FORENSIC SCIENCE: A BASIS FOR FORENSIC

INVESTIGATION

Compiled and Presented

Chief Technical Consultant/Managing Partner

OGE Professional Services Ltd

GOE Professional Practice

Chairman, IIFCFIP Nigeria

President, ACFE Lagos Nigeria Chapter

Being a paper presented at 3RD ANNUAL GLOBAL FORENSIC CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION OF IICFIP

•August 9 – 11, 2016

By:

Chief Godwin Emmanuel, Oyedokun ND (Fin), HND (Acct.), BSc. (Acct. Ed), MBA (Acct. & Fin.), MSc. (Acct.), (MSc. Fin.), MTP (SA), ACA,

FCTI, ACIB, AMNIM, CNA, FCFIP, FCE, CICA, CFA, CFE, CPFA, ABR, CertIFR

FORENSIC SCIENCE: A

BASIS FOR FORENSIC

INVESTIGATION

CONTENTS

This presentation will be discussed from the following major sub-topics :

Introduction

Gathering evidence

Analyzing evidence

Collaboration

Describing their findings

Etymology

History

Origin of forensic science

Bodies fostering forensic science

Sub classifications of forensic

Forensic science and humanitarian work

Summary

INTRODUCTION

Forensics is the study and use of science and technology to resolve

criminal, civic and regulatory matters. A background in the biological

sciences, medicine, chemistry and DNA analysis prepares you for a career

in forensic science.

The application of science to criminal and civil laws.

Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during

the course of an investigation.

Forensic scientists travel to the scene to collect the evidence themselves,

other forensic scientists occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on

objects brought to them by other individuals.

GATHERING EVIDENCE

Forensic scientists visit the scene of a crime to search for and collect

possible evidence.

Forensic scientists also catalog everything they remove from the

scene and make detailed notes describing each item and noting its

location at the scene.

Forensic scientists also preserve each item they remove and they

often photograph or sketch the scene and all evidence collected.

ANALYZING EVIDENCE

Forensic scientists spend most of their time at the forensic

laboratory testing evidence collected from the scene.

A serologist, for instance, might test a victim’s blood for the

presence of illegal drugs or toxins.

A firearms examiner might test bullet fragments to determine what

kind of gun they were fired from, or might match them to a gun

belonging to a suspect.

A DNA analyst might compare DNA found on a victim’s body to

that of a suspect to determine if he was the one who assaulted her.

COLLABORATION

Solving a crime requires teamwork from a sometimes diverse group of

investigators.

Forensic scientists often work closely with fellow law enforcement

professionals, including FBI, CIA, DEA, immigration officers, police

officers, detectives, other forensic science professionals, prosecutors

and defense attorneys.

Forensic scientists keep investigators updated of their findings and

explain their results in a way that helps officers determine whom to

question and how to structure their investigation.

DESCRIBING THEIR FINDINGS

Forensic scientists they complete their analysis

Forensic scientists explain their conclusions in detailed written

reports.

These reports become part of the permanent case file, and are used

by detectives to help them target their investigation.

Forensic scientists often testify as expert witnesses in criminal trials,

where they must explain their findings in a way that a lay audience

can understand.

ETYMOLOGY (The study of the origin of words)

Forensic which is a Latin word ‘forēnsis’ means of or before the forum.

Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches

based on their sides of the story.

The case would be decided in favour of the individual with the best

argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern usages

of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of

public presentation.

In modern use, the term “forensics” in the place of forensic science can be

considered correct, as the term forensic is effectively

a synonym for legal or related to courts

HISTORY

Early methods

Forensics in antiquity

The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in

escaping punishment.

Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and

witness testimony.

However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that

foreshadow concepts in forensic science that were developed centuries later

The first account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is

attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu (Washing Away of Wrongs), written in China

by Song Ci in 1248. Here, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved

by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location.

HISTORY

Early methods

Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and

tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test.

In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and

spit it back out

In ancient middle-eastern cultures, suspects were made to lick hot metal rods

briefly.

NB: GUILTY => If rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their

tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.

ORIGIN OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

Ambroise Pare (A French army surgeon)

In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather

information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise systematically studied the effects of violent

death on internal organs.

Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology

by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease.

In the late 18th century, French physician, Francois Immanuele Foder and a German medical expert

Johann Peter Frank wrote on “A treatise on forensic medicine and public health” and “The complete

system of police medicine” respectively.

TOXICOLOGY AND BALLISTICS

A method for detecting arsenious oxide simple arsenic (food poisoning), in

corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm

Scheele.

His work was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist Valentin Ross, who

learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach.

Apparatus for the arsenic test, devised by James Marsh. (First to apply this science to the art of forensics in 1832)

Anthropometry

Bertillon's Identification anthropométrique (1893), demonstrating the

measurements needed for his anthropometric identification system.

The French police officer, Alphonse Bertillon in 1893 was the first to apply the

anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating

an identification system based on physical measurements.

Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name or photograph. His

other contributions which still remain in place today are “the mug shot” and the

systematization of crime scene photography.

FORENSIC TECHNIQUES BY BERTILLION

Forensic document examination

The use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve

footprints, ballistics

The dynamometer which is used to determine the

degree of force used in breaking and entering.

FINGERPRINTING

Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects.

While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858.

Other scholars in subsequent years also revamped on the application of fingerprinting

1859

Fingerprints taken by William Herschel in 1859

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

DNA fingerprinting was discovered by Sir Alec Jefferys in 1984. He realized

that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to

tell individuals apart from one another.

The application of DNA profiles was used few years after the discovery in rape

and murder cases by getting evidence of semen, blood from the suspect(s)

Because of this case, DNA databases came into being. There is the National

(FBI) and International databases as well as the European countries (ENFSI).

These searchable databases are used to match crime scene DNA profiles to

those already in database.

MATURATION

Police brought to bear the latest techniques of forensic science in their attempts to identify and capture the serial killer Jack the Ripper.

MATURATION

In the 20th century, the science of forensics had become largely established in the sphere of criminal investigation

Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper, who had killed a number of prostitutes in the 1880s.

This case is a watershed in the application of forensic science.

Large teams of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout White chapel.

Forensic material was collected and examined.

Suspects were identified, traced and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry.

Police work follows the same pattern today.

MATURATION (CONT’D)

The popular fictional character Sherlock Holmes was in

many ways ahead of his time in his use of forensic

analysis.

MATURATION (CONT’D)

In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police

scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first

school of forensic science in the world.

Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes

of France". He formulated the basic principle of forensic

science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known

as Locard's exchange principle.

In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal

laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police

Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and

two assistants.

Late 19th–early 20th century’s figures

Hans Gross applied scientific methods to crime scenes and

was responsible for the birth of criminalistics.

Edmond Locard expanded on Gross' work with Locard's

Exchange Principle which stated "whenever two objects come

into contact with one another, materials are exchanged

between them". This means that every contact by a criminal

leaves a trace.

Alexander Lacassagne, who taught Locard, produced autopsy

standards on actual forensic cases.

Late 19th–early 20th century’s figures

Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and

founder of Anthropometry (scientific study of

measurements and proportions of the human body).

He used anthropometry for identification, saying each

individual is unique and by measuring aspect of

physical difference, there could be a personal

identification system.

20th Century Later in the 20th century, British pathologists, Alec Jeffreys pioneered the

use of DNA profiling in forensic science in 1984.

He realized the scope of DNA fingerprinting, which uses variations in

the genetic code to identify individuals.

The method has since become important in forensic science to assist police

detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and

immigration disputes.

DNA fingerprinting was first used as a police forensic test to identify the

rapist and killer of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who

were both murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986

respectively.

BODIES FOSTERING FORENSIC SCIENCE

Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences

American Academy of Forensic Sciences

The Canadian Society of Forensic

Sciences

British Academy of Forensic Sciences

Ausralian Journal of Forensic Sciences

SUB CLASSIFICATIONS OF FORENSIC

Forensic Investigation: is the examination of documents

and the interviewing of people to extract evidence.

Forensic investigation is fast emerging as a lucrative

professional practice field.

With increased sophistication of white collar criminals, there

is demand for well trained experts to carry out investigations

and also institute preventive, deterrence and detective

measures.

