DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES NO. 2018-53

DECEMBER 2018

Forest Protection in the Philippines

The PIDS Discussion Paper Series constitutes studies that are preliminary and subject to further revisions. They are being circulated in a limited number of copies only for purposes of soliciting comments and suggestions for further refinements. The studies under the Series are unedited and unreviewed. The views and opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute. Not for quotation without permission from the author(s) and the Institute.

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Sonny N. Domingo and Arvie Joy A. Manejar

Forest Protection in the Philippines

Sonny N. Domingo

Arvie Joy A. Manejar

PHILIPPINE INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

December 2018

Abstract

Philippines has a land mass of 30 million ha, 52.7 percent of which was classified as

forestlands. The country was identified as a megadiverse area in terms of tropical forests and

biodiverse ecosystems. Laws and policies were laid since 1975 in order to inform forest

management strategies. The forestry sector recently banked its future in two landmark

executive orders in 2011 which were EO 23 and EO 26, the former declaring a moratorium on

logging and the latter implementing a National Greening Program. The significant reduction in

forest cover may have been brought about by decades of lax legislations promoting extractive

industries. It can be said that the policy landscape for the said sector experienced shifting

priorities which resulted to overlapping priorities and implementation delays on the ground and

across regions. Overall, it lacked provisions in enforcement and institutionalization.

Demographic, economic, technological, institutional, and cultural factors were still

predominant in the sector in the form of upland encroachment, multiple land uses, ineffective

initiatives, and prevalence of non-complying extractive industries. Forest protection initiatives

such as Lawin Program and the E-Filing Monitoring Systems were underway, but these could

be strengthened with the passage of Sustainable Forest Management Bill in order to establish

more sustainable methods of forest management.

Keywords: forest protection, extractive industry, land use, sustainability

Table of Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1. Objectives 1

2. Methodology 2

2.1. Approach of the study 2

2.2. Analytical framework 3

2.3. Conceptual framework 5

3. Results and Discussion 14

3.1. Policy analysis 14

3.2. Desk review 22

3.3. Enforcement of forest protection 38

3.4. Case studies 40

4. Conclusion and recommendations 52

5. References 53

List of Tables

Table 1. Different criteria for environment policy evaluation 3 Table 2 Dimensions for analyzing public policies 5 Table 3. Summary of data sources 6 Table 4. Modified evaluation criteria adapted from Mickwitz (2003), Boon et al. (2009), and Morestin (2012) 6 Table 5. Evaluation Criteria Matrix: Forest Protection in the Philippines adapted from Mickwitz (2003), Boon et al. (2009), and Morestin (2012) 9 Table 6. Timeline of policies under the forestry sector 19

List of Figures

Figure 1. Treatment-development design (Edmonds and Kennedy 2013) 2 Figure 2. Side-effects evaluation framework 3 Figure 3. First part of conceptual framework 8 Figure 4. Second part of conceptual framework 8 Figure 5. Trend of forest cover in the country from 1934-2010 (FMB-DENR, 2013) 22 Figure 6. Forest cover across regions in the Philippines (FMB-DENR 2013) 23 Figure 7. Land classification in Philippines from 2000-2016 (DENR) 24 Figure 8. Comparison of land area between forest reserves and timberlands in the Philippines from 2000-2016 (DENR) 25 Figure 9. Watershed forest reserves across region, 2016 (FMB) 25 Figure 10. Causes of disturbances within forestlands from 2000-2015 (DENR Regional Reports) 26 Figure 11. Damages from forest disturbances from 2000 to 2015 (DENR Regional Reports) 27 Figure 12. Area and number of CBFMAs across regions in 2016 (FMB) 28 Figure 13. Area and number of timber licenses from 2000-2016 (FMB) 28 Figure 14. Trends of timber license agreements from 2000-2016 (FMB) 29 Figure 15. Status of wood processing plants in 2016 (FMB) 29 Figure 16. Log production across regions from 2000-2016 (FMB) 30

Figure 17. Comparison of log production per agreement from 2000-2016 (FMB) 32 Figure 18. Lumber production per region from 2000-2016 (FMB) 32 Figure 19. Comparison of plywood production per region from 2000-1016 (DENR) 33 Figure 20. Trend of non-timber products from 2000 to 2016 (DENR) 33 Figure 21. Log production by species from 2000-2016 (DENR-FMB) 34 Figure 22. Quantity of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB) 35 Figure 23. Value of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB) 35 Figure 24. Quantity of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB) 36 Figure 25. Value of forest-based products from 2003-2016 (FMB) 36 Figure 26. Comparison of NGP accomplishment between government and NGOs from 2011-2016 (FMB) 37 Figure 27. Disaggregated NGP Accomplishment per sector from 2011-2016 (FMB) 38 Figure 28. Forest-related apprehensions across regions from 2010 to 2018 (DENR) 39 Figure 29. Status of environmental courts in the Philippines (DOJ) 39 Figure 30. Environmental court cases in the Philippines as of 2017 (DOJ) 40 Figure 31. Apprehension and confiscation figures in Caraga from 2011-2018 43 Figure 32. Volume and value of apprehended forest-based products in Palawan for 2017 47 Figure 33. Quantity of apprehensions and seizure of forest products in Region 2 50 Figure 34. Volume of apprehensions and seizure of forest products in Region 2 51

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Forest protection in the Philippines

Sonny N. Domingo and Arvie Joy A. Manejar1

1. Introduction

Philippines has a total land mass of approximately 30 million ha, 14.2 million (47.3%) of which

was classified as alienable and disposable lands while the other 15.8 million ha (52.7%) was

identified as forestlands. The bigger land classification was further subdivided into closed or

open forest formations, young natural stands, plantations, forest nurseries, seed orchards,

bamboo, palm, and fern (PNRPS, 2012). The country was considered as one of the megadiverse

regions with most tropical forests in the world, nourishing biodiversity and carbon-rich

ecosystems which “sequester carbon through reforestation, agroforestry, and conservation of

existing forests” as indicated by the lush forest cover (Rubas-Leal et al. 2017).

Presidential Decree No. 75 issued in 1975 became the blueprint of forest management in the

country. Forty-three years later, the same law was still practiced. It has not been updated,

revised, or improved into a Republic Act which can further strengthen the forestry sector. The

past administrations believed two landmark executive orders in 2011 will solve the problem

pertaining to logging and reforestation. The influx of functional policies down DENR’s chain

of command were all in the process of maintaining forestlands however, the sector still faced

pressures and problems similar to developing countries with rich natural resources which

eventually decreased the forest cover. These concerns included deforestation, illegal logging,

and land conversions among others. In line with this, initiatives have been put in place by

DENR and related institutions to mitigate the problems. These were in the form of National

Greening Programs, and stricter implementation of tree-cutting and earth balling permits.

The policy landscape for the forestry sector spanned decades of shifting priorities and policy

directions which resulted to competing initiatives on the ground across time and across regions.

Thus, the study aimed to determine the impacts of these actions to the state of the country’s

forest resources. A policy review would help identify strengths, weaknesses and gaps in the

formulation and implementation of legislations, and this will also provide corresponding

recommendations and ways forward appropriate for the sector.

1.1. Objectives

The study generally aimed to undertake a policy review focusing on the various aspects of

forest protection in the Philippines.

Specifically, the study aimed to:

1. Describe the forestry sector’s policy landscape and evolution;

2. Identify development issues related to the forestlands;

3. And determine the status of forest protection initiatives.

1 Senior Research Fellow and Research Analyst, respectively, Philippine Institute for Development Studies

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2. Methodology

Rapid urban development and progress are accompanied with large demands of resources that

are mostly found in the forestlands of the Philippines. The drastic conversion of forested lands

have resulted to deforestation which in turn affected the functions of the site and degraded the

quality of ecosystem services (FAO 2006). Various policy interventions have been employed

by the Philippine government to counter the effects of deforestation, even joining international

agreements and streamlining policies with other sectors such as mining, and climate change.

Ploet et al. (2011) identified problems on overlapping duties, and inconsistencies in existing

laws and regulations.

The study aims to conduct a comprehensive policy review focusing on the different aspects of

forest protection, particularly on the sector’s policy landscape; development issues related to

our forestlands; and the status of our forest protection initiatives.

2.1. Approach of the study

The research design of this study will fall under the mixed-methods approach since it will

involve both qualitative and quantitative data. Evaluating and reviewing the policies geared

towards forest protection in the Philippines will include the numbers and data from agencies

such as DENR and NAMRIA among others while also gathering insights from the communities

affected by the policies and interventions set in their areas. Thus, it may utilize the exploratory-

sequential approach. It first analyzes the qualitative data, the findings of which is followed by

a quantitative analysis. This approach is intended for development of a new instrument,

theory/taxonomy or treatment protocol/intervention (Creswell and Plano Clark 2011). Under

this approach, the most fitting design to utilize with the study on “Forest protection in the

Philippines” is treatment-development design. It treats both qualitative and quantitative data as

emphasis in the framework and then proceeds to test the treatment, or in this case, a policy to

a population.

Figure 1. Treatment-development design (Edmonds and Kennedy 2013)

QUAL data collection,

analysis, results

Develop the treatment

/intervention

QUAN data

collection

QUAN data analysis

and results

Interpret QUAL -> QUAN

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2.2. Analytical framework

Evaluation models for environmental policies are designed for various functions, and the one

most fitting for this study would be the side-effects evaluation model which takes into account

the complexity and uncertainty of problems associated with the environmental policy. The

model categorizes first the effects of the policy instrument into anticipated and unanticipated

effects, then it determines whether the effects are within or outside the target area, and finally,

it divides the effects into environmental and other effects (Vedung 1997).

Figure 2. Side-effects evaluation framework

Forms of criteria are also used in assessing policies in order to arrive at normative judgments.

Mickwitz (2003) was able to compile the most important criteria however, for a certain criteria

to function, there should be relevant data available. If lacking, there is a need to modify the

criteria with the core issues intact.

Table 1. Different criteria for environment policy evaluation

Criteria Questions

General

Relevance Are environmental problems covered by the goals of the

instruments?

Impact Are impacts from the implementation of policy instruments

identifiable?

Effectiveness To what degree do the achieved outcomes correspond to the

intended goals of the policy?

Persistence Do the effects have a longer-lasting effect on the state of the

environment?

Flexibility Can the policy adapt to a changing landscape and conditions?

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Predictability Is it possible to foresee the administration, outputs and outcomes

of the policy instrument? Is there room for preparation to take into

account the implications brought by the policy?

Economic

Efficiency (cost-benefit) Are the benefits equal to the costs incurred?

Efficiency (cost-effectiveness) Do the results reflect the resources used overtime? Could they

have been achieved with lesser resources?

Democracy-related

Legitimacy How acceptable is the policy to the individuals, non-governmental

organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations (CSOs), and

private sector?

Transparency Are the processes of implementation and output of such open to

the public?

Equity How are the outcomes and costs of the policy distributed? Do

equal opportunities to participate exist for all participants?

This criteria method of evaluation is similar to the methodology applied to a study on the

assessment of forest policy in Ghana. The policy was evaluated through several factors:

“coherence, relevance, efficiency of the implementation process, stakeholder participation,

equity in benefits-sharing, and sustainability” (Boon et al 2009). The process was then

complemented with a SWOT analysis.

Morestin (2012) suggests that the analytical framework for a study assessing public policy

should also determine the effects of policies and programs, and identify issues surrounding the

implementation process. The initial two-pronged criteria that the paper introduced was divided

into six dimensions.

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Table 2 Dimensions for analyzing public policies

Dimension Questions

Effectiveness What are the effects of the public policy on the targeted problem? What are the policy’s intermediate effects? Is the intervention logic of the policy possible? How does implementation context influence the policy’s effectiveness How long until the effects are observed? Are they sustained over time?

Unintended effects Are the unintended effects of the policy positive or negative? In what ways can the negative effects be mitigated?

