159 for achieving sustainable development and environmental sustainability. 160

The Work Ahead 161 The FOBES Thematic Group aims to support the design and implementation of the sustainable 162 development goals underlying key environmental conventions that address the global 163 environmental commons. These include the United Nations Convention on Climate Change 164 (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention on the 165 Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), to name 166 just a few biodiversity-related agreements. Also, the FOBES Thematic Group will liaise with 167 existing international research programs, such as DIVERSITAS, the United Nations Forum on 168 Forests (UNFF), the International Council for Science - Future Earth (ICSU-FutureEarth), and 169 the major global environmental assessments, such as, the Intergovernmental Platform on 170 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the World Ocean assessment. 171

172

173

174

Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Illustrated is the diversity of life as an evolutionary tree that underlies the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide. Only three biomes are illustrated – forests being converted to agriculture, oceans whose resources are being unsustainably harvested, and in the center, grasslands being converted to grazinglands and pastures. Earth’s biogeochemistry, which governs climate, atmospheric composition, soil fertility, ocean productivity, and much more, is illustrated by elemental and nutrient cycling in the topmost layer. This is the domain of FOBES. (From: Naeem et al. 2012).

6

Introduction 175

The Living World 176

Environmental sustainability on a rich and varied 177 planet 178 Nature is complex, diverse, and highly dynamic and 179 as much a source of our prosperity as it is a challenge 180 to achieving a more equitable and sustainable world. 181 Across the vast reaches of our planet, no matter the 182 scale, whether from households to the biosphere, 183 people, plants, animals, and the nearly invisible but 184 ubiquitous microorganisms, collectively produce a 185 global environment that sustains all of life on Earth. 186 In any given place at any given time, life may be 187 doing a poor job of insuring environmental 188 sustainability, creating conditions in which species 189 perish, energy and nutrients fail to cycle efficiently, 190 and ecosystems become fragile and incapable of 191 tolerating environmental shocks. In other places, 192 however, ecological systems flourish; they are 193 productive and robust. 194

Such ecological diversity, such spatial and temporal variability among ecosystems, is to be 195 expected on a planet whose surface conditions range from ice-covered poles to warm tropical 196 seas (Fig. 1). As we move from the poles to the equator, we encounter tundra, boreal forests, 197 temperate forests, grasslands, deserts, and rainforests. As we move from east to west there 198 are arid regions in the rain shadows of mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers, wetlands, and bogs, and 199 when we reach the seas we encounter kelp forests and sea grass beds, coral reefs, the pelagic 200 communities of the open sea, and dark yet biologically diverse abyssal plains of the ocean’s 201 floors. 202

We also encounter relatively young human-dominated ecosystems such as farms, forest 203 plantations, grazing lands, pastures, urban and suburban systems, coastal harbors, fish farms, 204 aquaculture production systems and, in the oceans, vast fleets of fishing vessels harvesting 205 seafood from virtually every marine habitat. 206

Although our living world is vast, varied, and seemingly incomprehensibly intricate, the key to 207 the environmental equitability and sustainability we seek is fairly basic – the sum of ecosystems 208 that function productively, efficiently, and robustly must equal or exceed the sum of those that 209 do not. That is, over time, negative outcomes of unsustainable management and environmental 210 degradation must be countered by the positive influences of sustainable management and 211 restoration. While this truism is simple in principle, in actuality, perhaps the single most 212 challenging scientific issue facing humanity is understanding how ten million species scattered 213 over one-hundred and fifty million square kilometers of land and suffused through 1.4 billion 214

Figure 1. A rich and varied planet. From ice caps to arid deserts to circulating oceans, Earth varies naturally. In this image, one can see the lights of the urban ecosystems of Asia, the extraordinarily diverse forests of Southeast Asia, the ancient and arid continent of Australia, and the fact that three quarters of the world is ocean. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/BlueMarble/Images/marble_2002_australia_2048.jpg

Figure 1. A rich and varied planet. From ice caps to arid deserts to circulating oceans, Earth varies naturally. In this image, one can see the lights of the urban ecosystems of Asia, the extraordinarily diverse forests of Southeast Asia, the ancient and arid continent of Australia, and the fact that three quarters of the world is ocean. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/BlueMarble/Images/marble_2002_australia_2048.jpg

7

cubic kilometers of water that covers three-hundred 215 and sixty million square kilometers, or 70% of 216 Earth’s surface, with a total mass of living 217 organisms weighing in at one trillion tons (just in 218 carbon, and half of this mass consisting of 219 microorganisms), manages, as a whole, to function 220 productively and efficiently over the long term. 221 Over the short term, the extent of productive and 222 efficient ecosystems may or may not exceed the 223 extent of those that are not, but over the long term, 224 the net result is usually positive and Earth’s ecosystems have collectively sustained life for 225 billions of years. So long as the extent of productive, efficient, and robust ecosystems exceeds 226 the extent of unproductive, inefficient, and fragile ecosystems, Earth can continue to sustain an 227 equitable environment, support life and remain within safe planetary boundaries (see Fig. 2, 228 below). 229

New beginnings, new commitments 230 Since the Holocene, a rather quiet and stable climatic epoch that started some twelve thousand 231 years ago, Earth has changed dramatically in the last several decades. Human influences over 232 biodiversity and ecosystem processes have led to a distinct epoch in Earth’s history, so much 233 so that some now refer to our current times as the Anthropocene. The earth as influenced by 234 human activities is characterized by anomalously high rates of extinction, emerging diseases, 235 biotic exchange (the spread of exotic and invasive species), increases in atmospheric 236 concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses, global warming, ocean 237 acidification and dramatic alterations of Earth’s hydrological, and elemental cycles, not just 238 biologically important elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur, but fluxes of 239 over sixty elements, including toxic elements like mercury, uranium and lead, now exceed 240 natural fluxes because of human activities that include mining, construction, industry, farming, 241 and much more . Humans now also dominate geological processes, moving more earth than 242 occurs naturally . And all this has happened only in a fraction of the time of the evolutionary 243 process since the Holocene, actually only in the last part of the XVIII century. 244

All these changes are attributable to human activities, most of which have been directed to 245 improve human wellbeing. In some cases, humans have managed ecosystems sustainably, but 246 since the Industrial Revolution, or the 1700s, economic development has consisted of 247 deforestation exceeding reforestation, unsustainable extraction of marine biological resources to 248 the point of several major fisheries are collapsing or on the verge of collapsing, and many 249 sources of unregulated pollution. Taking a business-as-usual approach is not tenable because 250 if we continue to change the earth ecosystems are likely to suddenly collapse and Earth itself 251 could cross safe planetary boundaries (Fig. 2). Fortunately, humanity is working to follow new 252 pathways in this early part of the Anthropocene. 253

Commitments to following more sustainable pathways to reduce the adverse environmental 254 conditions we face today are many. Following the United Nations’ (UN) Brundtland report, Our 255 Common Future, published in 1987, Earth Summits in 1992, 2002, and 2012, the Millennium 256

So long as the extent of productive, efficient, and robust ecosystems

exceeds the extent of unproductive, inefficient, and fragile ecosystems, Earth can continue to sustain an

equitable environment and remain within safe planetary boundaries.

8

Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015), and now proposals for the next generation of 257 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015-2030), nations around the world have committed 258 to following alternative pathways of development, ones that will ultimately lead to environmental 259 sustainability. Biodiversity features prominently in such commitments and the Convention on 260 Biological Diversity’s 2020 targets , Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem 261 Services , MDG 7 to Ensure 262 Environmental Sustainability , and the 263 proposed SDG 9 to Secure Ecosystem 264 Services and Biodiversity and Ensure 265 good Management of Water and Other 266 Natural Resources , all demonstrate broad 267 recognition of the importance of 268 biodiversity and ecosystems for improving 269 human wellbeing. 270

Development’s scorecard 271 Historically, development was not always 272 guided by a framework of sustainability. 273 Until today much of human progress is 274 attributable to unsustainable use of 275 resources, over exploitation of the 276 ecosystems. As a consequence 277 biodiversity was reduced and the services 278 that ecosystems are providing become 279 increasingly under pressure.. Initially, 280 because the supply far exceeded the 281 demand when populations were small, this 282 development pathway worked well. That 283 we have reached seven billion people is 284 testament to the extraordinary success of 285 humanity during the course of what has 286 proven ultimately to be unsustainable development. The score card for humanity’s success, 287 however, is extraordinarily uneven. Advances in science, technology, and engineering have 288 accelerated the acquisition and sharing of knowledge, including access to remote natural 289 resources. Maternal and infant health has seen marked increases, and food production and 290 food security has increased steadily. A billion people, however, remain hungry today, two billion 291 are below the poverty line, and three billion are without sufficient access to water and a number 292 of social essentials such as education, health care, gender equity, and security remain out of 293 reach for the poor and vulnerable. 294

The world has committed itself to improving its scorecard, as evidenced by the Millennium 295 Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015) and now in the soon to be launched Sustainable 296 Development Goals (SDGs, 2015-2030). 297

Figure 2. Biodiversity and ecosystems – a safe planetary boundary already crossed? Rockström and colleagues described levels of global environmental conditions that within which Earth would probably function in a way that would sustain life. Of these, current levels of biodiversity loss was deemed dangerously high, or well above levels of loss that could be tolerated without jeopardizing robust functioning of Earth’s many life-‐support systems, including global climate. Green regions represent safe planetary boundaries. Red indicates current values. Safe planetary boundaries have been crossed for seven of the nine illustrated in the figure. (Modified from the original paper.)

