FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN INDONESIA - Bogor Agricultural...
Transcript of FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN INDONESIA - Bogor Agricultural...
Tropical Forest (Tropical Moist Forest) (Whitmore, 1990)
Tropical rain forests which develop in the hot and humid region (every month is wet, 100 mm rainfall or more) which lack of a pronounced dry seasons
Tropical seasonal forest which develop in seasonally dry climate (4 – 6 dry months with 60 mm rainfall or less)
The rain forest is prevalent over most part of Indonesia. There are considerable floristic variation which are related to differences in soils and topography. Broader variations are also reflected by the horizontal zonation (related to geologic history) and vertical zonation (related to elevation)
Climate Soil Water Soils Elevation Forest formation Seasonally dry Strong annual shortage Podsol, Renzina,
Latosol 0 – (750) 1000 m , Lowland Monsoon forest
(seasonal forest) Red yellow podsolic, latosol, andosol
1000 – 3000 m Montane monsoon forest
Ever-wet (perhumid)
Dryland Zonal (mainly oxisols, ultisols)
Lowland Lowland evergreen rain forest
Mo
un
tain
s
(750) 1200-1500 m
Lower montane rain forest
(1500) 2500 – 3300 m
Upper montane rain forest
(3350) m
3000 (3350) m to tree-line
Subalpine forest
Podozolized sands 0 – (750) 1000 m Heath forest Renzina, Latosol 0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over limestone Soils with high Mg, Fe, and Si content
0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over ultrabasic
Water table high (at least periodically)
Coastal salt-water
Regosol, Red yellow podsolic
0 – (750) 1000 m Beach forest
Alluvial < 0 m Mangrove forest Inland fresh water
Oligotrophic peats 0 – (750) 1000 m Peat swamp forest Eutrophic (muck and minerals) soil
0 – (750) 1000 m Freshwater swamp forest
Main Types of The Tropical Forest in Indonesia
Mangrove Forest Forest formation growing in the intertidal zone of tropical and sub-
tropical areas, mainly extensively grows in the sheltered coastline, delta,
lagoon, estuary and river bank
This forests can grow on muddy alluvial soils, sands, peat, and coraly soils
Marine ecosystem
Terestrial ecosystem INTERFACE
Biological Function Economical Function
Ecological Function
Mangroves as Interface Ecosystem
General characteristic of mangroves Halophytes, Salt-tolerant plants
Show a spesific adaptation to anaerobic waterlegged labile soils, tide flooding, and saline water, with:
Develop spesific root type
Develop viviparious fruit
Develop anatomical tissue to excerting salt (Avicennia, Sonneratia, Aegiceras, Acanthus, & Laguncularia), excluding salt (Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera, Acrostichum) and accumulation salt (Xylocarpus and Lumnitzera)
Commonly show zonation
1. Forest nearest the sea dominated by Avicennia and
Sonneratia, growing on deep mud rich in organic matter.
2. Forest on slightly higher ground is often dominated by
Bruguiera cylindrica and can form virtually pure stands
behind Avicennia forest.
3. Forest further inland is dominated by Rhizophora mucronata
and R. apiculata, the former preferring slightly wetter
conditions and deeper mud. These trees can be 35-40 m tall.
Example of Zonation in Mangrove
4. Forest dominated by Bruguiera parviflora can occur in pure
stands and whereas it often invades Rhizophora
5. The final mangrove forest is that dominated by Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza. The seedlings and saplings of this tree are
tolerant of shade
MANGROVE AREA IN INDONESIA
7.7 MILLION Ha, consist of:
3.7 M ha in the forest concession area and
4.0 M ha in the private own land)
in which about 32% of them are still good forest.