Equity What are the effects of the policy among various stakeholder groups? Are existing social inequalities created, reinforced, or corrected through the policy?

Cost What are the costs incurred and benefits gained by the government and other stakeholders (CSOs, private sector)? How are the costs distributed across time? To what extent are the costs observable and apparent? How do the costs of the policy fare compared to potential policies, and inaction? What is the cost-effectiveness of the policy for the government, and for the society?

Feasibility Are all needed resources (human, material, and technological) available and accessible? Is the policy in line with existing legislations? Can this policy be administered by pre-existing mechanisms? How many actors are involved in the implementation process? Is cooperation from these actors observed? Do the opponents have the ability to interfere and intervene in the implementation process?

Acceptability Which actors would be affected by the policy? Is the targeted problem by the policy a social issue that needs intervention? What are the stakeholders’ reactions to the idea of intervening? Are there suggestions from the stakeholders for better intervention methods? What insights do the stakeholders involved have towards the implementation of the policy? Can the policy’s acceptability evolve throughout its implementation period?

2.3. Conceptual framework

Data Collection. The study has initially gathered materials and insights from key national

government agencies. The mandates and functions of said government institutions will be

most helpful in providing information and in-depth understanding of related policies and

ordinances.

To cater different perspectives apart from the implementing agencies and to validate the data

gathered from other sources, focus group discussions (FGDs) will be held which will involve

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stakeholders that have participated in and were affected by the forest protection policies. A

stratified purposive sampling will be utilized to identify participants among the sectors to arrive

at equal representation.

Table 3. Summary of data sources

Key Informant Interviews Focus Group Discussion

Government Agency Sector

Forest Management Bureau Indigenous peoples National Commission on Indigenous Peoples Local government units National Resource and Mapping Information Authority

Mining companies

DENR Regional Offices Forest rangers Provincial Environment and Natural Resource Officer Timber businesses

Data Analysis. The compiled data gathered from the materials given by DENR-FMB, KII with

key individuals, and FGDs with the stakeholders will be used to review and assess the existing

policies for forest protection. The side-effects evaluation framework by Vedung (1997) will be

adapted to identify the effects and impacts of the policies and determine whether the goals of

the policies emerged in the list of effects.

Evaluation criteria will also be modified to adequately cover all aspects of forest protection

that need to be discussed. It will follow a hybrid template derived from the evaluation criteria

introduced by Mickwitz (2003), Boon et al. (2009), and Morestin (2012).

The evaluation matrix for the KIIs and FGDs can be found on the next pages.

Table 4. Modified evaluation criteria adapted from Mickwitz (2003), Boon et al. (2009), and Morestin (2012)

Criteria Questions

Relevance Are the current problems of the forestry sector adequately responded to by the existing forest policies? Are the policies still working in current conditions? Is there a need for a Republic Act directly addressing forestry?

Impact Are the impacts from the implementation of the policy instruments identifiable and felt by stakeholders?

Effectiveness What are the effects of the policy on the targeted problem (deforestation, climate change, biodiversity loss)? How does the implementation process influence the effectiveness of the policy instrument?

Unintended effects What are the unintended effects of forest protection policies on other sectors such as mining, and timber? Are these effects negative or positive? For negative impacts, in what ways can they be mitigated?

Cost What are the costs incurred by the government and other stakeholders? How are the costs distributed across time? To what extent are the costs observable and apparent?

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How do the costs of the policy fare compared to potential policies, and inaction? What is the cost-effectiveness of the policy for the government, and for the society?

Persistence and sustainability Were the effects within the expected time frame of the policy? How long until the effects are observed for the newly-implemented policy? How can effects be sustained over time?

Inclusivity Which actors would be affected by the policy? Are these actors included in the conceptualization and implementation processes of policy instruments? Is the targeted problem by the policy a social issue that needs intervention? What are the stakeholders’ reactions to the idea of intervening? Are there suggestions from the stakeholders for better intervention methods? What insights do the stakeholders involved have towards the implementation of the policy? Can the policy’s acceptability evolve throughout its implementation period?

Feasibility Are all needed resources for the implementation available and accessible? Is the policy in line with existing legislations? Is cooperation from stakeholders observed?

Transparency Are the processes of implementation and output of such open to the public? Do the stakeholders have any power to intervene and/or participate? Up to what degree are they able to participate in the implementation process?

Equity What are the effects of the policy among various stakeholder groups? Are existing social inequalities created, reinforced, or corrected through the policy? What are the benefits gained by the government and other stakeholders? How are these benefits distributed across time?

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Figure 3. First part of conceptual framework

Figure 4. Second part of conceptual framework

FOREST PROTECTION POLICY

EFFECTS SIDE EFFECTS EVALUATION

FRAMEWORK

CRITERIA

ANTICIPATED UNANTICIPATED

INSIDE TARGET

AREA

OUTSIDE TARGET

AREA

INSIDE TARGET AREA OUTSIDE TARGET

AREA

QUAL data collection, analysis,

results

Key Informant Interviews (KII)

Focus Group

Discussions (FGD)

Document review

Develop the treatment

/intervention

Side-effects evaluation framework

QUAN data collection

Compile

forestland assessments

and monitoring

results

QUAN data analysis and

results

Augmentation of findings with the

QUAL results

Interpret QUAL -> QUAN

Current state

of forest protection in

the Philippines

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Table 5. Evaluation Criteria Matrix: Forest Protection in the Philippines adapted from Mickwitz (2003), Boon et al. (2009), and Morestin (2012)

CRITERIA AND KEY ANALYSES INDICATORS SOURCES OF EVIDENCE

RELEVANCE

Are the current problems of forest sector adequately responded to by existing forest policies?

The policies in place have provisions in place addressing the biggest problems of the forest sector.

National policies (executive orders, administrative orders, local ordinances)

Complementation from other national laws (NIPAS, Mining Act)

KII and FGDs with oversight agencies and stakeholders

Are the policies still working in current conditions?

The policies lack definite authority over forest protection.

KII and FGDs with DENR, FMB, and community stakeholders

Is there a need for a Republic Act directly addressing forestry?

There is a need for a Republic Act on forestry to cement the country’s need and to prioritize protection of its forests.

KII with DENR-FMB

IMPACT

Are the impacts from the implementation of the policy instruments identifiable and felt by stakeholders?

The impacts of implementation on the ground can be identified by the stakeholders involved and affected.

These impacts can also be easily identified whether they have been felt within or outside the target area (in this case, protected area).

These impacts can be easily divided into anticipated and unanticipated effects.

FGD with community stakeholders

Impacts in form of monitoring results from NAMRIA, regional offices of DENR (C/PENRO)

EFFECTIVENESS

What are the effects of the policy on the targeted problem (deforestation, climate change, biodiversity loss)?

The policy is expected to curb the rate of deforestation, climate change, and biodiversity loss across years.

Documents/reports from NAMRIA, FMB, regional offices of DENR (C/PENRO)

Literature review on climate change and biodiversity loss in the Philippines

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How does the implementation process influence the effectiveness of the policy instrument?

The implementation process follows the provisions of laws prescribed for forest protection.

The processes do not overlap or contradict with other existing laws.

National policies (executive orders, administrative orders, local ordinances)

Complementation from other national laws (NIPAS, Mining Act)

KII and FGDs with oversight and implementing agencies (national versus local perspective)

UNINTENDED EFFECTS

What are the unintended effects of forest protection policies on other sectors (e.g. mining and timber)?

The forest protection policies set in place protected areas where mining and timber operations cannot legally take place.

KII and FGDs with mining and timber businesses, and community stakeholders (LGU)

Complementation with monitoring results on illegal logging

Cases of green courts

Are these effects negative or positive? The unintended effects of the policies are positive for some stakeholders and negative for others (e.g. mining and timber businesses)

For negative impacts, in what ways can they be mitigated?

These impacts are balanced with dialogues between the forestry sector, and mining and timber industries mitigating the losses with agreements.

COST

What are the costs incurred by the government and the other stakeholders?

There are both monetary and non-monetary costs shouldered by government and other stakeholders.

Fiscal reports of FMB and regional offices of DENR (C/PENRO)

KII with oversight and implementing agencies How are costs distributed across time? Trend analysis can show the

distribution of costs across time and across stakeholders.

To what extent are the costs observable and apparent?

The costs are apparent and easily identified.

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How do the costs of the policy fare compared to potential policies and inaction?

There can be lesser costs when there is stronger implementation and more definite national policy.

The costs are lesser across time compared to inaction against illegal extractive industries.

KII with oversight and implementing agencies

What is the cost-effectiveness of the policy for the government, and for the society?

PERSISTENCE AND SUSTAINABILITY

How long until the effects are observed for the newly-implemented policy?

The effects can be monitored through reports of DENR and NAMRIA.

Monitoring results of regulatory bodies (NAMRIA, DENR)

KII with oversight and implementing agencies, and stakeholders How can the effects be sustained over time? When current policies are reinforced

and given more support, these effects can be sustained over time.

INCLUSIVITY

Which actors would be affected by the policy?

The forest protection policies affect the communities, and the mining and timber businesses.

KII and FGD with stakeholders

KII with oversight and implementing agencies

Document review of national and local policies and ordinances

Are these actors included in the conceptualization and implementation processes of policy instruments?

The actors/stakeholders are included in the conceptualization of policy instruments and are being considered in the implementation.

Is the targeted problem by the policy a social issue that needs intervention?

The policy is intended to target and solve environmental problems along with accompanying socio-economic issues.

What are the stakeholders’ reactions to the idea of intervening?

Since the community is the primary stakeholder of the forests, they are cooperative of the intervention and implementation of the policy unless it

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dictates movement and displacement.

Are there suggestions from the stakeholders for better intervention methods?

Stakeholders are able to give suggestions and insights on the implementation process through consultation.

What insights do the stakeholders involved have towards implementation of the policy? Up to what degree are they able to participate?

Can the policy’s acceptability evolve throughout its implementation period?

The implementation might depend on the leadership of the regional oversight agency along with political will.

FEASIBILITY

Are all needed resources for the implementation available and accessible?

Resources for implementation for implementation may be lacking before on manpower and technology and are currently being augmented now.

KII with DENR-FMB and regional implementing bodies

Is the policy in line with existing legislations? The existing policies complement each other towards a unified goal of forest protection.

Complementation of national laws and policies

International agreements on forest protection

Is cooperation from stakeholders observed? The stakeholders are involved and are participating in the implementation process.

KII with community stakeholders

TRANSPARENCY

Are the processes of implementation and output of such open to the public?

The outputs of the policy implementation are open to the public.

KII with oversight agencies

Transparency of needed documents

EQUITY

Are existing social inequalities created, reinforced, or corrected through the policy?

The policy provided an equitable distribution among stakeholders.

KII and FGD with stakeholders

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What are the benefits gained by the government and other stakeholders?

The benefits gained either come in forms of environmental benefits that increase over time.

Fiscal documents

KII with oversight agencies and FGD with stakeholders

*other key analyses have been deleted due to repetition

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3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Policy analysis

Philippines has a timeline of forest rehabilitation divided into colonial, national, internationally

supported, and participatory forest rehabilitation eras. The first era started out as early as 1910

and accelerated in the 1930s. Around late 1940s, the government accomplished 35 projects in

Luzon which covered 26,000 ha, but they did not involve the communities in these activities

and even evicted them from lands undergoing rehabilitation (De Jong 2010). However, this

type of rehabilitation yielded short-term success since the underlying problems remain

unaddressed, and there were negative consequences given to local communities instead of

benefits.

The post-World War II era saw national governments across Asia conduct endogenous forest

rehabilitation aimed at rural development, and export-friendly forestry at the same time limiting

agricultural and forestry production, wood and fuel supply, and continued environmental

degradation. In the Philippines, this meant increased timber taxes for forest rehabilitation with

largely indigenous species. A presidential decree was also issued to encourage every 10-year

or older citizen to plant 12 seedlings for five consecutive years (De Jong 2010). The problems

associated with this era were poor implementation and monitoring. During the early 1970s,

DENR has established an array of forest support programs such as Administrative Order No.