9

We will need to have sustainable development strategies in place, the collective will to stay the 298 course, and a global commitment to biodiversity and ecological preservation. Also, it will be 299 crucial to ensure wise management of all ecosystems, especially forest and marine ecosystems, 300 for the development’s scorecard in 2030 to show higher marks than it does today. 301

A fundamental framework for the 21st Century 302 Ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands, and tundra on land or kelp forests, 303 coral reefs, pelagic and abyssal plains in oceans, constitute the natural foundation for human 304 wellbeing. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a five-year analysis by over 1300 social 305 and natural scientists, developed an elegant framework for understanding how our wellbeing is 306 linked to nature. Put simply: 307

Biodiversity → Ecosystem Function → Ecosystem Services → Human Wellbeing. 308

This four-part framework, illustrated in Figure 3, captures the essential principles that govern our 309 prosperity. Biodiversity, or the ecological, functional, and genetic diversity of plants, animals, 310 and microorganisms, are what make an ecosystem function. Twenty years of research has 311 confirmed that the greater the diversity of life, the greater the magnitude and stability of 312 ecosystem functions such as the production of biomass, the cycling of key nutrients, and the 313 production and sequestration of greenhouse gasses. A very simplistic global level this means, 314 that the performance of ecosystems is enhanced by having high biodiversity and diminished 315 when biodiversity is reduced. 316

This perspective is simply a framework of analysis, and the links between biodiversity and 317 ecosystem functions and services is far more nuanced than a linear function. More research will 318 need to be conducted to fully understand these complex relations. For example, biodiversity 319 here is being considered as the diversity of species in the broadest sense of the term, would 320 also consider the diversity of biomes and the extent and distribution of unconverted habitats. 321 Also, while some fundamental processes of ecosystem functions, such as food production, 322 increases in systems of lower diversity, this is not true for all ecosystem functions and certainly 323 not for all ecosystem services. 324

Among ecosystem functions, some clearly benefit humans in important ways, such as food 325 production, watershed outflow, soil production, erosion control, crop pollination, the regulation of 326 pests and pestilence, and climate regulation. Without the reliable provisioning of such 327 ecosystem services, human wellbeing is jeopardized – not just the obvious dimensions of 328 human wellbeing, such as having enough food and water, but all dimensions that ultimately rest 329 on environmental sustainability and security. 330

331

10

332

Ecosystems: Earth’s environmental engines 333

Life is everywhere 334 Spatial and temporal variability define our planet and are the source of much of human cultural 335 diversity, sometimes called biocultural diversity, and biological diversity at all scales. 336 Temperature and photoperiod vary annually with latitude. Light under water diminishes 337 dramatically as one moves from shallow coastal shelves to deeper waters. On land, 338 topographic features create deserts in the rain shadows of mountains and alpine conditions as 339 one moves up in elevation. Surface water salinity varies as one moves inland from the coast 340 along mangrove forests and salt marshes. 341

These environmental gradients create myriad conditions that have resulted in millions of 342 different kinds of species that vary enormously in their size, shape, physiology, and other traits – 343 some land plants can tolerate salt, drought, and fire while others can live in perennially wet, dark 344 and cold cloud forests. Some fish, like snail fish, live almost eight kilometers below the sea 345 while a small plane collided with a vulture in 1973 above the Ivory Coast, West Africa, eleven 346 kilometers above sea level. The masters of living everywhere, in even the most extreme 347 environments, are the microorganisms, some of which live in crusts of hydrothermal vents 348 beneath the sea, some in crusts atop desert sands. 349

Spatial and temporal variability define our planet and is the source of much of human cultural diversity as It is the source of much of biological

diversity at all scales.

Figure 3. The modern framework for human wellbeing. (Source, Global Environmental Outlook 5, UNEP)

11

350

Earth’s diversity in environmental conditions contributes not just to biological diversity, but also 351 to human cultural diversity. Not surprisingly, cultural diversity, such as our great lingual, 352 culinary, and artistic diversity, often correlates biological diversity. In the same way that 353 biodiversity is found in every habitat, humans are found in most every terrestrial ecosystem, 354 from the Arctic to the Namibian desert, and although humans do not live yet in oceans, our 355 massive impacts on marine resources inextricably links us to virtually all marine ecosystems. In 356 fact, oceans are critical for our survival as they control the hydrological cycle (including 357 distribution of rain on land) and its wast life in the oceans that created oxygen in the atmosphere 358 upon which we are dependent. In addition, the ocean has taken up between a third and one half 359 of the carbon dioxide humans have emitted to the atmosphere and, in this manner, impact 360 radiative forcing and ameliorate climate change. 361

Biodiversity and environment: a two-way interaction 362 Physical environmental conditions play dominant roles in governing where biodiversity and 363 ecosystems are found, but biodiversity and ecosystems also modify physical environmental 364 conditions – it’s a two way interaction. Earth’s climate is a result of solar, orbital, and planetary 365 factors, but it is also the result of many geochemical processes that are strongly modified by 366 biological processes, or biogeochemical processes. Nitrogen cycling, for example, the 367 dominant gas in our atmosphere and a key element in soil fertility, is almost entirely driven by 368 microbial processes and microbial communities. Similarly, terrestrial and marine ecosystems 369 each contribute roughly equally to carbon cycling that influences how much carbon dioxide and 370 other greenhouse gasses are in our atmosphere which strongly influences warming and global 371 climate and oceans have absorbed nearly half the anthropogenic carbon dioxide since the 372 Industrial Revolution. Another example of the complexity is an influence of marine life on 373

Figure 3. Biomes, ecosystems, biodiversity and carbon. Biomes are climatically defined regions with characteristic vegetation and often characteristic animal diversity. This figure illustrates the mass of life as measured by carbon content, and how it is distributed on Earth. Note how life is found virtually everywhere in spite of incredible variability in surface conditions (e.g., icy poles to a warm equator). Ocean biodiversity is not illustrated, but is of greater mass that is especially concentrated on continental shelves. (From: http://www.carbon-‐biodiversity.net/Issues/CarbonStorage)

12

precipitation. Through a complex web of biological processes, oceanic organisms produce 374 dimethyl sulfide (a compound that often gives sea air its characteristic odor) that is a key 375 atmospheric aerosol which forms nuclei around which water vapor condensates, forms 376 droplets, and eventually forms clouds that affect regional radiation and precipitation. 377

Though the biological and physical worlds are inextricably bound to one another, where any 378 major change in one will lead to a major change in the other, the processes involved are largely 379 invisible. Without instrumentation, one never sees the fluxing of greenhouse gases, the cycling 380 of nutrients, or the millions of tons of microorganisms that make up the living world. To the 381 untrained eye, many plants look alike so their diversity is not readily apparent. Most animals are 382 small, inconspicuous, or simply live in places we are unlikely to see them, such as life under the 383 sea, in the soils, or in the canopies of forests. We see the living world around us, but not its 384 diversity and not how it influences our environment. 385

Much of life’s diversity and life’s processes may be invisible but without them our world would be 386 incapable of sustaining life – it takes life to sustain life. Perhaps the easiest way to see how 387 dramatically biodiversity affects our environment is to compare our planet to its lifeless 388 neighbors, Mars and Venus (Fig. 4). Take away photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, greenhouse 389 gas regulation, the production of biomass, and much more, and oxygen vanishes, greenhouse 390 gasses dominate the atmosphere, temperatures soar, and the planet becomes uninhabitable. 391 When we consider safe planetary boundaries it is not surprising that biodiversity loss is the most 392 worrisome of all the boundaries we have crossed (Fig. 2). 393

394

13

At a planetary scale, the lifeless hostile abodes of Mars and Venus show clearly the value of 395 blue planet. On Earth the co-existence of an atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere have 396 allowed ecosystems to develop, which today provide all the essential life supporting services the 397 to human race. At local scales, however, bleached coral reefs covered in algae and devoid of 398 fish, dust storms over deserts created by overgrazing, and landslides that often follow 399 deforestation provide references for what happens when ecosystems are over exploited and 400 biodiversity reduced. Keeping ecosystems from further degradation to barrens and wastelands, 401 unproductive oceans and toxic waste sites require different strategies, policies, goals, targets, 402 indicators and solutions. But the importance of resilient ecosystems with high levels of 403 biodiversity remains the same across all scales. A species-rich planet is a healthier more 404 resilient planet and a species rich ecosystem, whether it is a farm, city, forest or ocean, is 405 typically healthier and more resilient. 406

Dominant ecosystems in the pathway to sustainable development 407

Forests 408 Among terrestrial ecosystems, our thematic group will pay special attention to forests. As one 409 of the world’s richest repositories of biodiversity , a key source of ecosystem services for many 410 nations, and undergoing rapid change, emphasis on forests in sustainable development is 411 important. 412

The sustaining services that forests provide are critical to Earth’s climate. Forests strongly 413 influence Earth’s hydrological cycles through the evapotranspiration of water through trees and 414 regulation of water sheds. Their influence in carbon cycling is also well documented , both of 415 which are key elements in Earth’s climate system. 416

The extent of forests is diminishing, which means that their ability to function and provide 417 important ecosystem services will be compromised. In most cases, forest loss is attributable to 418 agricultural expansion, not just logging. On current trends, agricultural expansion will reduce 419 forest cover by 1.3% per year until 2030, a trend that is exacerbated by dietary shifts towards 420 greater consumption of livestock, livestock products, and vegetable oils as nations develop. 421 The Amazon forest, for example, could decrease by 40% by 2050 at current rates of agricultural 422 expansion driven by growth in soybean and cattle production. The story is similar for Asia, 423 especially in the face of oil palm expansion and Africa which is also losing forest to rising 424 demands for timber and agricultural expansion. 425

Figure 4. It is easy to see the two-‐way interaction between life and our environment when we compare our home to our neighboring planets. Physical and chemical models of Earth suggest that if we were to remove all of life from our planet it would eventually reach a chemical and physical equilibrium in which we looked like other rocky planets in our solar system. Most likely, Earth without life would have environmental conditions somewhere between Venus (left) and Mars (right) – completely incapable of sustaining life.