MANGROVE FLORA IN INDONESIA
TREES : 47 SPECIES
SHRUB : 5 SPECIES
HERBS & GRASS : 9 SPECIES
LIANA : 9 SPECIES
EPIPHYTES : 29 SPECIES
PARASYTES : 3 SPECIES
45 FAMILIES
75 GENERA
101 SPECIES
34
4840
78
43
24
49
33
6 71
101
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Thai Bur Viet Phil Mal PNGBrunQue Chin Yae NZ Ina
WORLD MANGROVE FLORA
GROUP OF MANGROVE FLORA
MAJOR MANGROVE
MINOR MANGROVE
MANGROVE ASSOCIATE
RHIZOPHORA BRUGUIERA CERIOPS KANDELIA
AVICENNIA SONNERATIA NYPA
EXCOECARIA XYLOCARPUS HERITERIA
AEGICERAS AEGIALITIS ACROSTICHUM
CERBERA HIBISCUS ACANTHUS DERRIS
CALAMUS IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE DLL
RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA
CHIP
PULP
KONTRUKSI
ARANG
KAYU BAKAR
TIANG PERANCAH
TANIN
OBAT-OBATAN
CARBON TRADE
SIFAT EKOLOGI
• Tanah: spt R. apiculata tapi lebih
toleran thd substrat yg lebih keras &
pasir
• Umumnya di pinggir sungai dan
muara sungai
Sonneratia alba
PULP
CHIP
KAYU BAKAR
BUAH DAPAT DIMAKAN
CAIRAN BUAH UNTUK
MENGHALUSKAN KULIT
DAUN UNTUK MAKANAN
KAMBING
PENGHASIL PECTINE
SIFAT EKOLOGI
S. alba
• Tanah: campuran lumpur & pasir,
kadang-kadang pada batuan dan
karang
S. caseolaris
• Tanah lumpur dalam, kurang asin
• Sepanjang sungai yg mengalir pelan
NYPA FRUTICANS
DAUN UNTUK TIKAR, KERANJANG,
TAS, JAS HUJAN, TOPI
BIJI SEBAGAI BAHAN MAKANAN DAN
SUMBER GARAM, MANISAN
PENGHASIL ALKOHOL DAN CUKA
Xylocarpus granatum
PAPAN
BAHAN DASAR
KERAJINAN TANGAN
MINYAK RAMBUT
TRADISIONAL
OBAT-OBATAN
SIFAT EKOLOGI
• Daerah yg jarang tergenang di
sepanjang pinggiran sungai &
pinggir daratan dari mangrove
TERESTRIAL FAUNA MARINE FAUNA
MANGROVE FAUNA
INFAUNA
(CRUSTACEA)
EPIFAUNA
(MOLLUSC)
BENTOS (FISH)
BIRD
AMPHIBIA
&
REPTILE
MAMMALS INSECTS
Esential Physical Environmental for Growing Mangroves
Availability of Nutrient
Good Growing
Mangrove
Stable Substrate
Balanced Supply
of Fresh water
and Sea water
Cause of Mangrove Destruction
Over exploitation
Convertion of mangroves into other land use
Water pollution
Natural disaster
Beach Forest (Hutan Pantai)
Forest formation growing in the supralittoral zone, sometimes subjected to extrem high tide (spring tide and storm)
To survive in the habitat of beach forest, plant must be:
Deep rooted
Tolerant to salt (saline water), wind, drought, high temperature, poor-nutrient soil
Capable of producing floating seeds
Able to survive being buried periodically under wind-blown sand
Pes-Caprae community occupied the outer fringe mounds of sand, where the beach tends to build
The plant in this community are low, sand-binding herbs/grass and sedges
Pes-caprae community shows low species diversity, about 15 species:
Spinifex littoreus
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Cyperus spp.
Canavalia spp.
Fimbristylis
Ischaemum muticum
Etc.
Barringtonia community occupied the area behind pes-caprae community on the stable soils or rocky soils, commonly covers the narrow space of 25 – 50 meters
Plants in this community must be tolerant to showering of sea water, poor nutrient soils, and to drought.
Barringtonia formation consist of more diverse species diversity than pes-caprae community (about 30 species)
Cocos nucifera
Casuarina equisetifolia
Barrinngtonia asiatica
Calophyllum inophyllum
Terminalia catappa
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Pandanus, etc.