62 in 1971 or Kaingin Management and Land Settlement Regulation, Forest Occupancy

Management Program, Family Approach to Reforestation Program, and Communal Tree

Farming Program. The aforementioned policies addressed problems by kaingineros on shifting

cultivation and entered into contractual agreements with small family groups for forest

management (Harrison et al. 2004).

There were only three Republic Acts related to forestry, and these were Central Cebu Protected

Landscape Act of 2007 (RA 9486), Reforesting 3,000 ha of public land in Cagayan de Oro in

2012 (RA 10452), and Forestry Profession Act of 2015 (RA 10690). These were preceded by

Presidential Decrees signed by Marcos during the 70s. The most significant of which was PD

705 or the Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines, and it still remained until today as the

blueprint of implementation of programs in the forestry sector. Study sites would defer this law

later on in the discussion as it was believed to be outdated and no longer appropriate for the

current policy landscape of the country. Twelve years after the issuance of PD 705, EO 192

was declared which called for the reorganization of Department of Environment, Energy and

Natural Resources, renaming it as the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and

for other purposes. It also created the Forest Management Bureau with the mandate of

providing technical assistance not only to the central office but also to the field offices for the

effective protection, development, and conservation of forestlands and watersheds. The bureau

also has the power to recommend interventions in meeting the goals of sustainable forests with

good governance (FMB 2016).

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The third rehabilitation era recognized the worldwide concern over forest decline and soil

erosion. International organizations such as Food and Agricultural Organization of the United

Nations, Asian Development Bank, and World Bank handed out support in form of funds. More

local and national projects were carried out in the Philippines with an increased participation

of non-governmental actors, communities, and private sector. DENR’s programs during the

1980s and 1990s fall under this era. The National Forestation Program (NFP) with loans from

ADB and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF) of Japan has three main

components, namely contract reforestation, watershed rehabilitation, and timber stand

improvement; contracts were awarded to corporations, communities, and families. The

Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) was initiated in 1982 to maximize land productivity,

improve ecological stability, and enhance socioeconomic conditions of forest occupants and

communities. DENR eventually transferred areas under ISFP to local government units (LGUs)

and later on were integrated with CBFM. Low Income Upland Communities Project (LIUCP)

targeted upland forest resources with the goal to alleviate rural poverty. The program benefitted

about 7000 tribal and lowland migrant families (Harrison et al. 2004). Between 1960 and 2002,

almost 1.7 million ha were rehabilitated, two-thirds by the government and the rest by the

remaining stakeholders (Pulhin et al. 2006). Tenures such as Forestland Management

Agreement, Industrial Forest Management Agreement, and Socialized Industrial Forest

Management Agreement will be elaborated later on. The lack on technical expertise was

addressed in this era along with improved consideration towards local communities.

The last era was named as such due to the proliferation of roles particularly in technical

knowledge and monitoring by diverse stakeholders in the rehabilitation projects. Along with

property rights, the needs of the community have also been granted in the projects which

supposedly led to more successful and sustainable outcomes. Community-based forest

management program has been implemented in 1995 as a national strategy across all

plantations in the Philippines (De Jong 2010). It was here that rehabilitation was diversified

and now entailed participation of local communities, giving them more room to obtain the

proper benefits. There was also an increase in technical knowledge and monitoring. The

Community Forestry Program was funded by ADB and US Agency for International

Development (USAID) and operated from 1989-1999. From 2003, focus was given to various

tenurial instruments such as CBFMA, SIFMA, and TLA through administrative orders. The

subsector on trade and forest charges was more concerned with ports and proper documentation

for imports, fees and income. Beside the development of the trade industry of forest-related

products were appropriate measures for the establishment and operations of wood processing

plants. Tree-cutting privileges exercised by the tenurial instrument holders were facilitated

through MC 2004-08 by streamlining the necessary permits from the EMB. From 2000-2005,

most legislations pertained to the opening of forestlands to multiple uses such as farming,

tourism, cropland, and grazing. This policy direction carried over until 2009, fostering

programs of upland development, fishery, and agroforestry. Delineation of borders and titling

concerns emerged during this time to clarify the definition of forest cover and land use, assess

and determine boundaries between agricultural lands, national parks, and forestlands, and to

review titled properties within a protected area.

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Licenses of tenurial instruments and wood processing plants were initially suspended from

2005, particularly the timber ones, but have been lifted later on. Tree-cutting permits started to

devolve, starting with Cordillera Administrative Region which issued permits for less than 30

trees. The department also issued a memorandum to conduct an inventory of rattan and timber

resources. The legal side of the sector have also begun to rise, placing conveyances seized,

confiscated, and forfeited in the favor of the government.

In 2011, two landmark policies were declared, EO 23 and EO 26. The first one was declaration

of moratorium on the cutting and harvesting of timber in natural and residual forests while the

second one was the announcement for National Greening Program that took place from 2011

to 2016. NGP supposedly covered the forestlands, mangrove and protected areas, ancestral

domains, civil and military reservations, urban areas under the greening plan of the LGUs,

inactive and abandoned mine sites, and other suitable lands. The latter was later on expanded

in 2015 to increase its coverage. To strengthen the issued orders, an anti-illegal logging task

force was created. It formed the triumvirate partnership of DENR-AFP-PNP. All forest

products they confiscated were transformed into furniture and were donated to DepEd and other

government institutions. Permitting guidelines became stricter for availing of permits for tree-

cutting and earth balling, the latter being denounced as contradictory and not environmentally

sound by the key informants in the study sites. Memorandum orders were also circulated

demanding a uniform replacement ratio for cut or relocated trees. Currently, the ratio stood at

100 replanted trees for each one cut tree. The future of the remaining valid tenurial instruments

depended on the provisions with MC 2013-28 since it contained the guidelines on renewal and

cancellation of Certificate of Stewardship Contracts. It was only in 2013 and 2014 where joint

collaboration with other agencies like DENR, DPWH, and DSWD were established to help out

with the tree replacement projects of the department. Participation was also asked from local

government units and the barangays to support the greening program.

Policies and legal foundations were in place to ensure the participation and inclusion of local

government units. Some of the laws also delineated the functions and responsibilities of the

LGU to aid DENR in its goals of sustainable development and management of natural

resources. For instance, Presidential Decree No. 1067 issued on December 31, 1976 mandated

for the delineation of activities near or on the banks of rivers and streams and shores of seas

and lakes which implied the need to establish coastal resource planning in the area. In 1992,

Urban Development and Housing Act was passed which was the basis for eviction and

demolition of occupations within dangerous areas such as the shoreline and riverbanks. Joint

Memorandum Circular No. 1998-01 by DENR and DILG served as the foundation for the

collaboration and partnership of LGU and DENR towards sustainable management and

development of forest resources.

An added unique feature to Palawan was the Proclamation No. 2152 which declared the entire

province and certain parcels of public domain as mangrove swamps and forest reserves. As for

the barangay level, baseline policy like the Local Government Code of 1991 stated in Section

389 of Book Three that the chief executive should be able to enforce laws and ordinances

applicable within the barangay in relation to pollution control and environmental protection.

17 | P a g e

Memorandum Circular No. 2008-101 called for the creation of a Barangay Peace and Order

Committee which should devise a Public Safety Plan that will include environmental protection

activities (e.g. clean-up drive, tree and ornamental planting, and flood control), and solid waste

management (e.g. IEC in proper garbage segregation, recycling, collection and disposal; and

development of a Material Recovery Facility).

There were over three republic acts; seven of combined executive orders, proclamations, and

presidential decree; and 87 memorandum orders, memorandum circulars, and administrative

orders tackling the many areas of the forestry sector, but there were minimal laws provided for

the sector’s protection. From 2000-2010, the policies mostly focused on extractive industries

– export, timber businesses, multiple land uses – until the results have materialized into

dwindling forest cover by the end of the decade. There were non-existing provisions

strengthening institutional mandates of the Forest Management Bureau to enforce laws and to

provide limits for extraction. Additionally, laws failed to ensure the protection of the

Philippines’ ecological frontiers and lush rainforests situated in Palawan and Cagayan, and

instead classified these areas as croplands. The policies within those years were derived from

the past administrations’ failure to sustainably manage the forest resources and to some extent,

lack of understanding of the biosphere and the compounding effects it will have on the future

generations. The gradual onset of degradation pressures on the sector have resulted to

reactionary policies by the end of 2010 as a race against time to return the previous forest cover,

and present institutional arrangements have borne the brunt of the negative impacts,

particularly in the areas of enforcement and legal protection. The previous laws have set sight

towards an unsustainable forestry direction, and it would require more than tree-planting to

change gears.

Salient features of draft Executive Order on Environmental Protection and

Enforcement Bureau (EPEB) of DENR

The Environmental Protection and Enforcement Bureau (EPEB) of DENR, henceforth be

referred to as the Bureau, shall be mandated to carry out environmental law enforcement in the

Philippines including territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, continental shelf, and other

areas where Philippine sovereignty is exercised. The bureau shall be led by an Executive

Director equivalent to a PENRO or may be a retired uniformed personnel, and one deputy

executive director for each of the island group namely, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. There

will be 20 island group environmental police officers for each enforcement unit, and this will

be composed of administrative and finance services (2); operations and logistics for PD 705 as

amended by RA 7161, PD 953, and RA 9175 (3); NIPAS Act, Wildlife Act, Caves Act (2);

Fisheries Code, Clean Water Act (3); Mining Act for both small and large-scale (3); Air (2);

solid waste (3); and toxic and hazardous waste (2). Under the set of environmental officers will

be an enforcement unit per region which is further subdivided into enforcement units of six

members under the PENRO, and units of 12 members under the CENRO. The number of

members seemed to vary across the regions as seen in the draft order. All these enforcing

personnel shall undergo proper training for six months.

18 | P a g e

The bureau shall mainly function to undertake detection and surveillance, and it has the power

to arrest, search, apprehend, and confiscate. Additionally, it can conduct demolition and also

monitor the progress of cases and proper implementation of sanctions and penalties which were

features admittedly absent in the current functions of the enforcement unit of the CENRO. To

standardize procedures, there will be a uniform guidebook crafted which will contain the

standard operating procedures on existing and future protocols, and there will also be an

organization of Special Joint Fact-finding/Investigation Teams. In this line, there was a

provision written mandating AFP, PNP, Marina, PCG, NBI, PDEA, CIDG, and PCTC to

provide intelligence, surveillance, and security services to the Bureau along with the assistance

in enforcement and security. This provision helps avoid the arbitrary institutional arrangements

made on the ground in moments of apprehension. Other partner agencies such as the MGB,

EMB, FMB, other DENR-attached agencies, DA-BFAR, and LTO shall coordinate with the

Bureau during investigation and prosecution of environmental crimes. Partner agencies shall

also be forced to provide relevant information and data under their respective jurisdictions.

Adjudication proceedings, as observed from the draft, were made to facilitate the case faster.

The process flow will start during apprehension which will be followed by a summary hearing

from the legal division of the regional office where the apprehension has been done.

Apprehended equipment, materials and conveyances shall be declared properties of the state

by the same regional office within 15 days from the date of apprehension. To limit and prevent

the delaying tactics of the accused, motions for postponement will not be allowed, and hearings

will only take place twice. If the provisions for the green courts were strengthened, reinforced,

and incentivized more, effectiveness of the proceedings shall be ensured.

Salient features of Sustainable Forest Management Act, and for other purposes (Senate

Bill No. 402)

The bill mandates sustainable and rational development of forestland resources as well as

protection of existing forest resources and conservation of biodiversity. The plan also follows

guiding principles such as watershed management, multi-sectoral representation, community-

based forest management, economic and ecological reforestation, equitable access to forest

resources, and professionalism in forest service.