14

Oceans 426 Oceans are the primary regulator of the global climate and an important sink for greenhouse 427 gases. They provide us with water and the oxygen we breathe. Oceans and the many marine 428 ecosystems are so vast, that there was a sense that they are immune to the actions of humans. 429 However, in many ways, oceans are changing faster and more dramatically than their terrestrial 430 partners. For example, over 90% of the extra heat energy now stored near the Earth's surface 431 as a result of the changing concentrations of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is contained 432 in the ocean. The ocean has taken up between a third and one half of the carbon dioxide 433 humans have emitted to the atmosphere. The dissolved carbon dioxide has lowed the ocean’s 434 pH, a process described at ocean acidification. Overall, Halpern estimated in 2008 that roughly 435 40% of the global ocean is heavily affected by human activities. 436

Some estimates place 80% of our global biomass in the oceans and this mass accounts for half 437 of global photosynthesis and respiration, the processes that drive most ecosystem functions. 438 Massive though this is, major changes are in store. In the face of anthropogenic climate 439 change, for example, most models predict contraction of the productive sea ice biome and 440 expansion of the less productive sub-tropical gyre biome. On a global level, a decrease in 441 primary production1 (Zhao and Running (2010), fish biomass2 (Ransom and Worm 2003) and 442 whale abundance (IWC 2013) 3has already been observed. 443

Oceans are more than just fish stocks, but fish represent a key connection between humanity 444 and the oceans. Fish are important sources of protein for over 1.5 billion people and fisheries 445 and aquaculture employ nearly 200 million people. Although expert calculations of the degree 446 of overfishing vary, official FAO estimates show that roughly one quarter of all stocks are 447 overfished. About half of all stocks are fished with yields reaching their maximum capacity, 448 which without other stresses would be sustainable. However, reliable numbers on the state of 449 stocks are only available for roughly 500 of 1,500 stocks currently fished upon. 450

Oceans are also source of materials for many industries and transport across oceans is the 451 most common, cost-effective means of global trade. Oceans are key sources of minerals and 452 fossil fuels that we will in the near future exploit increasingly as technology for mining and 453 extraction in marine habitats improves and Arctic sea ice retreats. Impacts on our oceans are 454 not just from such extractive industries but also marine traffic that accounts for over 90% of 455 global trade, currently conducted by over sixty-three thousand vessels. 456

Marine pollution from land-based sources is also widespread and increasing at rapid rates. 457 Sources and types of marine pollution vary from heavy metals and radioactive material to 458 plastic. Nutrient runoff and untreated sewage that can lead to eutrophication and well known 459 “dead zones” and harmful algal blooms (HAB). Some of the worst regions being Western 460

1 Zhao, Maosheng, and Steven W. Running. "Drought-induced reduction in global terrestrial net primary production from 2000 through 2009." Science 329, no. 5994 (2010): 940-943. 2 Myers, Ransom A., and Boris Worm. "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities." Nature 423, no. 6937 (2003): 280-283. 3IWC, International Whaling Commission. 2013. http://iwc.int/estimate

15

Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the U.S., and East Asia, particularly Japan. 461 Hypoxia and HAB deteriorate the quality of water and can change or reduce species diversity 462 or cause the deaths of fish, birds and marine mammals when toxins are produced. 463

On top of natural resource extraction, marine traffic, and pollution, climate change is taking its 464 toll and likely to irrevocably alter ocean biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide. 465 Increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is leading to increased uptake of CO2 by the 466 ocean leading to ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH has already lowered (e.g., become 467 more acidic) by 0.1 pH compared to pre-industrial values and is expected to further decrease by 468 an additional 0.3-0.4 units by 2100, which would be the lowest value registered in the last 23 469 million years. The impacts of ocean acidification are still under investigation, but it clearly poses 470 a threat to the abundance, health, physiology, and biogeochemistry of several key marine 471 species and their food webs. Prominent examples are: coral reefs, shellfish and calcareous 472 plankton, the base of much of the marine food chain. Some predictions say, that if current CO2 473 emission rates continue unabated then there will be no regions in the world's ocean AT ALL 474 where conditions are predicted to be able to support the net growth of coral skeletons by the 475 mid 2060s. Coral reef degradation, especially when degradation leads to loss of reef mass, 476 would reduce protection for shorelines from erosion and flooding and impact local fisheries, 477 tourism and recreation industries, as well as related maritime economies. Currently, it is not 478 certain whether marine species and ecosystems will be able to adapt to changes in ocean 479 chemistry, but due to the fact that pH values have dropped remarkably in the last century there 480 is great concern about ocean acidification threats that could alter marine food webs, which could 481 have far- reaching consequences for the oceans and millions of people depending on them for 482 food resources. Global warming can lead to stratification and the formation of anaerobic 483 conditions where seawater contains virtually no oxygen and most living organisms perish . 484

In summary, though people do not actually live in the ocean, atmosphere, land and ocean are 485 so tightly coupled that environmental sustainability is not achievable unless marine conservation 486 and stewardship are integral parts of sustainable development pathways. 487

FOBES Sustainable Development Solutions 488

Initiating the Process 489 Central to identifying solutions to the challenges of transitioning from traditional development to 490 sustainable development through the preservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and 491 ecosystem services is providing a single guiding framework. The Millennium Ecosystem 492 Assessment (MEA), for example, developed its guiding, overarching framework as its first step. 493 494 Securing biodiversity and the ecosystem services it provides requires an integrative social-495 natural science framework. This framework would identify major classes of ecosystem services, 496 key classes of social and natural drivers of change, and quantifiable linkages among them. 497 These drivers and linkages represent the foci for the development of coupled social/natural 498 models, quantitative metrics, and policy relevant indicators that will be necessary for the 499 development and implementation of solutions for achieving sustainable development. 500

16

501 This integrative social-natural science framework, illustrated in Figure 5, considers all 502 ecosystems residing on a scale that spans natural (unmanaged) systems at one end and 503 managed (e.g., agro-ecosystems, pastures, rangelands, agroforestry, urban areas) on the other. 504 Unmanaged and managed ecosystems therefore represent endpoints of a continuum and no 505 ecosystem is likely to represent either extreme. All ecosystems are either directly managed by 506 humans, whether they are marine protected areas or wildlife reserves. Likewise, all managed 507 systems have some components, most often microbial communities and invertebrates, that are 508 not directly managed but which still respond indirectly to human management. 509 510 In the FOBES framework, unmanaged systems are shown as those primarily providing 511 regulating (e.g., pollination, soil stabilization and resilience against natural disasters), cultural 512 (e.g., recreational and inspirational values), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling and 513 soil production) and are the principle repositories for Earth’s biodiversity, but they provide 514 insufficient food, fiber, or fuel (provisioning services). In contrast, managed systems primarily 515 provide provisioning services, but at a cost to biodiversity and other services. Note that implicit 516 in this framework is the integration of ecological knowledge/methods in practices such as 517 agriculture, pastoralism, and forestry in the social/natural component. 518 519

520 521

Figure 5. Ecosystem transitions between natural and managed systems. FOBES’s framework, adapted from Naeem et al. (2009) and congruent with Clark and Levin (2009), considers ecosystems ranging from managed to unmanaged, though in reality no ecosystem is independent of human influence. Two ecosystems are illustrated; unmanaged on the right and, after human induced transitions, managed on the left. The double arrow indicates that ecosystems can exist anywhere along a gradient of management and can move in either direction depending on human decisions and actions. Note that the quantity of different ecosystem services and biodiversity change along the management gradient, but remain connected to global circulations and global trade, transportation, and travel.

17

522 In the FOBES framework (Fig. 5), social/natural factors and drivers divide into three categories: 523 (1) social/cultural such as economic, political, and behavioral, such as shifting diets to more or 524 less meat; (2) agricultural/forestry such as yield gaps, irrigation, and cropping efficiencies, 525 plantation forests, natural forest management; and (3) natural such as biodiversity, climate, and 526 nutrient cycling and extreme weather events. Although the relative magnitude and stability of 527 services provided by ecosystems vary, all ecosystems supply the same complement of 528 services, but managed systems often optimize provisioning services at the cost of supporting, 529 regulating, and cultural services. In that sense, it would be useful to systematize and 530 disseminate the sustainable ways to produce services. 531 532 It is crucial to stress that both the framework and the solutions we propose are to initiate the 533 process. FOBES members will work precisely on developing its framework and solutions in 534 collaboration with other Thematic Groups. Also, the FOBES framework will inspire itself on the 535 exiting work, such as the conceptual framework for IPBES 536 537 From a conceptual point of view, managed ecosystems need to be improved so as to increase 538 their regulation services. There are many cases of agricultural practices that can lead to 539 increased soil carbon socks, such as low tillage agriculture that also reduces erosion and 540 protects watersheds. Unmanaged ecosystems need to have their regulating and cultural 541 services valued economically, like areas protected by indigenous communities for spiritual or 542 cultural reasons. For example, the value of these services produced by protected areas should 543 be recognized and result in better public and private funding for their protection. 544 545 546