Strand species are widely utilized by coastal villagers
Hibiscus : making rope and cordage
Pandanus : making mats, baskets, sails
Casuarina : firewoods
Cocos nucifera : coconut oil, woods
FAUNA Wader and seabird which nesting, resting and feeding in
beach forest
Sea turtle (green sea turtle, howksbill, leatherback, loggerhead) are nesting in beach forest (Tambelan island, Berau island, Paloh and Lemukuta island at West Kalimantan, Meru Betiri and Baluran NP)
Coconut Crab (Ocypode)
FRESH WATER SWAMP FOREST Fresh water swamp forest are wide spread over alluvial soils
that are periodically flooded for long periods with rich mineral fresh water (pH more than 6) associated with coastal swamp, inland lake and huge low-lying river basin
Fresh water swamp forest habitat is extremely heterogenous in soils and vegetation, where a few centimeters of peat may occur. So that, floristic composition varies from:
Floating grass, sedges and herbs
Pandan and palm swamp
Scrub
Similar to lowland rain forest
Trees of fresh water swamp forest often have to endure prolonged period of flooding. So, they develop pneumatophores in adapting to the anaerobic soils condition:
In Indonesia, the freshwater swamp vegetation occurs
in all islands in area where climate ranges from seasonally dry to very wet, in the lowlands and highlands. The great extern of freshwater swamp forest in Indonesia occur in the lowland of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua
Flora
The most important trees in freshwater swamp forest are the genera of:
Alstonia Barringtonia Campnospermae Dillenia Eugenia Shorea Calophyllum Canarium Koompassia
Mangifera Neesia Pholidocarpus Melanorrhoea Metroxylon sagu
Fauna Fauna diversity and abundance in freshwater swamp forest vary with the structure and floral diversity of the forest
Macaca fascicularis
Crocodillus porosus
Tomistoma schlegelii
Causes of Freshwater Swamp Forest Destruction
Convertion to Melaleuca cajuputi and agricultural cultivation (sugar cane, coconut, pineapple, rubber, palm oil, paddy field, etc.)
PEAT SWAMP FOREST
Peat : a soil type with a very high (> 65%) organic contents, at least 50 cm deep
It consist of:
Ombrogenous peat (rain-fed peat, poor in nutrient/oligotrophic, mainly calcium, in the behind of mangroves), drainage water are very acid, deep peat reached to 20 m
Topogenous peat are formed in topographic depressions (mesotrophic/nutrient coming from mineral subsoil, river water, plant remains and rain)
Peat swamp forests are extent in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Characteristics of peat swamp forest are: Low nutrient content of blackwater
High concentration of humic acid (pH 3 – 4,5)
Low concentration of dissolved oxygen
Have biconvex shape (in the margin of the river and in the center)
Mineral nutrient amount of the soil decreases toward the center of the swamp, markedly for Potassium and Phosphorus, reflected in the vegetation by the:
Decreasing tree height
Decreasing total biomass per unit area
Increasing leaf thickness (an adaption to poor soils)
Decreasing average girth of certain tree species
Flora Alstonia pneumatophora
Dyera lowii
Gonystylus bancanus
Tetramerista glabra
Palaquium burckii
Koompassia malaccensis
Salacca conferca Palm (Luciala spinosa, sealing
wax palm Parastemon urophyllum Shorea platycarpa, S. uliginosa,
S. albida Lephopetalum multinerviman Campnosperma coriceae
Fauna
Macaca fascicularis
Presbytis cristata
Pongo pygmaeus
Hylobates agilis
Macaca nemestrina
Nasalis larvatus
Causes of Forest Destruction
Over exploitation
Convertion to agricultural cultivation (palm oil, rubber estates, paddy field and horticultural field, etc)
Monsoon Forest Forest with abundant rainfall during wet season, which
alternates with a distinct drought period which may last from about 4 to 6 months, the total amount of rainfall varies from about 1,000 to 2,000 mm a year, may be subjected to strong winds.