DENR shall remain as the leading agency responsible for the management however,

responsibility in the utilization of forest resources shall be devolved to the LGUs. A forest

management plan will be conceptualized by the Department and related agencies. This shall

then be included in the LGUs’ Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP), and will be a precursor

to consultations prior to any forestry project to be implemented in their jurisdiction. To meet

consumer services, the bill allows forest resources to be harvested, transported, sold contracted,

conveyed, or disposed without clearance from oversight agency when found inside alienable

and disposable lands. Those within forestlands however, shall be issued with permits and

clearances deemed as integral by the Department and the Bureau.

19 | P a g e

The proposed law highlights the need of DENR to develop and adopt a sustainable forest

management strategy for each watershed and forest unit which aims to answer: (1) allocation

of forestland uses and productivity; (2) protection and conservation of biodiversity; (3)

rehabilitation; (4) enhancement of local communities dependent on forest resources; (5)

promotion of closer institutional coordination; (6) adoption of CBFMA as principal strategy;

and (6) integration of FLUPs to CLUPs. It also mandates the creation of an inventory of all

biological and economic features of forests. Reforestation and afforestation programs shall also

be put in place along with corresponding incentives to organizations and entities that will

participate in the said programs. City or municipal parks, communal forests, and tree parks are

also planned to be developed.

Forest protection is highlighted in Chapter 8 of the Bill; Section 25 of the bill declares a

permanent commercial log ban across the country, section 26 institutionalizes assistance of law

enforcement agencies such as PNP, AFP, and NBI to ensure the implementation of logging

ban. The same section also strengthens the mandate of DOJ to provide special courts to tackle

environmental cases. The next section provides for the creation of a multi-sectoral forest

protection council which will be placed in every province, city and municipality. It will be

comprised of representatives from but not limited to DENR, LGU, NGOs, POs, church and

local academic institutions.

Table 6. Timeline of policies under the forestry sector

1970s-1980s 1990s-2000s 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2018

Agreements and Licenses

AO 2003-11 CBFMA

RA 9486 MC 2013-28 renewal and cancellation of Cert of Stewardship Contract

AO 2004-29 revised rules on CBFMA

MO 2007-336 liftin suspension of harvesting&transpo of timber in plantation under tenure

AO 2004-30 Revised rules on SIFMA

Memo from Sec defining parameters in processing

AO 2004-34 guidelines in MYOP for TLA

MO 2010-09 no acceptance and processing for logging contracts

Tree cutting

AO 2003-24 IRR of RA 9175

MO 2005-01 special recovery authority for

MO 2011-52 declaring moratorium on

20 | P a g e

drifted tops for charcoal

timber cutting, anti-illegal logging task force

MC 2004-08 streamlining permitting requirements from EMB

MO 2005-02 recovery authority for drift logs and uprooted trees

MO 2012-02 uniform replacement ratio for cut or relocated trees

Revised guidelines in issuance of cutting/harvesting permits in private titled lands

MO 2005-19 authorizing DENR-CAR to issue permits <30

MC 2013-74 clarification on suspension of cutting permits

EO 23 s. 2011 MO 2007-472

inventory of timber and rattan services

MC 2013-118 processing of land use permits with tree cutting / earth balling

Forest charges, imports, exports

AO 2003-17 SUBIC AS PORT

AO 2010-11 seedling production, collection, disposition

MO 2011-113 instruction on transpo of timber from natural and residual forests

MO 2004-01 reporting system for forest income

MC 2013-515 revised procedures of LGU shares from forest charges

MO 2004-04 reporting sys for regional report on wood import

JMC 2014-01 implementation of DPWH-DENR-DSWD partnership on tree replacement project

AO 2004-16 prescribing revised sched of forest fees

Legal proceedings

AO 2003-18 disposition

MO 2009-459 conveyances seized, confiscated and forfeited in favor of govt

Wood Processing Plants

AO 2003-41 MC 2007-09 clarifications on

21 | P a g e

implementation of moratorium

AO 2003-53 estab and operations of WPP

Ao 2007-13 lifting of mora on WPPs

Land use planning

PD 705 – Revised forestry code

AO 2003-42 plantation for herbal

MC 2005-05 adopting forestry definition concerning forest cover/land use

EO 193 – expanded NGP

EO 192 reorganization

MC 2004-06 guidelines in integration of rainforestation farming strategy

AO 2005-25 upland agroforestry program

Proclamation No. 2013-663 Busuanga Pasture reserve

AO 2004-04 guidelines on planted trees in private lands

AO 2005-23 collaborative approach to watershed mgmt.

EO 26 – NGP

AO 2004-28 forestlands for tourism

MC 2006-01 non-titling of lands suitable for fishery ops

AO 2004-35 for grazing

MO 2007-313 review of titled properties within protected area

MC 2012-01 implementation of NGP

AO 2004-49 declaring public forest as A&D for cropland in Batangas; AO 2004-28 Pampanga; 2004-47 Capiz; AO 2004-48 Surigao del Sur; 2004-45 Puerto Princesa City; AO 2004-43 Maramag, Bukidnon; 2004-42 Bataan; 2004-41 Cebu, Capiz; 2004-40 Aparri and Cagayan; 2004-39 Zamboanga del Norte; 2004-38 Itogon, Benguet; 2004-37 Cagayan;

AO 2008-24 assessment and delineation of boundaries between forestlands, national parks and agri lands

MC 2013-06 guidelines and procedure for plantation development for NGP

22 | P a g e

2004-50 Nueva Ecija

AP 2004-59 special uses

MC 2009-03, MC 2009-04, MC 2009-05, 2009-06, 2009-07, 2009-09 implementation of upland development program

JMC 2013-03 barangay forest program in support of NGP

3.2. Desk review

The forest cover of the Philippines decreased from 17 million ha in 1934 to around 6.840

million ha in 2010 as seen in the figure below (FMB 2016). This was comprised of three types

of forest cover such as open forest, closed forests, and mangrove forests. The first one was the

open forest where all lands with tree canopy has a density of 10 percent and more but less than

40 percent. Closed forests, on the other hand, has a canopy average of 60 to 100 percent, while

mangrove forests were made up of the different species of mangroves that grow at tropical and

subtropical latitudes near the equator. Vis-à-vis the total forest cover in 2010, the open forest

has the largest share among the three at 4.595 million ha, followed by closed forest with 1.934

ha, and mangrove forest with 0.311 million ha.

Figure 5. Trend of forest cover in the country from 1934-2010 (FMB-DENR, 2013)

Among regions, it can be observed that Cagayan Valley has the most forest cover followed by

MIMAROPA. Mangrove forests have declining numbers whereas open forests have the biggest

share (FMB-DENR, 2013).

23 | P a g e

Figure 6. Forest cover across regions in the Philippines (FMB-DENR 2013)

However, one major challenge of forest protection found consistently across case study sites

was the overlapping of land classifications and titles. There were some instances when what

was declared in paper was different from what can be found on the ground. The inconsistency

of classifications contributed to the domino effects within the sector.

In the figure below, it can be observed that there was barely any change in land classifications

and that most of the lands were declared as alienable and disposable lands. Forest reserves have

dwindled by 2,000 ha while timberlands also decreased by 34,000 ha, most probably brought

about by EO 23. The reduction in these lands were tempered by the added conversion of

hectares to fish ponds.

0.00

200,000.00

400,000.00

600,000.00

800,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,200,000.00

Closed Open Mangrove

24 | P a g e

Figure 7. Land classification in Philippines from 2000-2016 (DENR)

The next figure gave a closer look on the country’s forest reserves vis-à-vis the timberlands.

The latter has significant land area over the former due to the many forest agreements that the

government has issued in the hopes of maintaining and protecting the forest cover and the

accompanying ecosystem services derived from it.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Fish ponds 75,548.00 75,548.00 75,548.00 75,548.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00 91,077.00

Civil reservation 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00 165,946.00

Military and naval 130,330.00 130,330.00 130,330.00 130,330.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00 126,130.00

National Parks, Wildlife, Game Reserves 893,221.00 893,221.00 893,221.00 893,221.00 1,340,997.00 1,342,579.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00 1,340,997.00

Timberland 10,227,847.0 10,227,847.0 10,227,847.0 10,227,847.0 10,090,899.0 10,090,899.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0 10,056,020.0

Forest Reserves 3,272,912.00 3,272,912.00 3,272,912.00 3,272,912.00 3,222,360.00 3,222,360.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00 3,270,146.00

Unclassified Lands 1,089,118.00 1,089,118.00 1,089,118.00 1,089,118.00 755,009.00 753,427.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00 755,009.00

A&D Lands 14,145,078.0 14,145,078.0 14,145,078.0 14,145,078.0 14,207,582.0 14,207,582.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0 14,194,675.0

-00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

per

mill

ion

hec

tare

s

A&D Lands Unclassified Lands Forest Reserves

Timberland National Parks, Wildlife, Game Reserves Military and naval

Civil reservation Fish ponds

25 | P a g e

Figure 8. Comparison of land area between forest reserves and timberlands in the Philippines from 2000-2016 (DENR)

One primary benefit of forested lands identified was the maintenance of watershed forest

reserves which was the main source of water for most communities. In 2016, the largest

watershed reserve can be found in CAR with 521,190 ha and the greatest number of watersheds

in Region 3, amounting to 27 reserves.

Figure 9. Watershed forest reserves across region, 2016 (FMB)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Forest Reserves 3,272,912. 3,272,912. 3,272,912. 3,272,912. 3,222,360. 3,222,360. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146. 3,270,146.

Timberland 10,227,847 10,227,847 10,227,847 10,227,847 10,090,899 10,090,899 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020 10,056,020

-00

2,000,000.00

4,000,000.00

6,000,000.00

8,000,000.00

10,000,000.00

12,000,000.00

Forest Reserves

Forest Reserves Timberland

1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4-A 4-B ARMM CAR CARAGA NCR NIR

Reserve area 39,854. 327,469 324,628 98,756. 59,208. 96,927. 30,599. 11,456. 371,386 7,964.0 272,759 94,244. 8,748.0 182,354 521,190 81,842. 2,659.0 143,643

Number of watershed 11 8 27 14 6 5 9 4 3 4 5 16 6 2 10 12 1 3

-00

100,000.00

200,000.00

300,000.00

400,000.00

500,000.00

600,000.00

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Area in

hectares

Region

Watershed forest reserves, 2016

26 | P a g e

Due to the significant decline of forest cover, regional reports from DENR were compiled to

document the causes of forest disturbances from 2000 to 2015. There were six general causes

identified namely, fire, kaingin/illegal entry, illegal cutting, honey, long dry spell, and others.

Fire was an umbrella term for incendiarism, hunting, throwing of cigarettes, forest fire, and

grass fire. It can be seen in the figure below that there was no data for 2013 and 2014. DENR

reported that there were available figures, however these were not disaggregated according to

the major causes.

In 2000, the main causes of forest disturbances were illegal cutting and fire. Throughout the

years, illegal cutting decreased until it was not observed anymore however, fire continued to

persist even until 2015. It disturbed a total of 29,929.46 hectares while illegal cutting covered

6,427 hectares. The latter’s disappearance in the charts can be attributed to the issuance of EO

23 banning logging, but this was yet to be confirmed by the personnel on the ground,

particularly in areas where there were a number of declared apprehensions and confiscations

related to illegal activities within the forestlands.