FOBES Areas of action and recommendations 547

Action area 1. Reduce agricultural expansion by improving efficiency 548 More efficient agro-ecosystems that require less external inputs (e.g., biocides, water and 549 fertilizers) can substantially reduce agricultural expansion at the expense of natural forest and 550 savannas. 551

In developing countries, where agriculture is dominated by smallholder farming, emphasis 552 should be placed on bolstering bottom-up solutions such as providing improved technical 553 assistance, improved access to credit, payments for avoided deforestation and ecosystem 554 services, traditional conservation-friendly farming practices, farmer cooperatives and more 555 consistent environmental law enforcement. In developed countries, where agriculture is 556 dominated by carbon-intensive production systems, emphasis should be given to technological 557 solutions that reduce input demand and revert perverse government incentives and subsidies, 558 as well as domestic and international consumer pressures against unsustainable agricultural 559 products, and innovative tax policies. 560

Also, nutrient burdens from agricultural run-off (fertilizer, manure), has led to continued growth 561 in the occurrence of coastal hypoxic zones and economic damages approaching USD 100 562

18

billion per year in the EU alone. The need to begin a transition to much more cyclic 563 management of nutrients whereby efficiency of fertilizer use is increased and the majority of 564 human and livestock ‘waste’ nutrients are recovered and reused for fertilizer and other needs. In 565 parallel, some analyses project that available phosphorus reserves could run out as early as this 566 century with unprecedented effects on global food security; whether it is this soon or somewhat 567 longer doesn’t negate the fact that eventually, phosphorus recovery from the waste stream will 568 need to become the norm, not the exception if long-term global food security is to be ensured. 569 (UN Blueprint on ocean and coastal sustainability, 2011) 570

North-south technology transfers have often resulted in problems for tropical agriculture. South-571 south technology exchanges should be greatly encouraged. 572

A success story of how research can help increase agricultural productivity is the case of 573 Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation). Embrapa is a governmental research 574 institution, focused on technology development that has played a key role in increasing the 575 productivity of many agricultural products in Brazil through the development and spread of new 576 products and technologies. For example, the area designated for the production of grains and 577 vegetable oil seeds in Brazil increased in 44% while production increased in 250% and incomes 578 increased 2.4 times. 579

580

Action area 2. Decoupling economic development from deforestation 581 One of the most important challenges of sustainable development is to decouple economic 582 development from deforestation. This is particularly important for countries in which agriculture 583 plays an important role in the economy. 584

A noteworthy example is Brazil, a country with the largest area of tropical forest in the world and 585 in which agriculture plays an important role in the national economy. In 2011, the agribusiness 586 sector (agriculture and cattle ranching) in Brazil represented 22.15% of the country’s GDP. 587 Brazil has reduced Amazonian deforestation by over 75% between 2004 and 2011, while 588 increasing its GDP (Fig. 6). Since 2011, in the State of Pará, in the Brazilian Amazon, 589 municipalities have also started to implement policies to reduce deforestation through a program 590 called “green municipalities” which emphasizes integrating land tenure and environmental 591 planning, shared environmental management, and supporting sustainable production to meet 592 ambitious but realistic targets. 593

Policies to reduce deforestation should consider five important elements (1) the establishment 594 of protected areas in collaboration with local and indigenous communities, (2) conventional 595 command and control (fines, apprehension of illegal goods and products such as wood), (3) 596 financial and commercial disincentives for those who deforest illegally, (4) economic incentives 597 to sustainable forest economies, (5) and financial incentives for reducing emissions from 598 deforestation through payment for ecosystem services. However, such initiatives should 599 separate their focus on industrial and corporate groups from poor smallholders, in terms of the 600 management approaches used as well as the financial incentive and disincentive structures 601 employed. There is a need to have a poverty focus as a way to link these activities with the 602

19

boarder goal of reducing social inequity. Once again, the Amazon serves as an example, such 603 as the Bolsa Floresta Program that incorporated these five elements. Additionally, international 604 support, such as Norway´s donations to the Amazon Fund, can facilitate such programs by 605 adding incentives that reduce deforestation, and participation by civil society also played an 606 important role by running highly visible campaigns that applied political pressure on 607 governments and businesses to support sustainability. These activities led to a soybean 608 moratorium – a commitment signed by large companies not to buy from soybean producers who 609 engaged in deforestation in the Amazon. Reduction of deforestation can also be reached with 610 good forest management. A good example is the one of the Community Concessions in Petén, 611 Guatemala. In the dry season the fires occur in the Core Zone and the Buffer Zone of the 612 Mayan Biosphere Reserve, while the Multiple Use Zone, in which certified forest management 613 occurs, almost no fires happen because the forest have a value for the communities and they 614 protect it. 615

616

617 Indonesia is another noteworthy case - a country with the third largest area of tropical forests 618 (after Brazil and Democratic Republic of Congo). Agriculture, like in many other tropical nations, 619 is an important source of revenue in Indonesia representing 15% of the country’s GDP. Palm oil, 620 in particular, represents 6 to 7% of the Indonesian GDP, while forestry (harvesting and 621 silviculture) contributes approximately 1% . Indonesia has recently implemented a new set of 622 policies aimed at reducing deforestation and degradation as a part of a national REDD+ 623 strategy. This includes: (i) a moratorium on new concessions, which suspends the granting of 624 new concession licenses for logging and conversion of forests and peat lands, signed in mid-625

Figure 6. Annual deforestation rate in the Amazon and growth in gross domestic product (GDP) in Brazil between 1989 and 2011.

20

2011, and protects 43.3 million hectares, avoiding the emission of estimated 92.8 giga-tons of 626 CO2e to the atmosphere; (ii) the establishment of national emissions reduction target of 26 to 627 41% ; (iii) the establishment of a national REDD+ strategy, which is one of the outputs foreseen 628 by the REDD+ Task Force, created by a Presidential Decree in 2010, to prepare the country’s 629 REDD+ infrastructure ; and (iv) a landmark policy to recognize indigenous peoples rights over 630 forests . 631

632

Action area 3. Develop economic instruments for ecosystem services 633 Valuing nature has both supporters and detractors but, in many, cases governmental and non-634 governmental institutions, land owners, managers, urban planners, and most stakeholders 635 require ways in which ecosystem services can be understood in economic terms. Ecosystem 636 services (sometimes referred to as environmental or nature’s services) are difficult to value, but 637 tremendous progress has been made. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) 638 initiative, for example, has drawn considerable attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity 639 and ecosystem services. TEEB has developed clear, concise, and consistent approaches for 640 assessing and incorporating the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decision-641 making often through incentives and price signals. TEEB emphasizes the importance of both 642 benefits and costs of economic development which too often focuses solely on benefits without 643 accounting for societal costs. The economic benefits of agricultural expansion, for example, are 644 often not weighed against the benefits derived from sustainable forestry in terms of timber and 645 non-timber forest products such as fruits and fiber. 646

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs are among the most rapidly growing 647 mechanisms for enabling ecosystem service markets. PES programs can be devised to insure 648 that both buyers and sellers can participate in the trade of ecosystem goods and services. PES 649 is especially important for biodiversity conservation which is traditionally done by governments 650 and NGOs, but most (90%) of the land where biodiversity resides is outside of such protection . 651 By one estimate, PES programs for biodiversity could benefit 10 – 15 million low-income 652 households in developing countries, PES for carbon could benefit an additional 25-50 million 653 households, PES for watershed protection benefit another 80 – 100 million, and PES for cultural 654 ecosystem services benefit yet another 8 - 10 million households. 655

Costa Rica, for example, in 1996 implemented a 3.5% tax on fossil fuels to balance the benefits 656 of industrial development with the costs of degradation of ecosystem services and created the 657 Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Florestal (FONAFIFO) to provide financial support to forest 658 owners and indigenous peoples to conserve and sustainably manage forested areas, or to 659 reforest degraded land. Since its creation, with an annual budget currently between US$14 -17 660 million/year, which corresponds to around 0.04% of the country’s GDP, the program has 661 resulted in nearly 13,000 contracts, covered nearly 800,000 hectares of forests and distributed 662 almost US$280 million. Still, in Costa Rica, PES is considered only one of the many policy 663 mechanisms and instruments of sustainable development available. 664

In addition to this, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an important component of a sustainability 665 strategy to deal with food production and forest protection. CSA is a concept based in three 666

21

pillars: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adaptation and building 667 resilience to climate change, and reducing and/or removing GHG emissions. CSA is an 668 important mechanism to increase efficiency in food production, tackling food security, reducing 669 ecological footprint and adapting to climate change scenarios. CATIE is developing a wider 670 concept, named as Climate Smart Territories, because the territorial approach follows better the 671 path of the Adaptive Mosaic of the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment. In a same territory 672 several realities coexist in time: agriculture, cattle farming, cities, forests, and it is necessary to 673 take actions regarding all land uses, no only in agriculture. 674

The World Economic Forum estimates that agriculture is responsible for 30% of GHG 675 emissions, forestry is responsible for 16% GHG, and agriculture is responsible for 40% of 676 worldwide employment. When climate varies, crop losses can be enormous and in some 677 regions, such as the Sahelian countries, crop losses can range from 30% to 100% in the face of 678 drought. These estimates vary according to different sources, but the general split is consistent 679 in the various reports. 680

Agriculture also consumes 70% of the fresh water we mobilize from natural sources. 681

Better management systems and technology use could dramatically improve food provisioning 682 from agro-ecosystems while not jeopardizing services provided by unmanaged ecosystems by 683 minimizing or eliminating agricultural expansion. 684