SUB CLASSIFICATIONS OF FORENSIC CONT’D

Forensic Investigation

1. Agents of the USA. CID investigating a crime scene

2. Police forensic investigation in Ashton-under-Lyne, England, using a tent to protect

the crime scene

SUB CLASSIFICATIONS OF FORENSIC (CONT’D)

Art forensics: The art authentication cases to help research the work's authenticity. Art

authentication methods are used to detect and identify forgery, faking and copying of art

works, e.g. paintings.

Computational forensics: The development of algorithms and software to assist forensic

examination.

Criminalistics: The application of various sciences to answer questions relating to

examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence.

Digital forensics: The application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to

recover data from electronic/digital media. Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as

well as in the lab.

Ear print analysis: A means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool

similar to fingerprinting.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic accounting: The study and interpretation of accounting evidence.

Forensic aerial photography: The study and interpretation of aerial photographic

evidence.

Forensic anthropology: The application of physical anthropology in a legal

setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.

Forensic archaeology: The application of a combination

of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.

Forensic astronomy: The methods from astronomy to determine past celestial

constellations for forensic purposes.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic botany: The study of plant life in order to

gain information regarding possible crimes.

Forensic chemistry: The study of detection and

identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used

in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.

Forensic dactyloscopy: The study of fingerprints.

Forensic document examination or questioned

document examination: Answers questions about a

disputed document using a variety of scientific

processes and methods.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic DNA analysis: Takes advantage of the uniqueness of an

individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity

testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.

Forensic engineering: The scientific examination and analysis of

structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.

Forensic entomology: The examination of insects in, on and around

human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death.

Forensic geology: Deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals

and petroleum.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic geomorphology: The study of the ground surface to look for

potential location(s) of buried object(s).

Forensic geophysics: The application of geophysical techniques such as

radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater.

Forensic intelligence: starts with the collection of data and ends with the

integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation.

Forensic Interviews are conducted using the science of professionally

using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with

victims, witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts

regarding suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or

private sector settings.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic limnology: The analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around

fresh-water sources.

Forensic linguistics: Deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.

Forensic meteorology: A site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.

Forensic Odontology: The study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of

teeth.

Forensic optometry: The study of glasses and other eyewear relating to crime scenes and

criminal investigations.

Forensic pathology: A field in which the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to

determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic podiatry: An application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and

their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic

examinations.

Forensic psychiatry: A specialized branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on

scientific criminology.

Forensic psychology: The study of the mind of an individual, using forensic

methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.

Forensic seismology: The study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals

generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.

Forensic serology: The study of the body fluids.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Forensic social work: The specialist study of social work theories and their

applications to a clinical, criminal justice or psychiatric setting. The practitioners of

forensic social work are often termed Social Supervisors, forensic social

worker, approved mental health professional or forensic practitioner.

Forensic toxicology: The study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the human

body.

Forensic video analysis: The scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of

video in legal matters.

Mobile device forensics: The scientific examination and evaluation of evidence

found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM

Card Forensics.

Sub Classifications of forensic (Cont’d)

Trace evidence analysis: The analysis and comparison of trace evidence

including glass, paint, fibres and hair (e.g., using micro-

spectrophotometry).

Wildlife forensic science: Applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal

cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as

poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.

Bloodstain pattern analysis: The scientific examination of blood spatter

patterns found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime.

Litigation science: Analysis or data developed or produced expressly for

use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research.

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND HUMANITARIAN WORK

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) uses forensic

science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons

after armed conflict, disasters or migration.

Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate

and whereabouts of persons who have gone missing.

The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) uses forensic

science to find missing persons for example after the conflicts in the

Balkans.

SUMMARY

Distinguished colleagues and participants, from this paper, it can be concluded that:

Forensic science plays a vital role in the criminal justice system by

providing scientifically based information through the analysis of

physical evidence.

While detectives interview suspects, witnesses and victims, forensic

scientists remain primarily behind the scenes, collecting and

analyzing evidence.

The role of forensic science is so crucial, because their findings can

help guide the direction of the investigation and even definitively

link a suspect to a crime.

Forensics is also important in identifying the culprits of various

cyber crimes.

THANK YOU