Figure 10. Causes of disturbances within forestlands from 2000-2015 (DENR Regional Reports)

An accompanying chart revealed the amount of damages incurred from these forest

disturbances from 2000 to 2015. The cumulative damages from 2000 to 2015 amounted to PHP

378,742,290.75, the most coming from fire which was calculated to be PHP 238,263,343.63

followed by other causes PHP 90,560,886.58, and kaingin PHP 29,100,580.38. Illegal cutting,

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Others 498 586.98 4781.75 0 312.36 0 0 87 366.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 7706.55

Long dry spell -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 1,356.05

Honey -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 801.87

Illegal cutting 4,920.00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 1,552.00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00

Kaingin / Illegal Entry 847.67 37.00 752.78 -00 11.00 1.00 -00 34.05 105.46 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 1,727.29

Fire 4,878.18 776.26 2,464.64 1,042.10 1,376.16 2,714.81 3,004.67 902.54 76.58 1,200.32 1,561.00 -00 5,822.00 -00 -00 4,110.20

-00

2,000.00

4,000.00

6,000.00

8,000.00

10,000.00

12,000.00

14,000.00

16,000.00

18,000.00

Dis

turb

ed a

rea

in h

a

Year

Causes of Forest Disturbances, 2000-2015

Fire Kaingin / Illegal Entry Illegal cutting Honey Long dry spell Others

27 | P a g e

despite having disturbed a lot more area than kaingin only clocked in PHP 653,136.36 in

damages.

Figure 11. Damages from forest disturbances from 2000 to 2015 (DENR Regional Reports)

Contracts

Community-Based Forest Management Agreements (CBFMA) continued until 2016. It was

the most common agreement among the tenurial ones and was accommodated for the enhanced

National Greening Program. Later in the case studies, the effectiveness of this particular

tenurial agreement will be contested by some DENR officials. The biggest CBFMA areas were

given to Regions 2 and Caraga with 264,279 and 210,082 ha respectively. However, the

greatest agreements were found in Regions 10 and 7 with 294 and 211 agreements respectively.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Others 10,599,647. 1,417,434.0 35,784,607. -00 8,038,055.0 -00 -00 100,000.00 590,958.00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 34,030,185.

Long dry spell -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 15,462,803.

Honey -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 5,701,540.8

Illegal Cutting 314,136.36 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 339,000.00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00

Kaingin / Illegal Entry 969,563.16 680,001.00 8,131,939.9 -00 215,620.00 1.00 -00 320,031.71 2,150,000.0 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 -00 16,633,423.

Fire 6,897,857.3 5,667,232.7 13,840,145. 9,230,123.0 20,518,383. 17,361,684. 28,971,808. 3,871,514.9 75,472.63 2,760,648.0 12,458,491. -00 75,650,971. -00 -00 39,959,011.

-00

20,000,000.00

40,000,000.00

60,000,000.00

80,000,000.00

100,000,000.00

120,000,000.00

Dam

ages

in P

HP

Year

Damages from Forest Disturbances, 2000-2015

Fire Kaingin / Illegal Entry Illegal Cutting Honey Long dry spell Others

28 | P a g e

Figure 12. Area and number of CBFMAs across regions in 2016 (FMB)

Timber licenses have been given out by the government to regulate commercial timber

businesses and to also strengthen the implementation against illegal loggers. The chart below

combined both the timber and pulpwood license agreements. Across years, the number of

licenses has dwindled in observation of the logging moratorium. From 910 ha, it has decreased

to 120 ha. The timber licenses from the start has been small and has dwindled even more to 2

licenses.

Figure 13. Area and number of timber licenses from 2000-2016 (FMB)

1 10 11 12 2 3 4- B 4-A 5 6 7 8 9 CARCARA

GA

Tenured area (in ha) 38,654 209,14 210,06 96,101 264,27 66,822 90,144 18,401 49,702 34,053 57,655 117,50 90,192 62,787 210,08

No. of agreements 139 294 105 56 109 120 77 47 119 104 211 144 145 88 126

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

-00

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

250,000.00

300,000.00

Nu

mb

er of issu

ances

Regions

Are

a in

ha

Community-Based Forest Management Agreements (CBFMA), 2016

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Licensed area 910 910 787 662 584 825 691 496 587 325 253 177 177 177 120 120 120

Annual Allowable Cut 798 212 171 234 212 111 308 144 448 66 66

Total timber licenses 20 20 18 16 15 18 15 11 13 6 4 3 3 3 2 2 2

0

5

10

15

20

25

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

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1000

Nu

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er of licen

sesA

rea

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a

Year

Timber licenses, 2000-2016

29 | P a g e

Another common tenurial agreement was the timber license agreement (TLA). In comparison

to the CBFMA, it was smaller in size and lower in licenses given. TLA has experienced a

decrease in the issuance of timber licenses, following the trend of the figure above.

Figure 14. Trends of timber license agreements from 2000-2016 (FMB)

Alongside timber licensing agreements was also wood processing plants. The highest number

of permits for processing plants were given to Region 10, followed by Region 11, and then

Region 13, all regions found in Mindanao. As for the annual log requirement, the highest was

required from Region 13 with 761,226, followed by Region 11 with 432,801, and Region 10

with 292,170.

Figure 15. Status of wood processing plants in 2016 (FMB)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

TLA area 864 864 741 616 538 779 691 496 587 325 253 177 177 177 120 120 120

AAC of TLA 689 212 171 234 212 111 308 144 448 66 66

No of TLA 19 19 17 15 14 17 15 11 13 6 4 3 3 3 2 2 2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

No

of licen

seAre

a in

ha

Year

Timber license agreements, 2000-2016

1 10 11 12 13 3 4A 4B 9 NCR NIR

Annual Log Requirement 4,358. 292,17 432,80 35,490 761,22 65,092 11,573 333.00 118,31 80,717 2,360.

Number of permits 1 54 43 12 40 5 2 1 12 4 2

Daily Rated Capacity 16.51 477.81 811.51 89.00 1,427. 199.11 24.72 1.00 199.17 267.03 7.08

-00

100,000.00

200,000.00

300,000.00

400,000.00

500,000.00

600,000.00

700,000.00

800,000.00

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

An

nu

al log req

uirem

ent in

cub

ic m

eter

Dai

ly R

ated

Cap

acit

y in

cu

bic

met

ers Wood Processing Plants, 2016

30 | P a g e

Log production was noted across regions having a total of 790,099 cubic meters worth of

production in 2016. The highest of which can be found in Caraga, followed by Davao region,

and Zamboanga peninsula. The first two regions were consistent with the findings of the

regions with the most presence of wood processing plants.

Figure 16. Log production across regions from 2000-2016 (FMB)

One strategy the government employed to encourage reforestation and protection of forestlands

were tenure instruments. As of December 2013, 2.9 million ha of forestlands were secured in

agreements (FMB-DENR, 2013). These were also one method of log production.

Community-based forest management agreement (CBFMA)

o This was the most commonly used agreement between a local community and

the government with the initiative centered on the integration of people-oriented

management and sustainable development. Under the EO 263 in 1995, the

contract has a term of 25 years renewable for another 25 years. Under this tenure

instrument, 1.6 million ha were developed by 1,884 people’s organizations in

2013.

Timber license agreement (TLA)

o This was defined as a long-term license granted by the DENR secretary to a

company for the harvest and removal of timber and other forest products. As of

2013, 177,085 ha were under the agreement operated by three companies in

Samar and Zamboanga del Norte however, there were no reported operations in

the same year.

Integrated Forest Management Agreement (IFMA)

o IFMA was negotiated between DENR and a qualified individual planning to

industrialize a specific forest domain. Existing IFMAs amounted to 140 totaling

to 1.0 million ha with Mindanao having the most number at 83 IFMAs.

-00

200,000.00

400,000.00

600,000.00

800,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,200,000.00

1,400,000.00

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

pro

du

ctio

n in

cu

bic

met

ers

Year

Log production across regions, 2000-2016

CAR 1 2 3 4A 4B 5 6 NIR 7 8 9 10 11 12 CARAGA ARMM

31 | P a g e

Tree Farm Lease (TFLA) and Agroforestry Farm Leases (AFFLA)

o TFLA allowed planting of commercial, non-commercial trees or both in a small

tract of land while AFFLA enables sustainable land management and

productivity at the same time by combining agricultural and forest crops that

were compatible with the local climate, topography, and slope.

Socialized industrial forest management agreement (SIFMA)

o DENR allowed an individual the right to develop and manage a small area of

forestland aligned with the sustainable development.

Private forest development agreement

o A landowner can help develop a forest plantation inside his private property

through this agreement.

Forest and grazing management agreement (FLGMA)

o This tenure instrument was a production sharing agreement between the

government and an individual or a corporation over the development and

utilization of grazing lands.

Special and forestland use permits and agreement

o This allowed a natural or juridical person to occupy, manage, and develop a

public forestland albeit temporarily and subject to government share. Special

land use permit (SLUP) fell under this umbrella along with special land use

lease agreement (SPLULA), forestland use agreement for tourism purposes

(FLAgT), and special forestland use agreement (FLAg).

Forest tenure granted upland communities the right to finally manage and utilize their natural

resources, and this was deemed as a successful reform albeit encouraging upland

encroachment. To reiterate, CBFM was seen as a national strategy to facilitate sustainability in

forest management and ensure a fairer benefit distribution among the stakeholders of the

country’s forest lands (Pulhin and Ramirez 2016). It was proven in both timeline and policies

how integral the role of community participation in forest rehabilitation is. As of 2013, the

reforestation programs both by the government and non-government sectors covered 1,958,928

ha while 14 million ha of untenured forests remain under protection (FMB-DENR).

From 2000-2011, the socialized industrial forest management agreement contributed most to

the agreements’ aggregated log production. This figure was overtaken by PTPOC from 2012-

2016.

32 | P a g e

Figure 17. Comparison of log production per agreement from 2000-2016 (FMB)

Lumber production was consistently present in Caraga and National Capital Region from 2000-

2016. However, its presence was even more pronounced in Northern Mindanao (Region X)

from 2006-2016, topping over other regions.

Figure 18. Lumber production per region from 2000-2016 (FMB)

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1400000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

pro

du

ctio

n in

cu

bic

met

er

Year

Log production per agreement, 2000-2016

Sum of OTHERS

Sum of PFFA

Sum of PTPOC

Sum of IFMA

Sum of SMF/CV

Sum of FLMA

Sum of SPLTP

Sum of PLTP

Sum of PTLA

-00

100,000.00

200,000.00

300,000.00

400,000.00

500,000.00

600,000.00

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

pro

du

ctio

n in

cu

bic

met

er

Cordillera Administrative Region MIMAROPA CALABARZON

Ilocos region Cagayan region Central Luzon

National Capital Region Bicol region Western Visayas

Negros Island Region Central Visayas Eastern Visayas

Zamboanga peninsula Northern Mindanao Davao Region

Soccsksargen Caraga region Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao

33 | P a g e

Plywood production for each region was presented below, spanning the years 2000 to 2016.

This type of processing was not present for all regions and was only available through NCR,

Regions 3, 4, 4A, 9, 10, 11, and Caraga. Most of this production can also be found in Caraga.

Figure 19. Comparison of plywood production per region from 2000-1016 (DENR)

The last figure for this section revealed the trends of non-timber products from 2000 to 2016.

The charts were dominated by almaciga, a source for resin; this was followed by nipa shingles

and nipa leaves.

Figure 20. Trend of non-timber products from 2000 to 2016 (DENR)

-00

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

250,000.00

300,000.00

350,000.00

400,000.00

450,000.00

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

pro

du

ctio

n in

cu

bic

met

ers

NCR 3 4 4A 9 10 11 CARAGA

-00

5,000,000.00

10,000,000.00

15,000,000.00

20,000,000.00

25,000,000.00

30,000,000.00

35,000,000.00

-00

200,000.00

400,000.00

600,000.00

800,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,200,000.00

1,400,000.00

1,600,000.00

1,800,000.00

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Almaciga Anahaw Anahaw pole

Buri midribs Boho Split rattan

Diliman and other vines Nipa leaves Bamboo

Nipa shingles Unsplit rattan

34 | P a g e

The following figure showed the disaggregation of log production by species from the same

years. The production all throughout the years was consistently sourced through falcata, and

many other endemic species. The rate of timber cutting for log production may inevitably put

pressure on the goals of the agreements and may have become a source of contradiction since

most of the species on the chart were native and endemic to the Philippines. These were

difficult to grow and re-establish again in forestlands thus cutting them in a fast rate may not

equate to growing them back at the same rate. This situation begged the question whether the

goal of the agreement to effectively manage the resources was actually met.