Following the 2010 Water Footprint Network’s report, agriculture consumes 2.6m3 of water for 1 685 ton of cereal (2005). The target is to reduce this by half (1.5m3/ton of cereal) by 2030. This can 686 be accomplished basically by implementing three integrated actions: (i) improving the diversity 687 of crops by agro-ecological systems, (ii) providing capacity building for such small and medium 688 farmers, and (iii) fostering credit and other incentives for this transition. 689

Financial and non-financial incentives are needed for climate smart agriculture. Therefore, 690 policy frameworks are much needed – especially in least developed countries, where agriculture 691 plays an important role within national GDP. These frameworks are essential to reduce the 692 ecological footprint, reduce pressure on forests and help meet growing demands for food 693 production. 694

However, the effect of ecosystem services on human wellbeing cannot be quantified through 695 purely economic approaches alone, although these form an important component of solutions-696 focused planning. Thus it is important to supplement the use of economic valuation and 697 economic instruments with a focus on cultural and social ecosystem services, which are often 698 much more locally variable, and socially stratified within locations, thus difficult to quantify. A 699 focus on quantification should not obscure the importance of such cultural and social ecosystem 700 services for human wellbeing, especially but not exclusively for disadvantaged communities 701 such as indigenous groups, women and the poor. 702

Action area 4. Emphasize the participatory process 703 People play important roles as providers of ecosystem services, but their roles are often 704 neglected in sustainable development. Indigenous and traditional populations have some of the 705

22

worst health and education indicators and stand to benefit the most from achieving sustainable 706 development. Indigenous knowledge, though limited in some regards, reflects knowledge 707 accumulated over long periods, passed from one generation to the next, and reflects knowledge 708 on time scales that better reflect ecological time scales rather than timescales of typical Western 709 research (2-5 years) for terrestrial, freshwater, marine ecosystems. 710

Examples of inclusion of indigenous people in ecosystem service sustainable development 711 programs are the vanguard proposition of Coordination of the Indigenous Peoples of the 712 Amazon (COICA ) – an umbrella organization for all indigenous peoples of the nine countries of 713 the Amazonian ecosystem. COICA has formulated the “REDD+ Indigena” – their own version of 714 how a United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mechanism 715 should work. In contrast to REDD+, the REDD Indigena’s strategy is to contribute to global 716 strategies for mitigation in adaptation in a way that strengthens ecosystem functions on earth 717 through the holistic management of indigenous territories. It aims to establish a “full life plan” for 718 the long term, guarantee the tenure rights of indigenous people, promote a holistic management 719 that integrates mitigation and adaptation to climate change, sustainably manage biodiversity, 720 provide financial compensations based on public funds, and ensure social control over 721 development by directly addressing the drivers of deforestation such as oil, mining, timber 722 harvesting, and other extractive industries as well as agricultural expansion. 723

Indigenous populations inhabit most remaining tropical forests, thus it is important to recognize 724 the rights of these people to resources in their homelands. Countries such Colombia, Equator, 725 and Brazil have gone a long way in recognizing these rights and progress is being made in 726 countries such as Indonesia, where the rights of indigenous peoples to forest resources have 727 recently been legally established. There are still vast forest areas where unclear forest tenure 728 leads to social conflicts, crime and extreme poverty. 729

A successful approach to ensure appropriate participation of local people is through adaptative 730 management approach at the territorial level. A noteworthy case is the Iberoamerican Model 731 Forests Newtwork, that includes 29 territories in 15 countries with more than 32 million ha. This 732 is part of an international effort of a bottom-up process to get the sustainable human 733 development of forest rich territories, currently led by CATIE. 734

735

736

Action area 5. Expand biodiversity and ecosystem function/service research 737 Funding for biodiversity research is frequently among the smallest portion of research and 738 development budgets. Most countries have departments or ministries for agriculture, forestry, 739 fisheries, or the environment, but allocation of resources to biodiversity and ecosystem service 740 research is negligible. Even in the United States, for example, where annual federal spending 741 on research and development is $65 billion, less than 1% is invested in biodiversity research. 742 Nations with smaller budgets for research and development spend even less. This low 743 allocation stems largely from a historical and traditional perspective in which biodiversity is seen 744 primarily as an abstract topic with little application in comparison to biology, chemistry, or 745

23

physics where links to medicine and engineering are well accepted. Biodiversity’s link to human 746 wellbeing, economic development, and environmental sustainability are now well understood 747 and research in biodiversity and ecosystem service research needs to expand to become 748 comparable to other investments in scientific research. 749

While the acceleration of research on all ecosystems would provide immense benefits for 750 people, forests and marine ecosystems should take priority. Three basic investments in 751 biodiversity research will have enormous benefits compared to costs. These are: 752

1. Complete the inventory of every nation’s plant, animal, and microbial diversity across three 753 dimensions of biodiversity – taxonomic (e.g., the number of species), functional (e.g., the 754 diversity of traits such as body size, metabolic rates, and nutrient and water use efficiency), and 755 phylogenetic (e.g., evolutionary). Such inventories are critical starting points for developing 756 strategies and policies for achieving environmental sustainability through natural resource 757 conservation and management. Such inventories will, of course, miss the important point 758 species presence does not guarantee that they are functioning in ecosystems, providing 759 services or likely to persist if their numbers are low. Wherever possible, estimates of 760 abundance are important. 761

2. Conduct global and national assessments and inventories of ecosystem services. Such 762 information is necessary for economic valuation and for understanding the true economic impact 763 of development across all scales. Development strategies, for example, that invest in one 764 ecosystem service (e.g., agriculture focuses on provisioning services, ecotourism focuses on 765 cultural services) will invariably lead to losses in other services, but assessments and 766 inventories can be used to prevent such outcomes. The challenge faced will be to sustain 767 observations and build capacities in those countries that need it. This might be particularly 768 difficult with maritime nations where ocean research is costly. 769

3. Increase education and training in basic, applied, and integrative (where basic is linked to 770 applied issues) biodiversity research, including the links of biodiversity with social sciences. By 771 making basic and applied biodiversity science part of grade-school educational curricula, by 772 ensuring that universities have programs in biodiversity research, and by creating, investing in 773 or incentivizing individuals to make biodiversity part of their career development, we can help to 774 create the new environmental workforce necessary to integrate biodiversity into policy and 775 practice. Those taking up careers in agriculture would benefit learning about agro-biodiversity 776 and non-agricultural ecosystem services while those learning forest ecology would benefit by 777 working with foresters and forest extension agents. Marine fisheries scientists would benefit 778 from learning about the role of marine biodiversity, including microorganisms, in ecosystem 779 services and would work with fishing industries as well as local fishers to develop sustainable 780 harvest strategies and conserve natural marine resources. To achieve this, we need to 781 coordinate research with national and regional centers, develop better technologies to monitor 782 and manage biodiversity and ecosystem services, and work to build better good management 783 practice. 784

785

24

Action area 6. Develop smart ecosystem governance of terrestrial ecosystems 786 New forms of governance are needed in order to establish sustainable development solutions 787 for ecosystems. While governments have the fundamental role of establishing legal frameworks, 788 private sector and NGOs can bring much needed efficiency, creativity and innovation as well as 789 linking to consumers and civil society. 790

It is not always clear, however, how ecosystem governance should combine top down (e.g. law 791 enforcement) with bottom up (e.g. participatory decision making). Ecosystem governance 792 involves nut just controlling the harvesting of goods (e.g., timber, fish, fodder), but managing 793 and overseeing many elements of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to ensure that goods 794 and services are provided in a sustainable way. Such a broad remit would seem to require 795 governments that can levy taxes for ecosystem service use to generate revenue for 796 management, something NGOs and the private sector cannot do. Further, since ecosystem 797 services include regulatory services that reduce environmental risks, ecosystem governance 798 could fall under national insurance programs and again be appropriately managed by 799 governments. In contrast, ecosystem governance might be better run by a bottom-up approach 800 where indigenous knowledge better serves management . 801

Smart ecosystem governance would reflect new approaches rather than traditional dichotomy of 802 top-down or traditional-bottom up governance. Because most land is not owned by the state in 803 many developing countries and because marine ecosystems are governed weakly, neither 804 national nor international governance may be appropriate for ensuring sustainable management 805 of biodiversity and ecosystem services. On the other hand, because many indigenous 806 populations are impoverished and sometimes marginalized by state governments, they may 807 lack the authority, institutions, and resources necessary for effective governance of ecosystems 808 . Clearly, new, innovative approaches to ecosystem governance need to be developed, 809 approaches in which the strengths inherent in both top-down and bottom-up approaches are 810 brought together. 811

A good example of mechanisms for working towards smart governance are roundtables such as 812 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil , Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef and the 813 Roundtable on Responsible Soy . These cases show how private companies can engage with 814 civil society and producers to collaborate and improve sustainability on such production chains, 815 implement best practices and guarantee compliance of the sectors. Another case is the 816 governance structure of the FONAFIFO (see Solution 2, above). In this initiative, governments, 817 NGOs and private companies work together to channel funds from taxes and private business 818 to rural producers who conserve or restore their properties. Another good example is the Model 819 Forest system, with an international Network divided into Regional Networks. Is a bottom-up 820 approach, but within the national regulations and international initiatives, thus considering also 821 top-down elements of the equation 822