In Indonesia this forests distribute in West Java (Karawang, Indramayu, Cirebon), East Java, Central Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi
General characteristic: During dry season, most of the trees shed their
leaves (leaf-shedding species or deciduous)
Trees have to develop deep root system and wood annual rings, thick barks, lack buttressed root
The A and sometimes also the B storey are more open and may disappear, so that only one tree stratum remains, those forests seem to consist of 3 layers all together:
The upper layer being the tree canopy which is often disturbed
The second layer is undergrowth (shrubby thickets and more grasses) which is often dense
The third layer is a ground layer of herbs
The trunk of the trees are rather massive but relatively short with widely spreading crowns, rather stout and gnarled branches, thick barks and often fissured
The leaves of deciduous trees are usually hygrophilous, thin and large. The few evergreen trees tend to have smaller and thicker leaves
Fewer climber and epiphytes
Undergrowth (grass, shrub) and geophytes are luxuriant
Trees, shrubs and geophytes are flower in dry season, herbs flower during rainy season
Forests grow on the various kinds of dry mineral soils at the low (2 – 1000 asl) and high elevation (1000 – 4000 asl)
Flora
Monsoon forest at low elevation (2 – 1000 asl)
Tectona grandis Dalbergia latifolia Acacia mangium Lagerstomia speciosa Tamarindus indica Honalium tomentosum Santalum album Eucalyptus alba
Melaleuca Scheichera obasa Albizia leobekosides Azadirachta indica Casuarina penghumiares Cassia fistula Salmalia malabarica Palms (Borassus flabellifer and Corypha utan)
Monsoon forest at medium to high elevation (1000 – 4000 asl)
Casuarina sumatrana
C. junghuhniana
Eucalyptus urophylla
E. deglupta
Pinus merkusii
P. insularis
Fauna Honey bee
Deer, buffalo, bull
Long-tailed monkey
Butterfly
Bird (Cypsiurus batasiurus)
Frogs
Not many published literatures on the fauna of monsoon forest
Causes of Forest Destruction
Fire
Grazing
Convertion to other land use for agriculture, resettlement, etc.
Heat Forest (Kerangas Forest) Forests grow on white sand soils derived from siliceous
parent materials, where the soil is poor in nutrients/bases, highly acidic, coarse textured and free draining. They are often covered by superficial layer of peat/humus which is quickly lost once the natural vegetation is cleared
In Indonesia, heat forest found be great extent in Central and East Kalimantan
General characteristic:
Trees are often densely packed difficult to penetrates with small thick leaves
Low, uniform, single-layered canopy formed by crowns of large saplings and small poles
Buttress are smaller, but still root are common
Small, thin climbers are common, as are ephiphytes
Plants with supplementary means of obtaining minerals are common, i.e Casuarina nobilis which has root noduls containing nitrogen fixing bacteria
Conspicuous epiphytes are ant plants (Myrmecophytes): Hydrophytum and Myrmecodia
Ground flora is sparse, with many mosses and liverworth as well as insectivore plants such as pitcher plants Nepenthes, sundews Drosera and bladderworm Urticularia growing on the poor soils
Endemic orchid of Bulbophyllum beccarii growth on the trunk of the trees to maximize its access to nutrients
In Indonesia, heat forest varies from tall closed forest similar to adjacent lowland mixed forest, to open scrubby vegetation or Padang (destroyed heat forest with small, short, crooked stem and thin crown trees, DBH < 30 cm and H < 15 cm high, forest floor is covered by herbs/dwarfs shrubs or completely bare).
Flora Tall-closed heat forest:
Eugenia palembanica
Ilex hypoglauca
Cotylelobium malayanum
Barringtonia sumatrana
Calophyllum soulattri
Shorea teysmanniana
Agathis borneensis
Open scrubby and Padang vegetation:
Casuarina sumatrana
Cratoxylum glaucum
Dacrydium elatum
Baeckia frutescens
Tristaniopsis obovata
Herb layer: Vaccinium baccanum, Nepenthes
Orchid: Dendrobium, Eria, Coelogyne, Bulbophyllum, and Liparis
Fauna Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Macaques
Orthotomus ruficeps (the ashy tailorbird)
Snakes, lizards, and frogs
Termites
Beetles
Limestone Forest
Limestone forest is a climax community, old
and stable. A limestone forest grows on
limestone hill areas.