Figure 21. Log production by species from 2000-2016 (DENR-FMB)

Philippines also benefit from the products taken from the forest like wood-based manufactured

articles, furniture, paper and paperboard, pulp and waste paper, and lumber. These were

exported to nations such as Japan, USA, China, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands and have

a total trade value of USD 3.16 billion. In turn, Philippines imported paper and paperboard,

plywood, furniture, and lumber from other countries which amounted to USD 1.42 billion. The

country’s top import sources were China, USA, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Japan. It can be

observed that most of the forest-related products that were imported also came from Asian

countries, particularly in the East and Southeast regions where forest cover and biodiversity

were abundant.

Paper was mainly exported from 2003-2006 and slowly shifted to wood-based production from

2007 onwards. The former’s quantity exported amounted to 2,488,231,229 nk while the latter

added up to 5,854,163,136 units. This also implied that both timber and lumber production

were intensified to meet the demand for export. As for the exported value, the highest ones

were wood-based and forest-based products, then followed by paper.

-00

200,000.00

400,000.00

600,000.00

800,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,200,000.00

1,400,000.00

Pro

du

ctio

n in

cu

bic

met

er

Year

Log production by species from 2000-2016

Other species

Sum of yemane

Sum of yakal

Sum of white lauan

Sum of toog

Sum of tanguile

Sum of red lauan

Sum of para rubber

Sum of nato

Sum of mangium

Sum of mayapis

Sum of mahogany

Sum of loktob

35 | P a g e

Figure 22. Quantity of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB)

Figure 23. Value of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB)

0

500000000

1E+09

1.5E+09

2E+09

2.5E+09

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Log_qty Lumber_qty Veneer_qty

Plywood_qty Fiberboard_qty Particleboard_qty

Woodbased_qty Pulp wastepaper_qty Paper_qty

Other forestbased products_qty Sum of nontimber_qty 2 Nontimber_qty

Forestbased furniture_qty

-00

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2,500,000.00

3,000,000.00

3,500,000.00

4,000,000.00

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

in '0

00

USD

Log_val Lumber_val Veneer_val

Plywood_val Fiberboard_val Particleboard_val

Woodbased_val Pulp wastepaper_val Paper_val

Forestbased furniture_val Sum of nontimber_val 2 Nontimber_val

Other forestbased products_val

36 | P a g e

On the other hand, Philippines mostly imported paper and pulp wastepaper. The import

quantity of paper was seen to exhibit an increasing trend, but the quantity for pulp wastepaper

waned. The import values exhibited an increasing trend as well with most of the costs going

towards veneer, plywood, and lumber. In 2016, the import values amounted to 1.8 billion USD.

Figure 24. Quantity of forest-based products export from 2003-2016 (FMB)

Figure 25. Value of forest-based products from 2003-2016 (FMB)

0

500000000

1E+09

1.5E+09

2E+09

2.5E+09

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Log Lumber Veneer Plywood

Particleboard Fiberboard Nontimber products Woodbased products

Pulp wastepaper Paper Forestbased furniture Nontimber product

Other forestbased

-00

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

In '0

00

USD

Log Lumber Veneer

Plywood Particleboard Fiberboard

Woodbased products Pulp wastepaper Paper

Forestbased furniture Sum of nontimber_val 4 Nontimber products

Other forestbased products

37 | P a g e

National Greening Program

Under the guidance of the FMB was the creation of the National Greening Program mandated

by EO No. 26 issued on February 24, 2011. The massive forest rehabilitation program aimed

to grow 1.5 billion trees within 1.5 million ha in a span of six years from 2011-2016. The

coverage of the mandate extended to all remaining unproductive, denuded, and degraded forest,

and the implementation period was lengthened from 2016 to 2028 in virtue of EO No. 193

signed on November 12, 2015. In the figure below, it can be seen that from the time the program

was initiated up to 2016, the program was able to plant 1,662,229 ha of trees and implanting

1.37 billion seedlings of different species. The NGP also gave 4.02 million jobs in upland

communities (NGPCO, 2017). When disaggregated by sector, the government has contributed

more compared to non-government organizations.

Figure 26. Comparison of NGP accomplishment between government and NGOs from 2011-2016 (FMB)

The figure below showed the accomplishments disaggregated by sector from 2011 to 2016.

NGOs contributed significantly from 2011 and then declined in 2013. It rose again in 2014 but

decreased the following year and it was no longer able to contribute in 2016. The percentage

share of other government agencies was also dwindling from 2011 to 2015, while the bulk was

shouldered by DENR.

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Government 102,884.00 207,044.00 326,106.00 315,278.00 360,357.00 284,089.00

NGO 25,674.00 14,719.00 7,054.00 19,024.00 -00 -00

Total 128,558.00 221,763.00 333,160.00 334,302.00 360,357.00 284,089.00

-00

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

250,000.00

300,000.00

350,000.00

400,000.00

NGP Accomplishment by Sector, 2011-2016

38 | P a g e

Figure 27. Disaggregated NGP Accomplishment per sector from 2011-2016 (FMB)

3.3. Enforcement of forest protection

3.3.1. E-Filing and Monitoring System

Deforestation has been defined as the conversion of forested land to non-forested land due to

anthropological issues. On the other hand, forest degradation pertained to either natural or

anthropological reasons which introduced shifts within the forest that affect the ecological

structure or function of the site and degrade the quality of services the forest offers (FAO,

2006). One of the main cases of deforestation and degradation was illegal logging, and the

impacts from this activity were not only contained within the sector but were carried over to

other sectors such as agriculture and fisheries through siltation. However, certain local

government units defer shutting down illegal logging activities due to the allegedly heavy

reliance on timber revenues by the communities. This case is true for the Northern Sierra Made

Natural Park which covers an area of 359,486 ha, 287,861 ha of which are terrestrial habitats.

It was included in the NIPAS Act of 1992 but was only adopted in 2001 through RA 9125

(Ploeg et al. 2011). To avoid cases like this, an e-filing and monitoring system was established

by DENR. EFMS was an initiative aimed to curb corruption and personal favors on the ground

and to safeguard the enforcers from possible political influence.

Generated data from the EFMS portal revealed information spanning from 2000s to 2018. In

terms of apprehension, the region with the most cases were in Region 13 and Region 2 with

1,181 and 797 cases respectively. The least number of cases were found in NCR and Western

Visayas.

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Other government sources 20,721.00 74,334.00 52,135.00 8,810.00 287.00 -00

DENR 82,163.00 132,710.00 273,971.00 306,468.00 360,070.00 284,089.00

NGOs 25,674.00 14,719.00 7,054.00 19,024.00 -00 -00

-00

5,000.00

10,000.00

15,000.00

20,000.00

25,000.00

30,000.00

-00

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

250,000.00

300,000.00

350,000.00

400,000.00

Disaggregated NGP Accomplishment, 2011-2016

39 | P a g e

Figure 28. Forest-related apprehensions across regions from 2010 to 2018 (DENR)

3.3.2. Environmental / Green Court

As of 2017, there were over 119 environmental green courts, 28 of which were vacant of

presiding judges and two were unorganized. A closer look would reveal that the Philippines

has over 84 branches of regional trial courts, 9 metropolitan (METC), and 26 municipal

(MTCC). There were 62 presiding judges for the RTC, 7 for METC, and 18 for MTCC,

amounting to 87 presiding judges for special cases. In the absence of presiding judges were the

acting or assisting judges that can perform the functions for the court; they were 34 in total.

For the RTC, there were 28. None was present for METC while 6 were identified for MTCC.

Figure 29. Status of environmental courts in the Philippines (DOJ)

Environmental court cases as of 2017 revealed that the bulk of the cases were found in Regions

2, 3, 4, and 5. The regions with the least or no cases were in NCR and Region 12. Overall, there

were 1,027 cases related to environment recently filed in 2017, 350 case inflows, and 490 case

outflows. A total of 901 cases were in the process of finalization.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Regional Trial Court METC MTCC

Environmental courts in the Philippines

Number of branches Presiding judges Acting presiding/assisting judges

40 | P a g e

As for the study sites, there were two branches present for Caraga, and these were all found in

Butuan City. The two branches have 14 pending beginning cases, 18 case inflows, 9 case

outflows, and 21 pending end cases. For Palawan, there was only one branch, and it handled

237 pending beginning cases. Thirty cases entered into the branch for the year, and 95 were

resolved. However, there were still 172 pending cases in the process of finalization. For Region

2, there were two regional trial courts found in Ilagan City, Isabela, and Tuguegarao. Another

municipal trial court was also present in Tuguegarao. As of 2017, there were 11 pending

beginning cases in Tuguegarao and 25 in Ilagan. There were 13 case inflows and 21 case

outflows. The region’s ending cases were at 26.

Figure 30. Environmental court cases in the Philippines as of 2017 (DOJ)

3.4. Case studies

3.4.1. Caraga

Information and perspectives were gathered from varying institutional levels and agencies in

Caraga with regards to forest protection. In particular, these were the Provincial Environment

and Natural Resource Office (PENRO) of Surigao del Norte, Community Environment and

Natural Resource Office (CENRO) of Tubod, Surigao del Norte, and regional offices of DENR

and NCIP Caraga. The region is identified as one of the last ecological frontiers of the

Philippines along with Palawan, and it also has 12 key biodiversity areas. Moreover, the region

encompasses seven critical wetlands covering 45,613 ha in the whole country. Despite the

protection offered by NIPAS (RA 7586) and Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection

Act (RA 9147), the ecological integrity of the region is still faced with problems mainly

contributed by mining operations and illegal logging.

Policy and implementation

Both PENRO and CENRO carry the bulk of responsibilities for forest protection however,

they have been added additional functions by DENR Central Office to be involved in

monitoring processes of small-scale mining, solid waste management, and EMB-related

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

NCR REGION 1 REGION 10 REGION 11 REGION 12 REGION 2 REGION 3 REGION 4 REGION 5 REGION 6 REGION 7 REGION 8 REGION 9

Environmental court cases as of 2017

Pending beginning cases Case inflow Case outflow Pending end cases

41 | P a g e

concerns. Sentiments were expressed that the higher-ups seem to have low awareness of how

policies were implemented on the ground. Aside from this workload, the personnel have to

also deal with legal repercussions, which will be discussed later, in the absence of legal

policy support and framework. Consistent also among the regions was the observation that

Forestry Reform Code or PD 705, the main basis of forest protection policy in the country,

was outdated and which was only recently followed through by EO 23 and EO 26. The only

additional amendment was RA 7161 in 1991 which only served to increase forest charges,

but it was unable to provide policy support for problems that have continued to persist in the

present day. It was believed that mining was one of the possible reasons why the Sustainable

Forest Management Bill, the supposed policy replacement for PD 705, was not passed.

Impacts

The direct impacts of forest protection policies were difficult to identify particularly in

mining areas since the enforcement team are not allowed to enter to police or monitor. Such

functions were relegated to mining companies and thus direct impacts may only be felt by

those personnel. Other direct impacts that were able to escape policy grounding were kaingin

and forest fires during summer.

Effectiveness

DENR’s most consistent policy in deference to the tree-cutting permit was earthballing. For

Caraga, this policy was counter-effective as “transplanted” trees continued to die. This was one

of the requirements needed to be complied by a mining company or developer along with

mining rehabilitation plan, and NGP commitment. The proponent must initially ask the

CENRO for assistance and permission to plant outside the MPSA area. This certain

requirement was followed by proponents, but it was not able to plant endemic species.