823

824

25

Action area 7. Improve management and governance of oceans 825 826

Oceans, which comprise two-thirds of the Earth´s surface and provide crucial global ecosystem 827 services, need special attention. Oceans, as the world’s largest global commons, urgently 828 require activities that work across government, NGO, private, and other sectors. There are few 829 examples of promising initiatives that need to be reinforced. There are several agencies, such 830 as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, the North Pacific Marine 831 Science Organization (PICES), International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), the 832 United Nations International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Institute of Fisheries 833 Economics & Trade (IIFET), and The International Whaling Commission that bring together 834 different sectors concerning marine science, conservation, and policy, but they lack regulative 835 authority abilities to develop and employ PES programs. Smart governance of marine 836 sustainable development, however, needs to go beyond these efforts. Over the intervening 837 years of implementing SDSs, we will need to improve and harmonize legal frameworks for 838 oceans and coasts and ensure that they take into account current and future uses of marine 839 resources by the complex, international set of stakeholders. 840

Achieving smart marine sustainable development 841 governance will also have to focus on ensuring that 842 coastal communities remain resilient through climate 843 change mitigation and adaptation strategies, by 844 funding the development of new and innovative 845 means for achieving marine sustainable 846 development, and by ensuring that costs, benefits, 847 and responsibilities are shared among all parties. 848 These activities require the sort of integrated and 849 multi-level ocean governance that is currently absent. 850

Critical to developing smart marine sustainable development governance will be developing a 851 framework for Marine Spatial Planning (MSP). Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a process that 852 brings together multiple users of the ocean – including energy, industry, government, 853 conservation and recreation – to make informed and coordinated decisions about how to use 854 marine resources sustainably. MSP is already being used within Exclusive Economic Zones 855 (EEZs), however, it will be necessary to extend it to areas beyond national jurisdiction. 856

Furthermore, marine ecosystems will similarly require smart development of its biodiversity and 857 ecosystem services, though the massive scale and complex international governance issues of 858 open ocean systems will require considerable investment to develop and implement tractable 859 solutions. 860

Guiding principles for smart sustainable development solutions for oceans will be to first ensure 861 that basic life-sustaining and regulating functions of the oceans (oxygen production, key 862 processes in the climate system, and in the hydrological cycle) are not jeopardized by 863 development. This will require developing multi-sectorial roundtables and authoritative bodies 864 that can regulate development activities that alter these functions. Such activities may not be 865

Smart sustainable development solutions couple

marine and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem

services.

26

limited to marine ecosystems management since fish consumption and markets, marine 866 shipping traffic and vessel regulations, agricultural runoff and pollution are often partially or 867 wholly terrestrially based. Similarly, climate change mitigation efforts that limit carbon dioxide 868 emissions derived primarily from fossil fuel burning and forest degradation, though terrestrial 869 activities, are important for preventing further ocean warming, acidification and deoxygenation. 870 Smart sustainable development solutions couple marine and terrestrial biodiversity and 871 ecosystem services. 872

A second guiding principle to smart marine sustainable development is to ensure healthy and 873 productive marine environments meaning that all ocean and coastal provisioning and non-874 provisioning services are considered. Smart marine sustainable development solutions should 875 not be just about fish, for example, but about ensuring that the exploitation of all living marine 876 resources are held within safe biological limits. Because oceans are severely impacted by 877 extractive industries on non-living resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, they should be 878 integral parts of solutions. Likewise, the use and protection of sensitive marine areas, the 879 development and distribution of technical capacities for the sustainable use of ocean resources, 880 and providing access to marine information and data to build global capacity for the transparent 881 and open assessment and monitoring of ocean resources will be instrumental to building 882 effective solutions that will require regularly updated status reports of ocean and coastal SDG 883 indicators. All solutions should be in accordance with the ecosystem approach and the 884 precautionary principle. 885

Efforts should be made for urgent implementation of the provisions of the Convention of 886 Biological Diversity, which calls for a major increase in marine protected areas (up to 10% of 887 ocean by 2020). These protected areas should be implemented by national governments in 888 national waters near the coast and by international organizations in international waters. 889 Protecting the provision of ecosystem services of oceans is one of the priority investment for our 890 sustainable future. 891

892

893

894

895

896

897

898

899

900

27

Literature Cited 901 902

Alberts, Bruce. "Impact Factor Distortions." Science 340, no. 6134 (2013): 787-87. 903 Alexandratos, Nikos, and Jelle Bruinsma. "World Agriculture Towards 2030/2050: The 2012 904

Revision." ESA Working paper Rome, FAO, 2012. 905 Ansink, E., L. Hein, and K. P. Hasund. " To Value Functions or Services? An Analysis of 906

Ecosystem Valuation Approaches.". Environmental Values 17 (2008): 489-503. 907 Armenteras, Dolors, and C. Max Finlayson. "Biodiversity." In Global Environmental Outlook 5, 908

edited by United Nations Environmental Program UNEP, 133-66. Malta: Progress Press 909 Ltd., 2012. 910

Austin, K., S. Sheppard, and F. Stolle. "Indonesia's Moratorium on New Forest Concessions: 911 Key Findings and Next Steps.", (2012). 912 http://pdf.wri.org/working_papers/indonesia_moratorium_on_new_forest_concessions.pd913 f. 914

Balmford, Andrew, Aaron Bruner, Philip Cooper, Robert Costanza, Stephen Farber, Rhys E. 915 Green, Martin Jenkins, et al. "Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature.". Science 916 297 (2002): 950-53. 917

Bamba1, I., Marjolein Visser1, and J. Bogaert. "An Alternative View of Deforestation in Central 918 Africa Based on a Boserupian Framework." Tropicultura 4 (2011): 250-54. 919

Berkes, Fikret, Johan Colding, and Carl Folke. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building 920 Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 921

Bosch, J. M., and J. D. Hewlett. "A Review of Catchment Experiments to Determine the Effect of 922 Vegetation Changes on Water Yield and Evapotranspiration." Journal of Hydrology 55, 923 no. 1–4 (2// 1982): 3-23. 924

Boyce, Daniel G., Marlon R. Lewis, and Boris Worm. "Global Phytoplankton Decline over the 925 Past Century." Nature 466, no. 7306 (2010): 591-96. 926

Boyd, J., and S. Banzhaf. "What Are Ecosystem Services? The Need for Standardized 927 Environmental Accounting Units." [In English]. Ecological Economics 63, no. 2-3 (Aug 928 2007): 616-26. 929

Cairns Jr, John. "Ecological Tipping Points: A Major Challenge for Experimental Sciences." 930 Asian Journal of Experimental Sciences 18, no. 1 (2004): 1-16. 931

Caldeira, Ken, and Michael E Wickett. "Ocean Model Predictions of Chemistry Changes from 932 Carbon Dioxide Emissions to the Atmosphere and Ocean." Journal of Geophysical 933 Research 110, no. C9 (2005): C09S04. 934

———. "Oceanography: Anthropogenic Carbon and Ocean Ph." Nature 425, no. 6956 (2003): 935 365-65. 936

Carlson, Kimberly M., Lisa M. Curran, Gregory P. Asner, Alice McDonald Pittman, Simon N. 937 Trigg, and J. Marion Adeney. "Carbon Emissions from Forest Conversion by Kalimantan 938 Oil Palm Plantations." Nature Clim. Change 3, no. 3 (03//print 2013): 283-87. 939

Cavicchioli, Ricardo, Ricardo Amils, Dirk Wagner, and Terry McGenity. "Life and Applications of 940 Extremophiles." Environmental Microbiology 13, no. 8 (2011): 1903-07. 941

Charpentier, Ronald R, and Donald L Gautier. "Us Geological Survey Circum-Arctic Resource 942 Appraisal (Cara): Introduction and Summary of Organization and Methods." Geological 943 Society, London, Memoirs 35, no. 1 (2011): 145-50. 944

Crutzen, Paul J. "Geology of Mankind." Nature 415, no. 6867 (2002): 23-23. 945 Dale, Virginia H., and Stephen Polasky. "Measures of the Effects of Agricultural Practices on 946

Ecosystem Services." Ecological Economics 64, no. 2 (2007): 286-96. 947

28

Day, John W., Charles A. Hall, Alejandro YÃ¡Ã±ez-Arancibia, David Pimentel, Carles IbÃ¡Ã±ez 948 MartÃ, and William J. Mitsch. "Ecology in Times of Scarcity." BioScience 59, no. 4 949 (2009): 321-31. 950

DeFries, R. S., J. A. Foley, and G. P. Asner. "Land-Use Choices: Balancing Human Needs and 951 Ecosysem Function.". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2 (2004): 249-57. 952

Doney, Scott C, Victoria J Fabry, Richard A Feely, and Joan A Kleypas. "Ocean Acidification: 953 The Other Co2 Problem." Marine Science 1 (2009). 954

Doney, Scott C. "The Growing Human Footprint on Coastal and Open-Ocean Biogeochemistry." 955 Science 328, no. 5985 (June 18, 2010 2010): 1512-16. 956

Embrapa. "The Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation." http://www.embrapa.br/english#. 957 FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization. "Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook ". (2013). 958 ———. "State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture (Sofia)." (2010). 959

http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf. 960 FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization. "Working Paper 4 Gea - Utilization Improving Food 961

Systems for Sustainable Diets in a Green Economy." In Greening the Economy with 962 Agriculture (GEA), edited, 2012. http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2745e/i2745e00.pdf. 963

Farber, S. C., R. Costanza, and M. A. Wilson. "Economic and Ecological Concepts for Valuing 964 Ecosystem Services." [In English]. Ecological Economics 41, no. 3 (Jun 2002): 375-92. 965

Feely, R. A., C.L. Sabine, and V.J. Fabry. "Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy." (2006). 966 http://www.pmel. noaa.gov/pubs/PDF/feel2899/feel2899.pdf. 967

Feely, Richard A., Christopher L. Sabine, Kitack Lee, Will Berelson, Joanie Kleypas, Victoria J. 968 Fabry, and Frank J. Millero. "Impact of Anthropogenic Co2 on the Caco3 System in the 969 Oceans." Science 305, no. 5682 (July 16, 2004 2004): 362-66. 970