Limestone is a type of rock made naturally
from the shells of sea creatures that lived
millions of years ago.
Not all limestone area are described by
geomorphologists as karst landscapes that
have arisen from the abnormally high
solubility of the bedrock.
The karst landscapes are two major forms
typical of the humid tropics:
conical hill karst, examples: in Sulawesi
(north of Bone, on Buton and Muna), Bali
(Mt. Sewu and Nusa Penida southeast of
Bali)
tower karst, examples: Sulawesi (Maros
and Tonasa), Jawa (Padalarang)
Flora in Limestone Forest
Dipterocarpus hasseltii
Stelechocarpus burahol
Diospyros maritima
Croton tiglium
Pisonia grandis
Kleinhovia hospita
Cyanotis cristata
Peperomia laevifolia
Drynaria spp
Antrophyum reticulatum, etc
Fauna in Limestone Forest
No vertebrates are restricted in their distribution to the surface of limestone hill, but some species of snails are because they need calcium to form their shells.
Examples animals in limestone forest:
Graphium androcles
Macaca nigra
Macaca maura
Forests occurring on soils derived from ultrabasic parent material are often distinct from forest of adjacent, different soils.
The soil that developed on ultrabasic rocks are notoriously infertile due to combinations of the following factors: high levels of exchangeable magnesium and a skewed calcium; magnesium ratio, a deficiency of calcium, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, molybdenum, and zinc; and toxic concentrations of heavy metals such as nickel, cobalt, and chromium.
Ultrabasic Forest
Flora in Ultrabasic Forest
Metrosideros
Agathis
Calophyllum
Eugenia
Kjellbergiodendron
Horsfieldia
Gymnacranthera
Knema
Deplanchea bancana, etc.
Lowland Rain Forest (LRF)
LRF is the most extensive occuring in Indonesia and is the most luxurious vegetation compared to other types of forest in the world.
Lowland Rain Forests are Lofty, dense, evergreen
forest 45 m or more tall, characterized by the large
number of species. Gregarious dominants
(consociations) are uncommon and usually 2/3 or more
of the upper-canopy trees are of species individually
not contributing more than 1% of the total number
Structure and Physiognomy Characteristic of LRF
Atribute Category
Canopy height 25-45 m
Emergent trees Characteristic, to 60(80) m tall
Pinnate leaves Frequent
Principal leaf size class of woody plants Mesophyll
Buttresses Usually frequent and large
Cauliflory Frequent
Big woody climbers Abundant
Bole climbers Often abundant
Vascular epiphytes Frequent
Non-vascular epiphytes Occasional
Bryophyte Rare
Bole Usually almost cylindrical
Canopy layer Conventionally 5 layer: Three tree layers, shrub layer, and herb layer;
1) A-Storey (upperanst tree layer) is made up of emergent trees about 30 – 45 m
high with discontinuous canopy. Those emergent trees show shallow rooting and
buttresses
2) B-Storey (second tree layer, main canopy) is made up of the trees of about 18 – 27
m high with continuous canopy layer
3) C-Storey (third tree layer) is composed of trees rising to a height of about 8 – 14
m, with form dense layer, particularly the B-Storey does not do so
4) Shrub layer consisting of species with heights mostly below 10 m
a. Shrub with branching near the base, no main axis
b. Small trees with prominent main axis (treelet) and including the saplings)
5) Herb layer consisting of smaller plants which are either seedlings or herbacious
species (Zingiberaceae, Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae, Araceae, Maranthaceae,
etc.)