Unintended effects

Mining operations and illegal logging inevitably felt the unintended or indirect impacts of

forest protection policies in the region. A moratorium on logging was declared through EO 23,

but this was mostly felt by poor communities near or adjacent the forested areas who saw

logging as livelihood sources. Despite being stringent, the policy was able to force the

companies to replace the trees they cut during mining operations, allowing the area to be

reforested. However, what was lacking was a standard in complying with the provisions on

area rehabilitation.

Costs

The weakness or absence thereof of a weak legal support, and the nonfunctioning of green

courts contributed to the lack of protection for field personnel against death threats; conviction

rate also decreased to six percent aside from the large number of dismissed cases.

In the data given below by the regional office, it can be assumed that the filed cases were not

resolved quickly as pending cases remained consistently lower and increased slowly over the

years. Conviction rate also slowed down. These may be considered as indicators for a slow

judicial system, considering that there were 339 cases for only two existing branches of trial

courts for the whole region.

42 | P a g e

The inability to confirm if parcels of mountains were shipped to other countries was due to the

difficulty of monitoring within mining areas. In terms of the legal process, the lack of ideal

timeline dragged the adjudication process for too long, subjecting the confiscated conveyances

and materials to depreciation and exposing the involved personnel to death threats. Moreover,

DENR’s minimal financial resources contributed to the consequential outcomes in

enforcement. The ratio of one forest guard was observed to be equal to 4,000-7,000 ha, too

wide for an accurate monitoring, and too open for armed threats with little to no security detail.

Forest guards often armed themselves when patrolling in response to lack of institutional

augmentation. Another expense to the policy grounding was reforestation since trees

continuously get killed off due to nutrient depletion and unsuitability of species compounded

with unregulated kaingin and cutting, practices which have persistent existence in other areas.

Our informants in the field interviews recommended an update in the taxes to forest charges of

products and a more market-oriented approach in forest products.

Enforcement and implementation

The forestry sector seemed to suffer from low penal provisions both in time and cash worth.

While policy-oriented enforcement was in place, it still had a weak presence in forestlands and

mining areas. Technicalities in rehabilitation of mining companies must also be looked into

since areas available for reforestation were observed to be difficult to identify and site-species

matching were not practiced. As for the region’s future plans, it was disclosed by the DENR

Regional Office the intent to track a tree from its stump to a final product. This proposal was

also presented by the Central Office.

One prime example and evidence of trends for this region can be found in the figure below. It

can be observed that both apprehensions and confiscations for Caraga decreased in trend until

2016, but in 2017, the volume shoot up. The following year, the volume decreased along with

the price of confiscated products however, the value of apprehended ones increased

drastically.

43 | P a g e

Figure 31. Apprehension and confiscation figures in Caraga from 2011-2018

Other regions attributed the lowered value to depreciation brought by the tedious

adjudication processes.

Sustainability

Aside from the effectiveness of forest protection initiatives in place, sustainability of these

actions must also be considered. One of the many responses would be to convert Forest

Management Bureau into a line bureau like Mines and Geosciences Bureau and Environmental

Management Bureau to better serve the forestry sector and to augment CENRO. Another option

may be the reinforcement of Multipartite Forest Protection Committee which have not been

functioning in other regions. Digitization of records for easier monitoring process, and a

sustained IEC campaign on areas where timber poaching have been present and at the same

time been recognized as hotspots.

Inclusivity

Forestry sector affects a broad range of areas and generally, residents living within the areas

and indigenous peoples have been identified as the impacted stakeholders. NCIP, in particular,

has to deal with recognition processes of IPs who migrated away from their ancestral domains

and have to be identified through a matrix and guidelines presented in EO series of 2012. This

problem pushed a recommendation to have statistics demographics through a forest occupant

survey. In terms of participation process, only the IP leaders were consulted for policy

recommendations and protection. Since they have high awareness regarding the hunting

seasons and tree cutting provisions, they were also tasked to disseminate the information

among the community. However, in cases of forest agreements, tenurial instruments such as

Integrated Forest Management Agreement (IFMA) were only given to rich families in Metro

Manila and not among local communities who were already present in the area.

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Apprehended value 20,546 40,920 19,298 20,235 8,535, 11,981 18,989 96,235

Confiscated value 17,418 33,706 15,617 19,152 12,104 8,830, 17,722 7,902,

Confiscated volume 2,102, 3,833, 1,304, 1,887, 1,101, 703,59 1,669, 621,80

Apprehended volume 2,567, 4,330, 2,617, 1,928, 923,39 926,75 1,854, 1,056,

-

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2,500,000.00

3,000,000.00

3,500,000.00

4,000,000.00

4,500,000.00

5,000,000.00

-

20,000,000.00

40,000,000.00

60,000,000.00

80,000,000.00

100,000,000.00

120,000,000.00

Vo

lum

e

Val

ue

in P

HP

Confiscated value Apprehended value Confiscated volume Apprehended volume

44 | P a g e

Interventions in the forestry sector posed a question whether these were able to address social

issues. Frontline enforcers acknowledged kaingin and illegal logging as livelihood options for

poor families to offer immediate relief, and similarly, as cultural ways of indigenous peoples.

The lower these people are in the poverty line, the higher the chances they will resort to illegal

activities. As such, forest protection policies were not able to address the displacement of

livelihood sources for this population.

Monitoring and evaluation / feasibility

In the initial part of this discussion for Caraga’s case study, it has been revealed that the

harmonization of DENR only added burden and tasks to the pre-existing functions of the

personnel. On the other hand, this also enabled regional offices to participate in the monitoring

process whereas before they were unable to do so. This did not change the fact however that

the regional offices lacked adequate plantilla positions to retain its technical staff, and the wane

support from other line bureaus such as MGB and EMB in enforcing duties. At the time of

interview, there was an ongoing monitoring of mining companies’ compliance to reforestation

commitments in which it has been found out that there were overlapping and competing claims

of tenurial instruments and zoning.

Transparency

Reports have been available to the public, and NCIP have been conducting seminars and

trainings on recent policies and existing sustainable methods among IP communities.

Equity

Forest protection policies may be effective at the expense of dwellers in the area. Aside from

being displaced, they were also limited to utilize forest resources within their ancestral domain

as per the policies of DENR.

3.4.2. Palawan

Palawan has a unique set of institutional arrangement and policy backdrop. It was set apart

from other regions due to the presence of Palawan Council for Sustainable Development

(PCSD) and total commercial log ban. In the same province also existed an abandoned mercury

mine and a badly managed landfill. Information and contending perspectives were given

through FGDs and KIIs with PCSD, MGB MIMAROPA, City Environment and Natural

Resource Office, Community Environment and Natural Resource Office Puerto Princesa City,

PENRO Palawan, and provincial offices of EMB and NCIP. Like Caraga, Palawan has been

recognized as the last ecological frontier of the country, home to 232 endemic species, 200

kinds of birds, 600 species of butterflies, 1500 plant types and a biodiverse marine life. In

1990s, Palawan was recognized as a Biosphere Reserve Status in its steady and consistent

commitment to conservation and sustainable development. Ecotourism comprised the bulk of

the provincial economy, making the natural and environment resources as the main drivers of

local revenue.

Policy and implementation

Republic Act No. 7611 was approved specifically for Palawan. The Strategic Environmental

Plan (SEP) was a landmark legislation that became the main framework in sustaining the

45 | P a g e

ecological integrity unique to the province. It provided the option to have a controlled use zone

set against additional executive orders for the forest sector like EOs 23 and 26, however this

created a fissure between PCSD and DENR in terms of authority over Palawan. Another

disadvantage of the law was its inability to provide for ground validation aside from aerial

zonation.

Another unique factor in the province was the strong presence of initiatives from the local

government. They have autonomous enforcing bodies such as Bantay Dagat, and Bantay

Gubat, but these were hoped to reinforce national laws rather than work separately from them.

Another institutional concern was also the augmentation with Philippine National Police (PNP)

since forest protection and enforcement was not its primary mandate.

DENR personnel believed it was better to fund forest protection more instead of reforestation

as this would save more resources compared to reactive measures, and they similarly observed

that there were unclear provisions on reforestation and tree-cutting. The province was also

looking at the reintroduction of inventory of forest occupants. Other future developments in

the policy landscape of the province included the support for SFMA since PD 705 was

considered outdated and needed improving and updating of provisions. However, the proposed

bill was met with resistance from most politicians. In addition to that, PCSD also faced the

possibility of being dissolved due to the imminent passage of National Land Use Act that will

repeal both SEP and RA 7611.

Impacts

Impacts of unclear policy provisions and loose implementation have compounding effects on

the ground. One consistent observation across the study sites was the misclassification of lands.

For Palawan’s case, production forests were declared in the paper, but these were protected

forests on the ground. Contradictions like these will carry over negative effects to future

developments and may be difficult to reverse. These will definitely affect those living within

and adjacent to the forestlands, and indigenous peoples not covered yet by ancestral domain or

have chosen not to for livelihood reasons. DENR personnel will also have a hard time with

their implementation strategies. However, it was not difficult to presume that the tourism

industry of Palawan, its biggest contributor to the provincial economy, was linked to its

environment’s ecological integrity.

Effectiveness

One of the priority programs of the government was the National Greening Program. The

figures in the charts above posited that the program was able to meet its goals, but the people

on the ground said otherwise. The contracting approach of the program was inadequate to

address the industry’s most pressing issues (deforestation, illegal logging). The nursery for

NGP’s seedlings were more on commercial and planted species and no endemic ones, and there

were inconsistencies in provisions for replanted areas since in some case, these were the same

areas applied for as tenurial instruments. Suggestions to improve the effectiveness of forest

protection policies pertained to enhancement of watersheds and increasing liability to those

who buy illegal forest products or enablers. For the policy aspect, Bantay Gubat should be

46 | P a g e

looked into since the organization was not politically insulated being under the LGU’s

supervision, not functionally harmonized with PENRO and CENRO, and does not follow

proper adjudication proceedings. DAO 2018-19 was also deemed countereffective by those on

the ground as it provided DPWH an exemption in cutting trees for road expansion. The recent

focus of the administration to the Build, Build, Build program may eventually lead to road

expansions, thereby clearing more trees, and increasing access to supposedly protected

forestlands.

Unintended effects

The unintended impacts of policy implementation for protected forests emphasized the lack of

an interagency task force similar to the Multipartite Monitoring Team (MMT) in mining sector.

The presence of which can force compliance from tenurial agreement holders and other

stakeholders.

Costs

The weak legal support in the province may have been a wane shield against death threats

directed at DENR personnel and consequences of lacking funds and frail institutionalization of

security detail. Aside from death threats, personnel for enforcement have to shell out personal

funds to buy motorcycles for apprehension and for legal defense. Despite the heavy workload

in patrolling the forested areas, personnel still suffered from salary gap. These were the

problems that Secretary Cimatu wished to address when he initiated the hiring of one lawyer

for every CENRO.

DENR’s inability to invest in a nursery for this province also limited the possibilities to plant

and establish native and endemic trees in the area. Planted species became more preferred due

to its faster growth to meet the time frame requirement.

Enforcement and implementation

The overlapping of titles and misclassification of lands led to overlapping jurisdictions for areas

within the Forest Land Use Plan (FLUP) and there was no delineation of roles for these

agencies involved. The key informants in the area recommended to tap NCIP to monitor IPs

within forestlands and ensure alignment of the ethnic group’s development plans with

ADSDPP.

Apprehension of forest-based products in Palawan mostly occurred in Roxas, followed by

Puerto Princesa. The former was able to apprehend 342.115.58 board feet of forest products

worth about Php 1,999,124.82. The capital of the province, on the other hand, managed to

apprehend Php 563,992.04-worth of products which accumulated to 19,640.51 of board feet.

47 | P a g e

Figure 32. Volume and value of apprehended forest-based products in Palawan for 2017

Sustainability

ISF was undergoing performance evaluations in the CENRO to inform future plans. Lapses in

implementation were planned to be addressed by tapping PNP and AFP for manpower and

logistics augmentation. This would supposedly help sustain the efforts made in the forestry

sector.