Fisher, Joshua B., Yadvinder Malhi, Damien Bonal, Humberto R. Da Rocha, Alessandro C. De 971 AraÚJo, Minoru Gamo, Michael L. Goulden, et al. "The Land–Atmosphere Water Flux in 972 the Tropics." Global Change Biology 15, no. 11 (2009): 2694-714. 973

Foley, Jonathan A., Ruth DeFries, Gregory P. Asner, Carol Barford, Gordon Bonan, Stephen R. 974 Carpenter, F. Stuart Chapin, et al. "Global Consequences of Land Use." Science 309, 975 no. 5734 (July 22, 2005 2005): 570-74. 976

Foley, Jonathan A., Navin Ramankutty, Kate A. Brauman, Emily S. Cassidy, James S. Gerber, 977 Matt Johnston, Nathaniel D. Mueller, et al. "Solutions for a Cultivated Planet." Nature 978 478, no. 7369 (2011): 337-42. 979

Gadgil, Madhav, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke. "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity 980 Conservation." Ambio 22, no. 2/3 (1993): 151-56. 981

Gautier, Donald L., Kenneth J. Bird, Ronald R. Charpentier, Arthur Grantz, David W. 982 Houseknecht, Timothy R. Klett, Thomas E. Moore, et al. "Assessment of Undiscovered 983 Oil and Gas in the Arctic." Science 324, no. 5931 (May 29, 2009 2009): 1175-79. 984

Glibert, Patricia M, Donald M Anderson, Patrick Gentien, Edna Graneli, and Kevin G Sellner. 985 "The Global, Complex Phenomena of Harmful Algal Blooms." Oceanography 18, no. 2 986 (2005): 136-47. 987

Godfray, H. Charles J., John R. Beddington, Ian R. Crute, Lawrence Haddad, David Lawrence, 988 James F. Muir, Jules Pretty, et al. "Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion 989 People." Science 327, no. 5967 (February 12, 2010 2010): 812-18. 990

GRSB, Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef. http://grsbeef.org/. 991 Higuchi, N., and P. Meir. "Productivity of Tropical Forests. ." In Terrestral Productivity., edited 992

by J. Roy, B. Saugier and H. A. Mooney, Higuchi N, Meir P San Diego, CA, USA: 993 Academic Press, 2001. 994

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., P. J. Mumby, A. J. Hooten, R. S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C. D. 995 Harvell, et al. "Coral Reefs under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification." 996 Science 318, no. 5857 (December 14, 2007 2007): 1737-42. 997

29

Holdren, John P. "Presidential Address: Science and Technology for Sustainable Well-Being." 998 Science 319, no. 5862 (January 25, 2008 2008): 424-34. 999

Holmlund, Cecilia M., and Monica Hammer. "Ecosystem Services Generated by Fish 1000 Populations." Ecological Economics 29, no. 2 (5// 1999): 253-68. 1001

IIED, International Institute for , and Environment and Development. "Payments for 1002 Environmental Services in Costa Rica: From Rio to Rio and Beyond." (2012). 1003 http://pubs.iied.org/17126IIED. 1004

IMO, International Maritime Organization. International Shipping Facts and Figures –Information 1005 Resources on Trade, Safety, Security, Environment. IMO, 2012. 1006 http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx. 1007

Ina, Porras. "Payments for Environmental Services: Lessons from the Costa Rican Pes 1008 Programme." (2013). 1009

Jackson, L. E., U. Pascual, and T. Hodgkin. "Utilizing and Conserving Agrobiodiversity in 1010 Agricultural Landscapes." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 121, no. 3 (2007): 1011 196-210. 1012

Jenkins, MichaelScherr Sara J. Inbar Mira. "Markets for Biodiversity Services: Potential Roles 1013 and Challenges." Environment 46, no. 6 (07//Jul/Aug2004 2004): 32-42. 1014

Johns, Timothy, and Bhuwon R. Sthapit. "Biocultural Diversity in the Sustainability of 1015 Developing-Country Food Systems." Food & Nutrition Bulletin 25, no. 2 (2004): 143-1016 55. 1017

Jordan, Stephen J., Sharon E. Hayes, David Yoskowitz, Lisa M. Smith, J. Kevin Summers, Marc 1018 Russell, and William H. Benson. "Accounting for Natural Resources and Environmental 1019 Sustainability: Linking Ecosystem Services to Human Well-Being." Environmental 1020 Science & Technology 44, no. 5 (2010/03/01 2010): 1530-36. 1021

Kareiva, Peter, Sean Watts, Robert McDonald, and Tim Boucher. "Domesticated Nature: 1022 Shaping Landscapes and Ecosystems for Human Welfare." Science 316, no. 5833 (June 1023 29, 2007 2007): 1866-69. 1024

Larigauderie, Anne, Anne-Hélène Prieur-Richard, Georgina M. Mace, Mark Lonsdale, Harold A. 1025 Mooney, Lijbert Brussaard, David Cooper, et al. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 1026 Science for a Sustainable Planet: The Diversitas Vision for 2012–20." Current Opinion in 1027 Environmental Sustainability 4, no. 1 (2012): 101-05. 1028

Laybourne, R. C. "Collision between a Vulture and an Aircraft at an Altitude of 37,000 Ft.". 1029 Wilson Bulletin 86 (1974): 461-62. 1030

Leal, Miguel Costa, João Puga, João Serôdio, Newton C. M. Gomes, and Ricardo Calado. 1031 "Trends in the Discovery of New Marine Natural Products from Invertebrates over the 1032 Last Two Decades – Where and What Are We Bioprospecting?". PLoS ONE 7, no. 1 1033 (2012): e30580. 1034

Lenton, Timothy M., Hermann Held, Elmar Kriegler, Jim W. Hall, Wolfgang Lucht, Stefan 1035 Rahmstorf, and Hans Joachim Schellnhuber. "Tipping Elements in the Earth's Climate 1036 System." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 6 (February 12, 1037 2008 2008): 1786-93. 1038

Loh, Jonathan, and David Harmon. "A Global Index of Biocultural Diversity." Ecological 1039 Indicators 5, no. 3 (8// 2005): 231-41. 1040

Mackenzie, Fred T, Andreas J Andersson, Rolf S Arvidson, Michael W Guidry, and Abraham 1041 Lerman. "Land–Sea Carbon and Nutrient Fluxes and Coastal Ocean Co< Sub> 2</Sub> 1042 Exchange and Acidification: Past, Present, and Future." Applied Geochemistry 26 1043 (2011): S298-S302. 1044

MEA, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. Washington, 1045 DC: Island Press, 2005. 1046

———. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: A Framework for Assessment. Island Press, 1047 2003. 1048

30

Mekonnen, M.M., and A.Y. Hoekstra. "The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Crops and 1049 Derived Crop Products:: Volume 1: Main Report." (2010). 1050 http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report47-WaterFootprintCrops-Vol1.pdf. 1051

Miettinen, Jukka, Al Hooijer, Daniel Tollenaar, Sue Page, Chris Malins, Ronald Vernimmen, 1052 Chenghua Shi, and Soo Chin Liew. "Historical Analysis and Projection of Oil Palm 1053 Plantation Expansion on Peatland in Southeast Asia." White paper, number 17CRISP-1054 Deltares-ICCT (2012). 1055

Milder, Jeffrey C., Sara J. Scherr, and Carina Bracer. "Trends and Future Potential of Payment 1056 for Ecosystem Services to Alleviate Rural Poverty in Developing Countries." Ecology & 1057 Society 15, no. 2 (2010): 1-19. 1058

Moore, Joslin L., Lisa Manne, Thomas Brooks, Neil D. Burgess, Robert Davies, Carsten 1059 Rahbek, Paul Williams, and Andrew Balmford. "The Distribution of Cultural and 1060 Biological Diversity in Africa." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: 1061 Biological Sciences 269, no. 1501 (August 22, 2002 2002): 1645-53. 1062

Naeem, Shahid, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau, and Charles Perrings. "Can We 1063 Predict the Effects of Global Change on Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Functioning?". 1064 In Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing, edited by Shahid 1065 Naeem, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau and Charles Perrings, 290-98. 1066 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 1067

Naeem, Shahid, J. Emmett Duffy, and Erika Zavaleta. "The Functions of Biological Diversity in 1068 an Age of Extinction." Science 336, no. 6087 (June 15, 2012 2012): 1401-06. 1069

Nellemann, Christian. The Environmental Food Crisis: The Environment's Role in Averting 1070 Future Food Crises: A Unep Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Publications, 1071 2009. 1072

O'Dor, R. O. N. "A Census of Marine Life." BioScience 54, no. 2 (2004): 92-93. 1073 Pascual, U., and C. Perrings. "Developing Incentives and Economic Mechanisms for in Situ 1074

Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes." Agriculture, Ecosystems & 1075 Environment 121, no. 3 (2007): 256-68. 1076

Perrings, Charles, Shahid Naeem, Farshid S. Ahrestani, Daniel E. Bunker, Peter Burkill, 1077 Graciela Canziani, Thomas Elmqvist, et al. "Ecosystem Services, Targets, and Indicators 1078 for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity." Frontiers in Ecology and the 1079 Environment 9 (2011): 512-20. 1080

Phalan, Ben, Malvika Onial, Andrew Balmford, and Rhys E. Green. "Reconciling Food 1081 Production and Biodiversity Conservation: Land Sharing and Land Sparing Compared." 1082 Science 333, no. 6047 (September 2, 2011 2011): 1289-91. 1083