Flora Western Part of Indonesia (West Malesian/Sunda Shelf)
Species of Dipterocarpaceae, mainly the genera of Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Drybalanops, Parashorea and Shorea are dominating the large trees of the emergent layer, totaled about 350 species found in this region. Also this forest is characterized by rich ground layer palm flora of shade and moisture loving genera (Iguanusa, Pinanga, Areca, Nenga, Rhopalobaste)
Eastern part of Indonesia (East Malesia)
Dipterocarpaceae become less important and locally dominant. The important species are:
Araucaria cunninghamii
A. humsteini
Agathis labillardieri
Conifer species (Dacrydium elatum, D. novoguinense, Papuacedrus spp., phyllocladus hypophyllus, Podocarpus papuanus)
Fauna Big herbivores (elephants, rhino), deer, anoa, etc. Tiger and other Felidae Aves: hornbill, paradise bird, peacock, etc. Primates: macaques, gibbon, orangutan Reptiles and amphibians Others
Causes of Forest Destruction
Over exploitation and illegal logging
Convertion to agriculture cultivation, resettlement, etc.
Fire
Montane Rain Forest Upwards the luxurious vegetation at low an medium altitude, the forest
become a two storey with decreasing tree height as well as decreasing tree species richness, but it is very luxuriant in epiphytes (mainly mosses and liverworts) which cover the trunks and branches of the trees densely. Woody vines are very few present. This kind of forest is called SUBMONTANE FOREST
Above this forest, is the true montane forest made up of a single storey of twisted trees of massive growth and rich in branching, leaves of trees become smaller, trunks and branches are covered with a thick snat of mosses and liverworts which may hang down in festoon. This kind of forest is UPPER MONTANE FOREST in which often only 10 m tall or less and its shorter facies are sometimes called ELFIN WOODLAND. The trees may be heavily swatch in bryophytes and filmy fern, so this forest also known as MOSSY FOREST (mosses and liverworth dominate). Peat often forms, sometimes with the big moss Sphagnum. More light penetrate and the ground vegetation. Flowers of trees, shrubs and epiphytes are numerous (mossy forest as most striking type of tropical vegetation), strangler are usually absent, small climbers may be found near the upper limit of the forest
Upwards mossy forest is SUBALPINE FOREST with a shorter more gnarled formation with even tinier leaves (Nanophylls). It is the tree line at about 4.000 m asl.
Beyond the Subalpine forest is ALPINE VEGETATION (shrub heat, most tundra, fern meadow) and grassland. Those treeless landscape extend up to the nival zone (snow line) at about 4,500 m asl.
Formation
Tropical lowland
boleevergreen rain
forest
Tropical lower
montane rain forest
Tropical upper
montane rain
forest
Subalpine forest
Canopy height 25-45 m 15-33 m 1.5-18 m 1.5 – 9 m
Emergent trees Characteristic, to
60(80) m tall
Often absent, to 37 m
tall
Usually absent,
to 26 m tall
15 m
Pinnate leaves Frequent Rare Very rare -
Principal leaf size
class of woody plants
Mesophyll Mesophyll Microphyll Nanophyll
Buttresses Usually frequent and
large
Uncommon, small Usually absent Absent
Cauliflory Frequent Rare Absent Absent
Compound leaves Abundant Present Rare Absent
Big woody climbers Abundant Usually none None Absent
Bole climbers Often abundant Frequent to abundant Very few -
Creepers Usually abundant Common or abundant Very rare absent
Vascular epiphytes Frequent Abundant Frequent Very rare
Non-vascular
epiphytes
Occasional Occasional to
abundant
Often abundant abundant
Flora
Lower Montane Forest :
Fabaceae (Quercus, Castana, Lithocarpus, Nothofagus)
Lauraceae (Litsea)
Hammamelidaceae
Magnoliaceae
Ericaceae
Fauna Tiger (Panthera pardus melas,
etc.)
Frogs
Lizard, Snake
Bird (Eagle, etc.)
Langur
Squirrel, shrew
Palm civet
Gymnure
Causes of Forest Destruction
Mining
Exploitation
Convertion to agricultural cultivation
Natural disaster