Inclusivity

In most government interventions in the forestry or mining sector, indigenous peoples more

often than not get marginalized and relegated to the sidelines. Indigenous peoples were seen as

stewards of forests and natural resources, and they also have the right to ownership over their

ancestral domain. As of 2018, there was only one CADT registered for Puerto Prinsesa with

1,279 beneficiaries. For the whole region, there were 12 approved CADTs and three were

registered in the province. If overlapping titles existed for these CADTs, it would be tackled

individually instead of NCIP representing the whole community. Despite having this

ownership, IPs were not allowed to use resources within the domains without permission from

DENR and CENRO.

Conducting survey of forest occupants was seen as a method to aid managing of people from

various culture. It was also a recommendation to integrate FLUP using ECAN as the zoning

tool to improve land use planning and to avoid land overlapping in the future. Supporting this

must be an arrangement of selective extraction and controlled use zone to deliver sustainable

development. Information dissemination was also needed to be improved, particularly IEC

conceptualization. Local languages should be used so as to have a wider reach among

communities.

Interventions in the forestry sector were seen to be deprived of social lens and more of

ecological aspects. Poverty targeting was not dwelled on much despite it being the main driver

for illegal logging and other related apprehensions. ISF areas and CBFMA also remained

underdeveloped due to lack of livelihood opportunities. Other sectors were not included in the

policy formulation and were thus overlooked by interventions.

CoronPuerto

PrincesaQuezon Roxas

Volume in bd.ft. 19,640.51 5,027.33 342,115.58

Estimated value in PHP 5,000.00 563,992.04 190,819.90 1,999,124.82

-

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

250,000.00

300,000.00

350,000.00

400,000.00

-

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2,500,000.00

Val

ue

in P

HP

Vo

lum

e in b

oard

feet

Apprehension report on forest products in Palawan, 2017

48 | P a g e

Monitoring and evaluation / feasibility

The Palawan province advocates for a security component resembling the Coast Guard that

could augment manpower for enforcement. Similar to how the organization protected the seas,

the proposed security arm is also projected to protect the forestlands. One gap in monitoring

and evaluation was within island communities due to logistical difficulties.

Transparency

The enforcement arm of DENR acknowledged the lack of transparency from the agency, but

this was primarily due to the possibility of information leak, particularly during times when

they have a scheduled raid. The leakage may ultimately compromise the operation of the

enforcers.

Equity

As for the benefits received, government apparently got 40 percent of the Forest Protection

Fund while the remaining 60 percent was divided by province, municipality, and barangay.

Revenues earned from protected areas will go to a fund – 75 percent of which goes to PAMB

while the 25 percent goes to protection and maintenance.

3.4.3. Cagayan

Found in Cagayan is the longest mountain range in the Philippines, the Sierra Madre. It has

been dubbed as the backbone of Luzon as it serves as barrier against incoming typhoons, and

as home to watershed reserves that irrigate adjacent agricultural lands particularly in Cagayan

Valley, the country’s food basket. Sierra Madre’s 14 million hectares comprise 40 percent of

the country’s forest cover and encompass 68 protected areas. For this region, information was

gathered from CENRO Naguilian, Isabela, PENRO Cagayan, and regional office of DENR.

Another consideration for this case study was the findings of FMB which pointed to the region

as having the most amount of cases, apprehensions, and confiscations.

Policy and implementation

The region was looking into implementing a strategy in line with EO 23’s logging moratorium

wherein patrolling, and enforcement were decentralized among different barangays. The

involved personnel were also flexible regarding the moratorium and if allowed would want to

recommend a selective extraction area instead to address the demand for lumber from

increasing residential population in its provinces. They were lobbying for personal

consumption of products for shelter and convergence between protection and development.

While these were seen as contradictory to policies in place and the concept of no upland

encroachment, the ground offices saw these suggestions as necessary for the region.

In terms of administrative and institutional concerns, cash-based budgeting introduced

problems in procurement of necessary materials and needs such as equipment and vehicle for

patrol and enforcement among others. The call for hazard pay was proposed to be included in

the SFMB, but this has not yet passed in the Congress. Integration with agencies, like what the

previous provinces were suggesting, were not able to decrease apprehensions and

confiscations. As for the legal cases, there was no tracking system present in the region and

thus, the cases’ developments were not tracked.

49 | P a g e

Impacts

Direct impacts of forest protection policies were projected to affect 30 barangays along

coastal towns and also the DENR personnel in charge of the implementation and

enforcement.

Effectiveness

NGP has major repercussions when it came to the implementation phase. Seedling

commodities downloaded to LGUs were proven not to be suitable for the location, and there

was no site-species matching conducted prior to the planting program. For the personnel on the

ground, NGP was effective only during its first two years. After that, replanted trees were

dying, and maintenance was becoming more difficult due to the increase in open access areas.

In particular, an 81-km access road was recently established in the Sierra Madre mountain

range. There were issues and concerns in tenurial agreements, too, and these were mostly

pertaining to TLA and CBFMA. The former promoted stewardship, but this agreement only

enabled land conversion and development. The latter, on the other hand, was abused and this

led to tentativeness to use selective extraction or any similar method again.

In terms of administrative functions, the LGUs of the region have more resource complement

than the DENR/CENRO, but political will must be consistently present for the implementation

to be pushed through. The national government, on the other hand, seemed to utilize a wrong

fiscal management since fund management was not in line with the expenditure program.

Unintended effects

The moratorium on logging influenced the shift from mechanized poaching to lugged logs

across river channels. It was easier for timber poachers to avoid apprehension since non-

mechanized poaching was more difficult to track. It was recommended to have immediate fines

given during the apprehension stage and put in place a one-strike policy.

Costs

Due to the shift from mechanized poaching to a manual one, when poachers were apprehended

and were then subjected to a lengthy adjudication process with a weak legal support for the

other side, there would be lesser penalties due to the depreciation and desiccation of the

product, more threats and countersuits directed towards the apprehending personnel, and

delayed justice. The influx of lawyers from Secretary Cimatu’s directive was also not able to

improve the resolution rate.

Since NGP was deemed ineffective and a waste of funds, it was recommended that the

government go back to sectoral loan (ENR-Secal) where there was an identified and trained

group for enforcement and apprehension. Moreover, it was cost-effective to have drone

monitoring instead of on-the-ground patrol. To lessen the unintended political influences, body

cameras and e-filing were suggested to be utilized.

50 | P a g e

Enforcement and implementation

The current task force, in the evaluation of the ground personnel, was not functioning

adequately. The outputs of employed forest protection officers (FPO) were also not structured.

Thus, they recommended the re-emergence of Environment and Natural Resources Sectoral

Adjustment Loan (ENR-SECAL) to provide proper training to its enforcement personnel.

The timber poachers usually get caught during operations and not the big financers. This will

only suffice in temporarily weeding out those who act, but the ones that direct the poaching

were nowhere close in getting arrested. Thus, confiscated data may not be able to reflect

numbers accurately due to the delaying tactics employed by the apprehenders.

Apprehension and seizure of forest products in Region 2 were highest in the province of

Cagayan, followed by Isabela in 2012. The two were the highest in terms of cubic meters of

the forest-based products, and number of conveyances. These were also the same provinces

where the green courts for the regions were situated.

Figure 33. Quantity of apprehensions and seizure of forest products in Region 2

In terms of value, the highest amounts were in similar provinces such as Cagayan and Isabela.

The volume of products garnered PHP 5,214,305 followed by CH at PHP 3,949,848.00

Cagayan Isabela Quirino Vizcaya

Premium 8.58 18.05 5.03

Tools 1 4

CH 157.63 158.57 46.38 20.09

Miscellaneous 13.71 2.97 0.86 41.21

Incidence 76 45 12 17

Conveyances 24 17 3 10

Volume (cubic meter) 179.92 179.59 47.24 66.33

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Apprehensions and seizure of forest products in Region 2 in 2012

51 | P a g e

Figure 34. Volume of apprehensions and seizure of forest products in Region 2

Sustainability

Lawin program was the most recent initiative of DENR in the field of monitoring. However, it

may not be able to aid in apprehensions related to forest protection.

Inclusivity

Poor families take survival as precedence over compliance to policy, and poverty drive them

to do illegal logging to provide for their daily needs. LGUs and CENROs were recommended

to provide a communal resource for the community and employ more humanitarian approach

that can be inclusive of the poor. Since there was also a need to improve the participation of

LGUs, they should be aware of their ability to contribute through FLUP and integrate the plan

with CLUP and exercise their right to monitor forest resources as mandated by EO 23.

Monitoring and evaluation / feasibility

Due to the lapses in enforcement, the region also sought institutional collaboration between

armed personnel and CENRO, increasing the number of checkpoints of DENR. A multisectoral

MMT should likewise be present in the regional level, and FPOs needed to be strengthened

and given more incentives to retain them in duty. To improve the participation of the barangay,

the CENRO recommended organizing forest brigade teams to monitor forest fires and kaingin

especially during summer time.

Transparency

The utilization of body camera was recommended by personnel for additional documentation

and possible evidence for the courts.

2,079,049.00 1,989,050.00

407,833.00

738,373.00

164,497.00

490,457.00

240,787.00

1,795,501.00

1,482,988.00

404,197.00 267,162.00

119,051.00 15,605.00 3,636.00

230,424.00

-

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2,500,000.00

Cagayan Isabela Quirino Vizcaya

Value in PHP of apprehended and seized forest products in Region 2 in 2012

Volume Premium CH Miscellaneous

52 | P a g e

Equity

Implementation of forest protection policies for this study site were perceived by the informants

as conditions that worsened poverty.

4. Conclusion and recommendations

The policy landscape in the forestry sector lacked adequate provisions in enforcement and

institutionalization. Legislations established a decade of forestlands being open to various

extractive industries such as timber and lumber businesses, exportation, contracting, and land

conversions. This contributed to repercussions in the implementation process on the ground,

particularly in monitoring and evaluation of forest initiatives, and legal support, and more

importantly, this resulted to significant forest degradation. While the NGP may be successful

in reaching its targets, DENR has to qualify the quality of its success as the program lacked in

site-species matching and compliance from the mining companies. The future plan of the

department to put in place EPEB will also deliver contradictory results as it will only overlap

with functions of other existing agencies. It will also increase the burden of enforcement

personnel within PENRO and CENRO as the draft order was not able to mainstream the

representatives of EMB and MGB within those offices. It also did not consider the very recent

initiative called EFMS, making the whole EPEB prone to politics and corruption which already

happened with the anti-illegal logging task force.

In a study by Carandang et al (2013), several drivers were identified which facilitate the

problems in forest protection. These were classified as demographic, economic, technological,

institutional, and cultural factors. Problems such as upland encroachment and multiple land

uses can be considered as demographic factors since they answered to the demand brought by

an increasing population. Economic drivers were the umbrella term for the contracting licenses

and timber businesses to meet the export demand which were high during 2000-2010. Timber

and lumber business may also be placed under technological drivers. Institutional issues

accurately reflected policies which promoted actions and industries detrimental to the forest

cover. Whole the recent initiatives were government-led, these were deemed ineffective since

site-species matching were not conducted, and there was no assurance on the compliance of

mining companies in replanting.

To counter the repercussions brought by earlier policies, it was recommended that the

Sustainable Forest Management Bill be passed to campaign for more sustainable methods of

forest management. Along with policy formulation, people down the line, especially the

enforcement personnel in CENROs and representatives of other line bureaus, be strengthened

and be provided for with hazard pay and enough incentives to relatively ease the burden of

enforcement. Legal offices should likewise be improved and strengthened to avoid unnecessary

costs in transaction and safety. The Lawin program may be an effective program for monitoring

and evaluation in comparison with manual patrolling. As for other programs like NGP, it was

recommended that site-species matching be practiced as well as establishing a nursery for

endemic species to retain the ecological integrity of the area.

53 | P a g e

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