Porzio, Lucia, Maria Cristina Buia, and Jason M Hall-Spencer. "Effects of Ocean Acidification on 1084 Macroalgal Communities." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400, no. 1085 1 (2011): 278-87. 1086

Rands, Michael R. W., William M. Adams, Leon Bennun, Stuart H. M. Butchart, Andrew 1087 Clements, David Coomes, Abigail Entwistle, et al. "Biodiversity Conservation: 1088 Challenges Beyond 2010." Science 329, no. 5997 (September 10, 2010 2010): 1298-1089 303. 1090

Rockstrom, Johan, Will Steffen, Kevin Noone, Asa Persson, F. Stuart Chapin, Eric F. Lambin, 1091 Timothy M. Lenton, et al. "A Safe Operating Space for Humanity." Nature 461, no. 7263 1092 (2009): 472-75. 1093

Royal Society. "Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide." Policy 1094 document 12/05, (2005): 1-58. http://royalsociety.org/Ocean-acidification-due-to- 1095 increasing-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide/. 1096

RSPO, Roundtable on Sustinable Palm Oil. http://www.rspo.org/. 1097 RTRS, Round Table on Responsible Soy Association. http://www.responsiblesoy.org/. 1098

31

Rudel, Thomas K., Ruth Defries, Gregory P. Asner, and William F. Laurance. "Changing Drivers 1099 of Deforestation and New Opportunities for Conservation 1100

Cambio En Los Factores De Deforestación Y Nuevas Oportunidades De Conservación." 1101 Conservation Biology 23, no. 6 (2009): 1396-405. 1102

Rumbaitis-del Rio, C., J. C. Ingram, and D. Fabrice. "Leveraging Ecological Knowledge to End 1103 Global Poverty." Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3 (2006): 463. 1104

Sachs, Jeffrey D., Jonathan E. M. Baillie, William J. Sutherland, Paul R. Armsworth, Neville Ash, 1105 John Beddington, Tim M. Blackburn, et al. "Biodiversity Conservation and the Millennium 1106 Development Goals." Science 325, no. 5947 (September 18, 2009 2009): 1502-03. 1107

Sandberg, Audun. "Property Rights and Ecosystem Properties." Land Use Policy 24, no. 4 (10// 1108 2007): 613-23. 1109

Sarmiento, J. L., R. Slater, R. Barber, L. Bopp, S. C. Doney, A. C. Hirst, J. Kleypas, et al. 1110 "Response of Ocean Ecosystems to Climate Warming." Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1111 18, no. 3 (2004): GB3003. 1112

SDSN, Sustainable Development Solutions Network. An Action Agenda for Sustainable 1113 Development. New York: United Nations, 2013. http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/06/130613-1114 SDSN-An-Action-Agenda-for-Sustainable-Development-FINAL.pdf. 1115

Selman, M., S. Greenhalgh, R. Diaz, and Z. Sugg. "Eutrophication and Hypoxia in Coastal 1116 Areas: A Global Assessment of the State of Knowledge." In Policy Note, edited by World 1117 Rersources Institute, 1-6, 2008. 1118

Sen, Indra S., and Bernhard Peucker-Ehrenbrink. "Anthropogenic Disturbance of Element 1119 Cycles at the Earth’s Surface." Environmental Science & Technology 46, no. 16 1120 (2012/08/21 2012): 8601-09. 1121

Seppelt, Ralf, Carsten F. Dormann, Florian V. Eppink, Sven Lautenbach, and Stefan Schmidt. 1122 "A Quantitative Review of Ecosystem Service Studies: Approaches, Shortcomings and 1123 the Road Ahead." Journal of Applied Ecology 48, no. 3 (2011): 630-36. 1124

Smith, Val H., and David W. Schindler. "Eutrophication Science: Where Do We Go from Here?". 1125 Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, no. 4 (4// 2009): 201-07. 1126

Smukler, S. M., S. Sánchez-Moreno, S. J. Fonte, H. Ferris, K. Klonsky, A. T. O'Geen, K. M. 1127 Scow, K. L. Steenwerth, and L. E. Jackson. "Biodiversity and Multiple Ecosystem 1128 Functions in an Organic Farmscape." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 139, no. 1129 1-2 (2010): 80-97. 1130

Soares-Filho, Britaldo Silveira, Daniel Curtis Nepstad, Lisa M. Curran, Gustavo Coutinho 1131 Cerqueira, Ricardo Alexandrino Garcia, Claudia Azevedo Ramos, Eliane Voll, et al. 1132 "Modelling Conservation in the Amazon Basin." Nature 440, no. 7083 (03/23/print 2006): 1133 520-23. 1134

Solomon, Susan. Climate Change 2007-the Physical Science Basis: Working Group I 1135 Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Ipcc. Vol. 4: Cambridge University 1136 Press, 2007. 1137

Steffen, Will, Paul J. Crutzen, and John R. McNeill. "The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now 1138 Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature." AMBIO: A Journal of the Human 1139 Environment 36, no. 8 (2009): 614-21. 1140

Stephens, Carolyn, John Porter, Clive Nettleton, and Ruth Willis. "Disappearing, Displaced, and 1141 Undervalued: A Call to Action for Indigenous Health Worldwide." The lancet 367, no. 1142 9527 (2006): 2019-28. 1143

Stramma, Lothar, Gregory C Johnson, Janet Sprintall, and Volker Mohrholz. "Expanding 1144 Oxygen-Minimum Zones in the Tropical Oceans." science 320, no. 5876 (2008): 655-58. 1145

Food Matters: Towards a Strategy for the 21st Century, 2008. 1146 Stuart, Tristram. Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. WW Norton, 2009. 1147

32

Sutherland, William J. "Parallel Extinction Risk and Global Distribution of Languages and 1148 Species." Nature 423, no. 6937 (05/15/print 2003): 276-79. 1149

Swift, M. J., A. M. N. Izac, and M. van Noordwijk. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in 1150 Agricultural Landscapes--Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Agriculture, Ecosystems 1151 & Environment 104, no. 1 (2004): 113-34. 1152

Tscharntke, Teja, Alexandra M Klein, Andreas Kruess, Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, and Carsten 1153 Thies. "Landscape Perspectives on Agricultural Intensification and Biodiversity - 1154 Ecosystem Service Management." Ecology Letters 8 (2005): 857-74. 1155

Turley, C. "The Other Co2 Problem." openDemocracy.net (2005). 1156 http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-climate_change_debate/article_2480.jsp. 1157

USDA, United States Department of Agriculture. "Agriculture Indonesia: Rising Global Demand 1158 Fuels Palm Oil Expansion." (2010). 1159 http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2010/10/Indonesia/. 1160

WEF, World Economic Forum. "Realizing a New Vision for Agriculture: A Roadmap for 1161 Stakeholders." 2010. 1162

Whitehead, Hal. "Estimates of the Current Global Population Size and Historical Trajectory for 1163 Sperm Whales." Marine ecology progress series 242 (2002): 295-304. 1164

Wilkinson, Bruce H. "Humans as Geologic Agents: A Deep-Time Perspective." Geology 33, no. 1165 3 (March 1, 2005 2005): 161-64. 1166

Williams, Nigel. "Deep Ocean Species Discovered." Current Biology 20, no. 21 (11/9/ 2010): 1167 R909-R10. 1168

Wingenter, Oliver W., Karl B. Haase, Max Zeigler, Donald R. Blake, F. Sherwood Rowland, 1169 Barkley C. Sive, Ana Paulino, et al. "Unexpected Consequences of Increasing Co2 and 1170 Ocean Acidity on Marine Production of Dms and Ch2cli: Potential Climate Impacts." 1171 Geophysical Research Letters 34, no. 5 (2007): L05710. 1172

Wolfe, Martin S. "Crop Strength through Diversity." Nature 406, no. 6797 (2000): 681-82. 1173 Wood, Hannah L, John I Spicer, and Stephen Widdicombe. "Ocean Acidification May Increase 1174

Calcification Rates, but at a Cost." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological 1175 Sciences 275, no. 1644 (August 7, 2008 2008): 1767-73. 1176

WOR, World Ocean Review. Living with the Oceans: A Report on the State of the World’s 1177 Oceans. Hamburg: Maribus, 2010. http://worldoceanreview.com/en/. 1178

Worm, Boris, Ray Hilborn, Julia K. Baum, Trevor A. Branch, Jeremy S. Collie, Christopher 1179 Costello, Michael J. Fogarty, et al. "Rebuilding Global Fisheries." Science 325, no. 5940 1180 (July 31, 2009 2009): 578-85. 1181

WRAP, Waste and Resources Action Programme "The Food We Waste: A Study Ofthe 1182 Amount,Types and Nature of the Food We Throw Away in Uk Households." (2008). 1183

Wunder, S. "The Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services in Tropical Conservation." 1184 Conservation Biology 21, no. 1 (Feb 2007): 48-58. 1185

Wunder, Sven, Stefanie Engel, and Stefano Pagiola. "Taking Stock: A Comparative Analysis of 1186 Payments for Environmental Services Programs in Developed and Developing 1187 Countries." Ecological Economics 65, no. 4 (5/1/ 2008): 834-52. 1188

Zalasiewcz, J., M. Williams, A. B. Smith, L. T. Barry, A. L. Coe, P. R. Brown, P. Brenchley, et al. 1189 "Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene?". GSA Today 18 (2008): 4-8. 1190

1191

1192

Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services · 2019-12-05 · 87! forested ecosystems, the...

Documents

Transcript of Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services · 2019-12-05 · 87! forested ecosystems, the...